IGIS: Module 4

Created @September 4, 2025 12:17 AM

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4.1 Remote Sensing

1. Basic Principles of Remote Sensing

Definition: Remote Sensing is the science and technology of obtaining information about objects,
areas, or phenomena from a distance, without making direct contact.

It relies on recording reflected, emitted, or scattered electromagnetic radiation from the Earth’s surface
and atmosphere.

Key Principle:

1. Energy Source (sunlight or artificial).

2. Transmission of Energy through the atmosphere.

3. Interaction of Energy with Earth’s surface (reflection, absorption, transmission, emission).

4. Detection of Energy by sensors on satellites or aircraft.

5. Data Processing and Interpretation into useful information.

Two Main Stages:

Data Acquisition – Sensors capture radiation information.

Data Analysis – Image interpretation and classification for decision-making.

2. Electromagnetic Remote Sensing

Remote sensing uses the Electromagnetic Spectrum (EMS).

Electromagnetic Spectrum (major regions in remote sensing):

Visible Light (0.4 – 0.7 µm) → Human eye can see (blue, green, red bands).

Infrared (0.7 – 15 µm) → Near IR, Shortwave IR, Thermal IR (important for vegetation, soil, temperature
studies).

Microwave (1 mm – 1 m) → Active sensors like RADAR, unaffected by clouds, useful in all-weather

monitoring.

Types of Remote Sensing:

1. Passive Remote Sensing

Uses natural energy sources (mainly the Sun).

Example: Optical satellites (Landsat, IRS, Sentinel).

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 2. Active Remote Sensing

Sensor provides its own source of energy (e.g., RADAR, LiDAR).

Advantage: Can operate day & night, penetrates through clouds.

3. Energy Sources in Remote Sensing

Natural Source: The Sun is the main energy source, emitting solar radiation.

Artificial Source: Active remote sensing systems generate their own energy (e.g., radar waves, laser
beams).

Solar Radiation
Emitted as a spectrum of wavelengths, with maximum energy in visible region (~0.5 µm).

Intensity of solar energy reaching Earth is reduced due to scattering, absorption, and reflection in the
atmosphere.

4. Energy Interactions with Earth’s Surface Materials

When electromagnetic radiation hits Earth’s surface, three processes occur:

1. Reflection – Energy bounces back (important for imaging).

2. Absorption – Energy absorbed and converted into heat.

3. Transmission – Energy passes through the material (minimal for opaque surfaces).

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 Factors affecting interaction:

Wavelength of radiation.

Physical & chemical properties of material (soil moisture, vegetation type, water clarity, etc.).

5. Energy Interactions with Atmosphere

Before reaching sensors, electromagnetic energy passes through the atmosphere, where it
undergoes:

1. Scattering

Rayleigh Scattering (particles smaller than wavelength) → Causes blue sky.

Mie Scattering (particles equal to wavelength) → Causes hazy conditions.

Non-selective Scattering (particles larger than wavelength) → Clouds appear white.

2. Absorption

Certain gases absorb radiation at specific wavelengths:

Ozone absorbs UV.

CO₂ absorbs far-infrared.

Water vapor absorbs in IR.

Creates atmospheric windows (regions of spectrum where radiation passes with little absorption,
e.g., visible, NIR, microwave).

6. Spectral Reflectance Curves

Definition: Graph showing how much energy a material reflects at different wavelengths.

Each material has a unique spectral signature, which helps in identification.

Examples:
1. Vegetation

High reflection in near-infrared (0.7 – 1.3 µm).

Low reflection in visible red (absorbed by chlorophyll).

Used in NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index).

2. Water

Absorbs strongly in infrared & microwave.

Reflects very little except in visible region (blue/green).

3. Soil

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 Reflectance depends on moisture, organic matter, and texture.

Generally increases with wavelength in visible & NIR regions.

Importance of Spectral Reflectance Curves

Distinguishes between land cover types (vegetation, water, soil, urban areas).

Helps in classification of satellite imagery.

Used in agriculture (crop health), hydrology (water quality), forestry (species mapping), and geology
(mineral identification).

4.2 Data Formats, Standard Products, Image

Interpretation, Elements of Image Interpretation

1. Data Formats in Remote Sensing

Remote sensing data collected by satellites or airborne sensors is stored in digital formats.

Main Categories:
1. Raster Data

Image stored as grid of pixels (rows × columns).

Each pixel has a Digital Number (DN) representing reflectance at a wavelength.

Common formats: GeoTIFF, IMG, HDF, NetCDF.

Advantage: Good for continuous data (elevation, vegetation, temperature).

Example: Satellite imagery.

2. Vector Data

Uses points, lines, polygons to represent features.

Example: Roads (lines), cities (points), lakes (polygons).

Common formats: Shapefile (.shp), GeoJSON, KML.

Advantage: Good for mapping discrete features.

3. Other Specialized Formats

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 BSQ (Band Sequential) → stores one band after another.

BIL (Band Interleaved by Line) → stores line by line across bands.

BIP (Band Interleaved by Pixel) → stores all bands for a pixel together.

2. Standard Remote Sensing Products

After raw satellite data is collected, it is processed into standard products for practical use.

Levels of Data Products (based on processing):

1. Raw Data (Level 0)

Unprocessed satellite signals, not directly usable.

2. Geometrically Corrected Data (Level 1)

Corrected for distortions due to sensor tilt, satellite movement.

Radiometric corrections applied.

3. Georeferenced / Standard Image Products (Level 2)

Registered to ground coordinates (latitude, longitude).

Standard product delivered to users.

4. Thematic Products (Level 3 & 4)

Derived information products (e.g., land use/land cover maps, NDVI vegetation maps, soil
moisture maps, climate models).

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 3. Image Interpretation
Image Interpretation = The process of examining remote sensing images to identify objects, features, and
patterns.

Two Approaches:
1. Visual Interpretation

Done by human analyst using interpretation keys.

Relies on tone, color, shape, texture, pattern.

2. Digital Image Processing

Computer algorithms classify pixels automatically.

Example: Supervised Classification, Unsupervised Classification, Object-based Image Analysis

(OBIA).

4. Elements of Image Interpretation

When interpreting images, analysts use specific visual cues:

1. Tone / Color

Brightness or color of a feature.

Example: Vegetation = green, Water = dark/black, Soil = brown.

2. Shape

Distinct geometric forms.

Example: Agricultural fields (rectangular), rivers (curved).

3. Size

Relative dimension of an object.

Example: Large rectangle = airport runway; small circle = water tank.

4. Texture

Smoothness or roughness in image.

Example: Forest (rough texture), Cropland (medium texture).

5. Pattern

Arrangement of features.

Example: Urban area = grid-like street pattern, orchards = regular dots.

6. Shadow

Helps in identifying height and structure.

Example: Tall buildings, bridges, towers.

7. Association

Relation of an object with surroundings.

Example: Railway lines near stations, vegetation near rivers.

8. Location / Site

Position of object in geographic context.

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 Example: Ports near coastline, mining near hills.

5. Importance of Image Interpretation

Land use and land cover mapping.

Agriculture: Crop monitoring, irrigation planning.

Forestry: Forest health, deforestation analysis.

Hydrology: River basin studies, water quality assessment.

Urban planning: Mapping of settlements, infrastructure development.

Disaster management: Floods, forest fires, earthquakes damage mapping.

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