Contents

Section One — Force & Motion (step-by-step) ............................................................................................ 2

Section Two — Conservation of Energy & Momentum .............................................................................. 5
Section Three Structure (Concepts and Vocabulary of Wave Motion) ........................................................ 8
Section FOUR — Magnetism, Magnetic Fields, and Electric Current ....................................................... 11
References .................................................................................................................................................. 14
Section One — Force & Motion (step-by-step)
Goal: show the link between force and motion by comparing velocity vs acceleration, explaining
Newton’s laws, drawing free-body diagrams, and solving a worked example.

Step 1 — Displacement and velocity (Definition & formula)

• Displacement is the change in an object’s position measured with direction; it is a vector.

• Velocity is the rate of change of displacement: average velocity

𝛥𝑥
𝑣ˉ =
𝛥𝑡

• Instantaneous velocity is the time derivative of position. These points (vectors vs scalars,
displacement → velocity) are standard in introductory kinematics. (Academy, n.d.)

Diagram: Velocity vs Time graph — shows a horizontal line (constant velocity) and a rising straight line
(constant acceleration → velocity increases linearly). (See the Velocity–Time plot blow.)

Step 2 — Acceleration (Definition & relation to velocity)

• Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity:

𝛥𝑣
𝑎=
𝛥𝑡

It is a vector: positive or negative acceleration depends on chosen sign convention. Acceleration

occurs when speed changes, direction changes, or both.

Why this matters: velocity describes how you move at an instant; acceleration describes how that
velocity changes. The slope on a velocity–time plot equals acceleration.

Step 3 — Compare velocity vs acceleration (practical points)

• If velocity is constant, acceleration is zero. If acceleration is constant, velocity changes linearly

with time. An object can have nonzero acceleration while speed is constant if its direction
 changes (e.g., circular motion). These are core distinctions emphasized in standard physics texts.
(Academy, n.d.)

See Diagram below.

Step 4 — Newton’s Three Laws (paraphrased, with examples)

1. First law (inertia): Without a net external force, an object’s velocity does not change — it stays
at rest or moves uniformly. (Example: puck on nearly frictionless ice continues moving.)

2. Second law (dynamics): The net force on a system produces acceleration proportional to that net
force and inversely proportional to mass:

∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

This is the quantitative link between force and motion.

3. Third law (action–reaction): Forces come in equal and opposite pairs acting on different bodies
(e.g., rocket exhaust pushes downward, gases push rocket upward).

(Academy, n.d.)
Diagram: Action–reaction arrows between two bodies — illustrates Newton’s 3rd law (see the action–
reaction figure above).

Step 5 — Free-body diagrams (how to draw & why)

• To apply Newton’s laws, draw a free-body diagram (FBD) showing all forces acting on the
chosen object as vectors (weight, normal, friction, applied, tension, etc.). Do not include forces
that the object exerts on others — only forces acting on it. Use the FBD to resolve components
and apply

∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

Diagram: Block on horizontal surface with forces N, mg, F_applied, F_friction — place this next to any
worked calculation.

Step 6 — Worked example (step-by-step calculation)

Problem: 5.0 kg box is pushed horizontally with 30 N. Coefficient of kinetic μk=0.20. Find the
acceleration.

Solution steps:

1. Draw the FBD (Figure 2). Vertical forces balance: N=mg=5.0×9.80=49.0 N

2. Kinetic friction: 𝑓k=μkN=0.20×49.0=9.8 N

 3. Horizontal net force: 𝐹net = 𝐹applied – 𝑓k = 30−9.8=20.2 N

4. Acceleration:

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 20.2
a= = = 4.04 𝑚/s2
𝑚 5.0

Interpretation: The net external force produces acceleration per Newton’s second law; friction reduces
the net force and hence the acceleration.

Section Two — Conservation of Energy & Momentum

Goal: Explore energy and momentum concepts by defining energy forms, explaining conservation
principles with efficiency, defining and applying momentum and its conservation via examples.

Step 1 — Forms of Energy (Definition & Categorization)

Energy exists in several states—common ones include kinetic energy (motion-related), gravitational
potential energy (due to an object's position in a gravitational field), elastic potential energy (stored in
stretched or compressed materials), thermal (heat), chemical, and sound.
1
• Kinetic Energy (KE): 𝑚𝑣 2
2
• Potential Energy (PE): mgh

These varied forms can transform into one another—for instance, when a ball rolls downhill, its PE
lowers while its KE rises. (Wikipedia, n.d.)

Step 2 — Conservation of Energy (Principle & Efficiency)

The Law of Conservation of Energy states that in a closed (isolated) system, the total energy remains
constant; it merely changes form without being created or destroyed. An example: a dropped object
converts PE into KE; after impact, some energy may transform into heat or sound, preserving the total.

