Surveying handout 2022/3
CHAPTER TWO
3. Linear Measurements (Taping)
3.1 Introduction
Every surveyor has to measure the horizontal distance between two points on the surface of the earth.
Measurement of horizontal distance or making linear measurements is required in chain surveying,
traverse surveying, and other types of surveying. In surveying the distance between two points means a
horizontal distance. When slope distances are measured in the field, these are always reduced to the
equivalent horizontal distances for preparation of map.
Slop
e dis
tanc
e
Horizontal distance
METHODS OF DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
There are, in general, three methods of making linear measurements:
I. Direct methods
II. Optical methods
III. E.D.M. methods
In the direct methods, the distance is actually measured in the field using a tape.
In optical methods, the distance is not actually measured in the field. It is computed indirectly (for
example: stadia tachometry).
Electromagnetic Distance Measuring (E.D.M) instruments have been developed. Two different types
are available:
a. Electro optical instruments, which use light waves for measurement of distance.
b. Microwave instruments, which use radio waves for measurement of distance.
Approximate method
The following approximate methods are commonly used in reconnaissance surveying for the
measurement of horizontal distances. These methods are also use sometimes to detect large mistakes in
linear measurements obtained with a tape.
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Pacing: A person can determine the distance walked by Counting the number of paces made. The
distance can be obtained by multiplying the number of paces by the average length of the paces.
Measuring wheel: A measuring wheel consists of a wheel mounted on a lower end of rod about 1 m
long through a fork. The upper end of the rod has a handle. The wheel is pushed along the ground. The
distance traversed is recorded on the dial attached the wheel.
Measuring wheel
Speedometer. All automobiles have a speedometer to indicate
The speed and the distance travelled. If the ground is smooth, the
Speedometer can be used to measure the distance.
3.2 Measuring tapes
Measuring tapes can be classified into 5 types depending upon the material used in their manufacture.
i. Linen or cloth tapes.
ii. Glass-fibre tapes
iii. Metallic tapes
iv. Steel tapes
v. Invar tapes
a) Steel tape b) Invar tape
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1. Linen or cloth tapes: These tapes are made of linen or cloth. The tape is light and handy but not
very accurate. These tapes are available in length of 10m 20m, 25m and 30m.
2. Glass–fibre tapes: These tapes are similar to linen and plastic coated tapes but They are made of
glass-fibre. The tapes are quite flexible, strong and non-Conductive.
3. Metallic tapes: These tapes are similar to liner tapes but are made of water proof fabric or
glass-fibre in which metallic wires are interwoven.
4. Steel tapes: The steel tapes are the most commonly used tapes in surveying. They are more
accurate than metallic tapes. The steel tapes are made of steel or stainless steel strip.
5. Invar Tapes. Invar tapes are made of an alloy of steel (64%) and nickel (36%), which has a
very low coefficient of thermal expansion.
Invar tapes are used for linear measurements of very high precision.
3.3 Instrument for taping
In addition to a tape, the following small instruments and accessories are required for the determination
of the length of a line.
I. Arrows (Chain pins)
II. Pegs
III. Ranging rods
IV. Plumb bobs or rod levels
1. Arrows (Chain pins): They are used to mark the position of the ends of the tape on the ground.
2. Pegs: Wooden pegs are used to mark the position of the survey stations or the end points of the
survey line.
3. Ranging Rods: The process of locating a number of points on a long survey line is called ranging.
Ranging rods are used to locate intermediate points such that these points lie on the straight line
joining the end stations. Ranging rods are made of well-seasoned, straight-grained timber.
4. Plumb bobs: The plumb bob plays a very important role in surveying. As a freely suspended plumb
bob always points towards the gravity, it indicates the direction of the vertical line. In linear
measurements plumb bobs are used for measuring distances on sloping ground.
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Ranging rods hold by ranging rod tripods plumb bob
3.4 Ranging out lines directly
The process of establishing intermediate points on a straight line is known as ranging out or aligning in
surveying. It is necessary to establish intermediate points on a line if the distance is greater then one
tape lengths. The ranging out ensures that the straight distance between two points is measured.
straight line
A B
line measured without aligning
The procedure is as follows:
Two ranging poles are set up vertically on the two ends of the line to be measured.
A B
The surveyor stands behind one ranging pole at a distance of about 2-3 meters. The assistant holds
another ranging rod approximately on the line at a distance not greater than one tape lengths.
By looking left and right along the set up ranging poles the surveyor directs the assistant to move the
ranging pole towards the line. The assistant has to hold the ranging pole vertically.
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A
2-3m
B
C
side view
A
2-3m
B
C
top view
Having more than one ranging pole to be aligned, start always with the farther one to have a good
visibility.
Never take an intermediate point for ranging out a further intermediate point. If the first intermediate
point has been aligned incorrectly you would align the second one into a wrong line.
A B
C
D
second incorrect intermediate first incorrect intermediate point
point aligned into line AC
After establishing all intermediate points the result of the ranging out has to be checked. Therefore,
sight left and right along the line. The ranging poles have to appear one after the other in the right order
- that means from the nearest to the most distant one.
3.5 Ranging out lines and working with optical square
A useful instrument, which is often used in combination with tape surveys, is the optical square. It is an
instrument for producing rectangular angles (100 gon, 90 degree).
