Learning Outcome 3: Signal
Transmission
BTech Instrumentation &
Measurement
Deep Lecture Notes with Calculations
Ing. Emmanuel Kabu Oman
Learning Outcome 3 – Overview
• Explain methods of signal transmission in
instrumentation systems.
• Analyse electrical, pneumatic, optical, and
wireless transmission.
• Evaluate noise immunity and attenuation.
• Apply calculations to practical transmission
problems.
3.1 Electrical Signal Transmission
• Simplest transmission method uses analogue
electrical signals.
• Signals transmitted as voltages or currents.
• Susceptible to noise and attenuation.
• Requires amplification and protection.
Transmission as Varying Voltages
• Most transducers output analogue voltages.
• Simple to implement.
• Affected by cable resistance and induced
noise.
• Shielding and amplification are required.
Diagram: Shielded Voltage
Transmission
Sensor → Amplifier → Shielded Cable → Receiver
Shield connected to earth to reduce capacitive noise
Signal Attenuation in Voltage
Transmission
• Cable resistance causes voltage drop.
• Longer cables increase attenuation.
• Low-level signals are more affected.
• Signal-to-noise ratio decreases with distance.
Worked Example: Voltage
Attenuation
• Sensor output = 50 mV.
• Cable attenuation = 10%.
• Received voltage = 45 mV.
• Amplification required to restore signal.
3.1.2 Current Loop Transmission
(4–20 mA)
• Signal transmitted as current rather than
voltage.
• Highly immune to noise.
• Standard industrial method.
• Uses 4–20 mA range.
Diagram: 4–20 mA Current Loop
Transducer → V–I Converter → Loop → I–V Converter → Controller
Advantages of 4–20 mA Current
Loop
• Unaffected by cable resistance.
• Noise immunity.
• Live-zero fault detection.
• Suitable for long distances.
Worked Example: 4–20 mA Scaling
• Range: 0–100 °C.
• Measured current = 12 mA.
• Percentage span = (12−4)/(16) = 0.5.
• Temperature = 50 °C.
Current-to-Voltage Conversion
• Required at receiver end.
• Uses precision resistor and op-amp.
• V = I × R.
• Example: 20 mA × 250 Ω = 5 V.
3.1.3 A.C. Carrier Transmission
• Used to reduce low-frequency noise.
• Signal modulates high-frequency carrier.
• AM or FM techniques used.
Diagram: AM Carrier Transmission
DC Signal → Modulator → AC Carrier → Transmission → Demodulator
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
• Signal represented by carrier amplitude.
• Used with bridge circuits.
• Susceptible to amplitude noise.
Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Signal represented by frequency variation.
• Superior noise immunity.
• Common in telemetry systems.
Worked Example: FM Conversion
• Input voltage = 2 V.
• V–F sensitivity = 5 kHz/V.
• Output frequency = 10 kHz.
3.1.4 Pneumatic Transmission
• Uses compressed air.
• Standard range: 3–15 psi.
• Intrinsically safe.
• Slow response compared to electrical.
Diagram: Pneumatic Transmission
System
Sensor → Pneumatic Converter → Air Line → Controller
Limitations of Pneumatic
Transmission
• Slow transmission speed.
• Affected by temperature.
• Pressure leaks cause errors.
3.2 Fibre-Optic Transmission
• Uses light instead of electricity.
• Immune to electromagnetic interference.
• High bandwidth and low attenuation.
Diagram: Fibre-Optic Link
Electrical Signal → LED → Fibre → Photodiode → Electrical Output
Advantages of Fibre Optics
• Noise immunity.
• Electrical isolation.
• High data rate.
• Safe in hazardous environments.
3.3 Principles of Fibre Optics
• Light guided by total internal reflection.
• Core has higher refractive index than cladding.
• Attenuation depends on wavelength.
Diagram: Fibre Cross Section
Core (n1) surrounded by Cladding (n2)
Condition: n1 > n2
Monomode vs Multimode Fibres
• Monomode: small core, long distance.
• Multimode: large core, short distance.
• Trade-off between cost and performance.
3.4 Radio Telemetry
• Wireless signal transmission.
• Used for mobile or remote systems.
• FM/FM commonly used.
Diagram: Radio Telemetry System
Sensor → FM Modulator → Transmitter → Receiver → Demodulator
Applications of Radio Telemetry
• Remote monitoring.
• Mobile systems.
• Space and marine applications.
3.5 Digital Transmission Protocols
• Uses binary signals.
• High noise immunity.
• Pulse Code Modulation (PCM).
Advantages of Digital Transmission
• Error detection.
• Multiplexing capability.
• Reduced noise effects.
Worked Example: ADC
Quantization
• ADC resolution = 8-bit.
• Input range = 0–10 V.
• Step size = 10/256 = 0.039 V.
Summary of Learning Outcome 3
• Multiple transmission techniques available.
• Choice depends on accuracy, distance, and
environment.
• Calculations support system design.
• Modern systems favor digital and fibre-optic
transmission.