In practice, systems lose energy through inefficiencies (e.g., friction converting mechanical energy into
heat), making energy efficiency important—especially in engineering—to minimize such wasted energy.
(Wikipedia, n.d.) See diagram
Step 3 — Define Momentum & Conservation Principle

Momentum (p) is defined as the product of mass and velocity:

𝑝 =𝑚×𝑣
It’s a vector quantity, meaning direction matters too.

The Law of Conservation of Momentum asserts that in an isolated system (no net external force), the total
momentum before and after an event remains the same. (OpenStax, 2016) (GeeksforGeeks, n.d.)

See diagram of law of conservation of momentum below

Step 4 — Practical Examples of Conservation Laws

Energy Transformation Example

• Pendulum / Roller coaster: At the top, maximum PE transitions into KE at the bottom, with the
total energy remaining the same if frictionless.

Momentum Examples

• Gun recoil: A bullet is fired forward; to preserve total momentum (initially zero), the gun recoils
backward.
 • Rocket propulsion: Expelling gas downward imparts an equal and opposite upward momentum
to the rocket.

• Billiard ball collision, Newton’s cradle: Objects collide or transfer motion; total momentum is
conserved.

(Vedantu, n.d.) (Wikipedia, n.d.) (Gurukul, 2023)

Step 5 — Worked Examples with Calculations

Example A — Energy Conservation

A light roller coaster car (mass = 500 kg) atop a 40 m hill (no friction) has PE:

𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ = 500 × 9.8 × 40 = 196,000 𝐽

At the bottom, this PE converts to KE:

𝐾𝐸 = 196,000 𝐽

(Gurukul, 2023)

Example B — Momentum Conservation

Two cars collide (friction negligible).

• Car A: mass 𝑚1 = 1000 𝑘𝑔, velocity 𝑣1 = 20 𝑚/𝑠

• Car B: 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚2 = 1500 𝑘𝑔, velocity 𝑣2 = −10 𝑚/𝑠

Total momentum before collision:

𝑝before = 𝑚1𝑣1 + 𝑚2𝑣2 = (1000 × 20) + (1500 × −10) = 20000 − 15000 = 5000 𝑘𝑔 𝑚/𝑠

If they stick together (inelastic collision), combined mass:

𝑚combined = 2500 𝑘𝑔

Final velocity:
𝑝𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 5000
𝑣final= 𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 = = 2 𝑚/𝑠
2500

(OpenStax, 2016) (Vedantu, n.d.)

Step 6 — Interpretation & Connections to Theory

• Energy conservation underlines how energy transfers among types—PE to KE and vice versa—
with real systems requiring efficiency considerations to reduce losses.

• Momentum conservation applies universally in isolated systems regardless of collision type;

only when there is no net external force does the total momentum stay unchanged.
 • Connections to Newton’s Laws: Conservation of momentum stems directly from Newton’s
Third Law—internal action-reaction forces cancel, leaving the total momentum unchanged.

Section Three Structure (Concepts and Vocabulary of

Wave Motion)
1. Introduction to Wave Motion

Waves are one of the most fundamental phenomena in physics, acting as carriers of energy and
information without the transfer of matter. A wave can be defined as a disturbance or oscillation that
propagates through a medium or space, transporting energy from one point to another (Wikipedia, n.d.)
(OpenStax, 2016). This property of energy transmission without physical movement of matter is what
makes waves distinct from other physical processes. They can occur in mechanical systems, such as
sound traveling through air, or in electromagnetic systems, such as light and radio signals moving through
space.

Waves are essential for understanding a wide variety of natural processes and modern technologies.
Ocean tides, seismic vibrations, the colors of a rainbow, and even mobile phone communication are based
on wave principles. The universality of waves demonstrates their fundamental role in both science and
engineering (HyperPhysics, n.d.).

Types of Waves

Waves are broadly classified into two types based on the motion of particles relative to the direction of
wave propagation: transverse and longitudinal waves.

1. Transverse Waves
In transverse waves, the displacement of particles is perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation. A common example is water waves on the surface of a pond: the water particles
move up and down while the wave moves horizontally. Light waves are also transverse in nature,
with oscillating electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to the wave direction (OpenStax,
2016).

2. Longitudinal Waves
In longitudinal waves, particles oscillate back and forth along the same direction as wave
propagation. Sound waves in air provide the most familiar example: regions of compression and
rarefaction travel through the air, transmitting sound energy. These oscillations form alternating
high-pressure and low-pressure zones that allow the wave to move (HyperPhysics, n.d.).

This distinction helps us analyze wave behavior in different media and situations. For instance, seismic
waves from earthquakes can be either longitudinal (P-waves) or transverse (S-waves), each traveling at
different speeds through Earth’s layers (Wikipedia, n.d.).