An optical square consists of two prisms and a field of view. The upper prism provides a view to the
right, the lower to the left. The view in front of the prism can be seen through the field of view. An
optical square is held freehand with the help of a plumb bob over a point.
Mostly it is used for setting outs or for measurement of offsets. Offsets are short lengths measured to
points of detail from points along the main framework line
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3.6. Taping corrections (Corrections applied to the measured length by tape)
Steel tapes are calibrated under a specific temperature and tension. Change in temperature, tension and
mode of support affect the result of taping. The errors caused by these sources behave according
physical laws and can be expressed with mathematic expressions. They are systematic errors.
1. Incorrect length of tape:
The length of steel tape may vary when it is kinked, worn and imperfectly repaired after breaks. So, in
order to reduce (eliminate) the variation in length, it should be checked with the standard.
The correction to be applied to any measurement made with the tape in order to account for the
deviation is called the absolute correction Ca.
Ca= true length-nominal length
The true length is the value determined by calibration under specific conditions. Tape too long add
correction, tape too short subtract correction.
Example:
A distance is measured with a 50m steel tape and is found to be 1357.40m. Later the tape is
standardized and is found to have an actual length of 49.96m. What is the correct distance
measured?
Solution: Ca=true length-nominal length
= 49.96-50=-0.04/ tape length
Corrected distance=1357.40+ 1357.40 0.04
50
= 1357.40-1.08592=1356.3141m
2. Correction for tension (Pull correction)
Since a steel tape is elastic to a small extend it length is changed by variation in the tension applied.
The correction, which should be applied, is
P PS L
Cp
AE
Where P is the tension applied in the field.
Ps is the standard/ calibration tension
A is the cross sectional area of the tape.
E is Young’s modulus for the tape material (N/ mm2)
L is the observed length.
Note: The sign of the correction takes that of quantity (P-Ps)
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To apply this correction a tension handle is needed.
Example:
A 30m tape weighing 0.90kg has cross-sectional area of 0.0485 cm2. The tape measures 29.94m
when it is pulled under a tension of 45kg. The tape was standardized under a tension of 10kg and
modulus of elasticity of the tape is 2.1x106 kg/cm2. Determine the correct distance measured.
Solution: Using the above equn (correction for pull)
( p Ps ) L
Cp
A.E
( 45 10)30
0.0485 * 2.1x106
0.010
The correct distance =29.94+0.010= 29.95m
3. Correction for sag
A tape supported only at the ends will sag in the centre by an amount that is related to its weight and
the pull (tension). In the case of a long tape intermediate supports can be used to reduce the magnitude
of the correction.
The correction that is applied reduces the curved length to the chord length.
w 2 L3
Cs
24P 2
Where w is the weight of the tape per unit length
L is the observed length
P is the tension applied in the field.
Note: If the tape in used on a plane surface, which can be considered, flat then no
Correction is applicable.
To apply this correction a tension handle is needed.
4. Correction for temperature
If a tape is used at a field temperature different from the standardization temperature then the correction
is
C t L t t s
where is the coefficient of thermal expansion of the tape material
t is the field temperature
ts is the standardization temperature
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Note: The sign of the correction takes the sign of (t- ts).
To apply this correction a thermometer is needed.
Example:
A traverse line is 152.4 m long. If the tape used in the field is 50.0m when standardized at 17 0c,
what correction must be applied if the temperature at the time of measurement is 230c? (
=11.2*10-6/0c)
Solution: Ct=L (T-Ts)
= 50*11.2x10-6(23-17)
= 3.36 x10-3 m/length
152.4
Total correction = * 3.36x103
50
0.010m
5. Correction for slope
In surveying it is essential that horizontal lengths are determined. When a distance lies along a uniform
slope and when the difference in height between the two end points has been determined it may be
preferable to measure the distance directly (see also figure 1).
A slop
e di
stan
ce
h
horizontal distance
figure 1
Afterwards the horizontal distance can be computed by applying the following correction:
h 2
Cg Where:
2s
h= is the difference in height between the end points
s =is the measured slope distance
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6. Correction to mean sea level
In the case of long lines the relationship between the length measured on the ground and the equivalent
length at mean sea level has to be considered.
distance (Lm)
earths surface
H
distance to msl (Lmsl)
mean sea level
)
0km
637
(R=
ius
rad
In the measured length is Lm and the height of the line above datum is H then the correction to be
applied is
H
C msl Lm
R
Exercise on basic tape measurements
A survey line was measured with a tape, believed to be 20m long, a length of 284.62m resulted. On
checking, the tape was found to measure 19.95m long.
What was the correct length of the line?
If the line measured is a slope distance and the difference in height between the end points is 14.20m
what would be the reduced horizontal length used in the plotting of the survey?
What reading is required to produce a horizontal distance of 15.08m between two site pegs, one being
0.66m above the other?
Solution
A length of 20m has been booked overall, but actually only a length of 19.95m has been covered.
19.95 284.62
Correct length of line = 283.91m
20
The correction for slope has to be applied:
14.20 2
Cg: = = 0.36m
2 283.91
The horizontal distance is therefore: 283.91-0.36 = 283.55m
The following reading is required: Slope distance = 0.66 2
15.08 2 15.09m
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