Properties of Waves

Several measurable properties characterize waves and allow their mathematical description:
 • Wavelength (λ): The distance between two consecutive crests or compressions.

• Frequency (f): The number of oscillations per unit time, measured in Hertz (Hz).

• Amplitude (A): The maximum displacement of the particles, related to the wave’s energy.

• Velocity (v): The speed at which the wave propagates through the medium.

• Period (T): The time taken for one complete oscillation.

These properties are connected through the fundamental relation:

v=fλ
where 𝑣 is wave velocity, 𝑓 is frequency, and 𝜆 is wavelength (OpenStax, 2016). See diagram

Wave Behaviors

Waves exhibit several important behaviors when interacting with boundaries or obstacles. The three
primary behaviors are reflection, refraction, and diffraction.

Reflection

Reflection occurs when a wave strikes a surface and bounces back into the original medium. The law of
reflection states that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection (θi=θr) (Wikipedia, n.d.)
(Classroom, n.d.). This principle governs the functioning of mirrors, echoes of sound, and sonar
navigation.

See diagram below

Refraction

Refraction is the bending of waves when they pass from one medium to another due to a change in speed.
The relationship between the angle of incidence and angle of refraction is governed by Snell’s Law:

𝒏𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟏 = 𝒏𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟐

where n1n_1n1 and n2n_2n2 are the refractive indices of the two media (Wikipedia, n.d.) (Classroom,
n.d.). This explains why a straw in a glass of water looks bent, and it forms the basis for lenses in
eyeglasses, microscopes, and telescopes.

Diffraction

Diffraction is the bending and spreading of waves when they encounter an obstacle or pass through a
small opening. It is especially noticeable when the size of the aperture is comparable to the wavelength.
Light spreading through a narrow slit and sound bending around walls are practical examples
(GeeksforGeeks, n.d.) (HyperPhysics, n.d.).

Total Internal Reflection (TIR)

When light travels from a denser medium to a less dense medium (e.g., glass to air), at a certain critical
angle, all the light reflects back into the denser medium instead of refracting out. This is called total
internal reflection. TIR is exploited in fiber optic cables, enabling high-speed internet and
communication systems (OpenStax, 2016) (Classroom, n.d.).
Applications of Waves

Waves play an irreplaceable role in modern science and daily life:

1. Communication Systems: Radio waves, microwaves, and optical waves transmit information
wirelessly. Fiber optics rely on total internal reflection for efficient data transfer (OpenStax,
2016).

2. Medical Imaging: Ultrasound uses longitudinal waves to visualize internal organs.

3. Astronomy: Telescopes use reflection and refraction principles to collect light from distant stars
(Wikipedia, n.d.).

4. Seismology: Earthquake monitoring relies on detecting seismic wave types.

5. Engineering: Noise control, building acoustics, and sonar design are rooted in wave physics.

These applications show how wave concepts extend from nature to technology (HyperPhysics, n.d.).

Worked Examples

Example 1: Reflection in a Plane Mirror

If a light ray strikes a mirror at an angle of 35°, the reflected ray also makes 35° with the normal,
consistent with the law of reflection (Wikipedia, n.d.) (Classroom, n.d.).

Example 2: Refraction in Water

A light ray enters water from air at 45°. With refractive indices 𝑛air = 1.0 and 𝑛water = 1.33:

1.0 ⋅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛45 ∘= 1.33 ⋅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2

𝜃 ≈ 0.07 ∘

This explains the spreading of light beams through narrow openings.

Conclusion

Waves are indispensable in both theory and practice, linking energy transfer, particle motion, and
boundary interactions into a unified framework. Their behaviors — reflection, refraction, diffraction, and
total internal reflection — are not abstract curiosities but the foundation of technologies ranging from
eyeglasses and microscopes to fiber optics and wireless communication. By studying waves, we not only
understand natural processes like earthquakes and sound but also harness their power for societal benefit
(OpenStax, 2016) (HyperPhysics, n.d.).

Section FOUR — Magnetism, Magnetic Fields, and

Electric Current
Introduction

Magnetism is one of the four fundamental forces of nature and plays a central role in both natural and
technological phenomena. It is intimately linked with electricity, as moving charges create magnetic
fields and changing magnetic fields can induce electric currents. Understanding the principles of
magnetism, its laws, and how it interacts with electric circuits is essential for explaining a wide range of
physical systems — from the Earth’s magnetic field to electromagnets and modern power distribution.

Magnetism and Its Laws

Magnetism arises from the motion of charges, typically from the spin and orbital movement of electrons
in atoms. At the macroscopic level, magnets always have two poles: a north pole and a south pole. Like
poles repel each other, while unlike poles attract. Importantly, magnetic poles always exist in pairs; if a
magnet is cut in half, each piece will still have both a north and a south pole. This distinguishes magnetic
monopoles, which have never been observed (Academy, n.d.).

The fundamental law of magnetism is often expressed as:

• Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.

This law governs the interactions between bar magnets, the Earth’s magnetic field, and
engineered devices such as compasses.

Additionally, Coulomb’s law of magnetism (an analogy to electrostatics) is sometimes used to describe
the force between magnetic poles, although in modern physics, magnetism is better described in terms of
magnetic fields rather than pole strength.

Magnetic Field Representation

A magnetic field is the region around a magnet or a current-carrying conductor in which magnetic forces
can be detected. The direction of the magnetic field is defined as the direction a north pole would move if
placed in the field. Field lines always form closed loops — emerging from the north pole and entering the
south pole outside the magnet, then returning inside the magnet.

Key Cases:

1. Bar Magnet: Field lines curve from north to south outside the magnet.

2. Current-Carrying Wire: The field forms concentric circles around the wire, given by the right-
hand rule.

3. Solenoid: A solenoid (a coil of wire) produces a nearly uniform magnetic field inside, similar to
that of a bar magnet.

(OpenStax, 2016)
See this diagram.

Electric Current and Circuits

Electric current is the flow of charges, typically electrons, through a conductor. The motion of charges not
only constitutes current but also generates magnetic fields. The relationship between current, potential
difference, and resistance is given by Ohm’s law:

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅

where 𝑉 is potential difference (voltage), 𝐼 is current, and 𝑅 is resistance.

Series Circuits

• Current is the same through all components.

• Total resistance is the sum of individual resistances:

𝑅total = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + …
Parallel Circuits

• Voltage is the same across each branch.

• Total resistance decreases as more branches are added:

1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯
𝑅total 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
(HyperPhysics, n.d.)

Example: If two resistors of 6 𝛺 and 3 𝛺 are connected in parallel across a 12 𝑉 source, the total current
can be calculated using the formula above.

Applications

• Compasses rely on the Earth’s magnetic field for navigation.

 • Electromagnets (using solenoids) are used in motors, generators, and transformers.

• Series and parallel circuits explain how household wiring is designed to safely distribute
electricity.

(BBC, 2023)

References
Academy, K., n.d.. Acceleration. [Online]
Available at: [Link]
tutorial?utm_source=[Link]
[Accessed 27 August 2025].

Academy, K., n.d.. Displacement, velocity, and time. [Online]

Available at: [Link]
velocity-time?utm_source=[Link]
[Accessed 27 August 2025].

Academy, K., n.d.. Magnetism. [Online]

Available at: [Link]
fields?utm_source=[Link]
[Accessed 27 August 2025].

Academy, K., n.d.. Newton’s laws of motion. [Online]

Available at: [Link]
motion?utm_source=[Link]
[Accessed 28 August 2025].

BBC, B., 2023. Magnetism and Electromagnetism. [Online]

Available at: [Link]
[Accessed 28 August 2025].

Classroom, P., n.d.. Reflection and Refraction. [Online]

Available at: [Link]
[Accessed 28 August 2025].

GeeksforGeeks, n.d.. Diffraction of Light. [Online]

Available at: [Link]
[Accessed 28 August 2025].

GeeksforGeeks, n.d.. Laws of Conservation of Momentum. [Online]

Available at: [Link]
momentum?utm_source=[Link]
[Accessed 27 August 2025].
Gurukul, P., 2023. Conservation Laws in Physics. [Online]
Available at: [Link]
physics?utm_source=[Link]
[Accessed 27 August 2025].

HyperPhysics, G. S. U., n.d.. Waves and Optics. [Online]

Available at: [Link]
[Accessed 27 August 2025].

HyperPhysics, n.d.. Electric Circuits. [Online]

Available at: [Link]
[Link]/hbase/electric/[Link]?utm_source=[Link]
[Accessed 28 August 2025].

OpenStax, 2016. University Physics Volume 1. s.l.:OpenStax, Rice University.

Vedantu, n.d.. Conservation of Momentum. [Online]

Available at: [Link]
[Accessed 27 August 2025].

Wikipedia, n.d.. Conservation of energy. [Online]

Available at: [Link]
[Accessed 27 August 2025].

Wikipedia, n.d.. Energy conservation. [Online]

Available at: [Link]
[Accessed 27 August 2025].

Wikipedia, n.d.. Reflection (physics). [Online]

Available at: [Link]
[Accessed 28 August 2025].

Wikipedia, n.d.. Refraction. [Online]

Available at: [Link]
[Accessed 28 August 2025].

Wikipedia, n.d.. Wave. [Online]

Available at: [Link]
[Accessed 28 August 2025].