[Link].

com

SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS

The relationship between an input variable and an output variable of a signal flow graph
is given by the net gain between input and output nodes and is known as overall gain of
the system. Masons gain formula is used to obtain the over all gain (transfer function) of
signal flow graphs.

Masons Gain Formula

Gain P is given by
1
P  Pk  k
 k
Where, Pk is gain of kth forward path,
∆ is determinant of graph

∆=1-(sum of all individual loop gains)+(sum of gain products of all possible

combinations of two nontouching loops – sum of gain products of all possible
combination of three nontouching loops) + ∙∙∙

∆k is cofactor of kth forward path determinant of graph with loops touching kth forward
path. It is obtained from ∆ by removing the loops touching the path P k.

Example 1
Obtain the transfer function of C/R of the system whose signal flow graph is shown in
Fig.1

G1

R
G2 1 1 C

-G3
G4

Figure 1 Signal flow graph of example 1

There are two forward paths:

Gain of path 1 : P1=G1
Gain of path 2 : P2=G2

1
[Link]

There are four loops with loop gains:

L1=-G1G3, L2=G1G4, L3= -G2G3, L4= G2G4
There are no non-touching loops.
∆ = 1+G1G3-G1G4+G2G3-G2G4
Forward paths 1 and 2 touch all the loops. Therefore, ∆ 1= 1, ∆2= 1

C s  P11  P2  2 G1  G2
The transfer function T =  
Rs   1  G1G3  G1G4  G2 G3  G2 G4

Example 2
Obtain the transfer function of C(s)/R(s) of the system whose signal flow graph is shown
in Fig.2.

-H2
R(s) G2 C(s)
1 1 G1 G3 1

H1
-1

Figure 2 Signal flow graph of example 2

There is one forward path, whose gain is: P1=G1G2G3

There are three loops with loop gains:
L1=-G1G2H1, L2=G2G3H2, L3= -G1G2G3
There are no non-touching loops.
∆ = 1-G1G2H1+G2G3H2+G1G2G3
Forward path 1 touches all the loops. Therefore, ∆ 1= 1.
C s  P1  1 G1G2 G3
The transfer function T =  
Rs   1  G1G2 H 1  G1G3 H 2  G1G2 G3

2
[Link]

Example 3
Obtain the transfer function of C(s)/R(s) of the system whose signal flow graph is shown
in Fig.3.

G6 G7

R(s) G1 C(s)
G2 G3 G4 G5 1
X1 X2 X3 X4
X5
-H1
-H2

Figure 3 Signal flow graph of example 3

There are three forward paths.

The gain of the forward path are: P1=G1G2G3G4G5
P2=G1G6G4G5
P3= G1G2G7
There are four loops with loop gains:
L1=-G4H1, L2=-G2G7H2, L3= -G6G4G5H2 , L4=-G2G3G4G5H2
There is one combination of Loops L1 and L2 which are nontouching with loop gain
product L1L2=G2G7H2G4H1
∆ = 1+G4H1+G2G7H2+G6G4G5H2+G2G3G4G5H2+ G2G7H2G4H1
Forward path 1 and 2 touch all the four loops. Therefore ∆1= 1, ∆2= 1.
Forward path 3 is not in touch with loop1. Hence, ∆ 3= 1+G4H1.
The transfer function T =
Cs  P11  P2  2  P3  3 G1G2 G3G4 G5  G1G4 G5G6  G1G2 G7 1  G4 H1 
 
Rs   1  G4 H1  G2 G7 H 2  G6 G4 G5 H 2  G2 G3G4 G5 H 2  G2 G4 G7 H1 H 2

3
[Link]

Example 4

X6 X5 X3
Find the gains , , for the signal flow graph shown in Fig.4.
X1 X 2 X1

b -h

X1 a d X5 f X6
c e
X2 X3 X4

-g
-i

Figure 4 Signal flow graph of MIMO system

X6
Case 1:
X1

There are two forward paths.

The gain of the forward path are: P1=acdef
P2=abef
There are four loops with loop gains:
L1=-cg, L2=-eh, L3= -cdei, L4=-bei
There is one combination of Loops L1 and L2 which are nontouching with loop gain
product L1L2=cgeh
∆ = 1+cg+eh+cdei+bei+cgeh
Forward path 1 and 2 touch all the four loops. Therefore ∆1= 1, ∆2= 1.
X 6 P11  P2  2 cdef  abef
The transfer function T =  
X1  1  cg  eh  cdei  bei  cgeh

4
[Link]

X5
Case 2:
X2
The modified signal flow graph for case 2 is shown in Fig.5.

b -h

X2 X5 X5
1 d e 1
c
X2 X3 X4

-g

-i

Figure 5 Signal flow graph of example 4 case 2

The transfer function can directly manipulated from case 1 as branches a and f are
removed which do not form the loops. Hence,

X 5 P11  P2  2 cde  be
The transfer function T=  
X2  1  cg  eh  cdei  bei  cgeh

X3
Case 3:
X1
The signal flow graph is redrawn to obtain the clarity of the functional relation as shown
in Fig.6. -h

X1 a X2 b e X5 f 1 X3

X4 X3
-i d

-g

Figure 6 Signal flow graph of example 4 case 3

5
[Link]

There are two forward paths.

The gain of the forward path are: P1=abcd
P2=ac
There are five loops with loop gains:
L1=-eh, L2=-cg, L3= -bei, L4=edf, L5=-befg
There is one combination of Loops L1 and L2 which are nontouching with loop gain
product L1L2=ehcg
∆ = 1+eh+cg+bei+efd+befg+ehcg
Forward path 1 touches all the five loops. Therefore ∆ 1= 1.
Forward path 2 does not touch loop L1. Hence, ∆ 2= 1+ eh

X 3 P11  P2  2 abef  ac1  eh

The transfer function T =  
X1  1  eh  cg  bei  efd  befg  ehcg

Example 5

For the system represented by the following equations find the transfer function X(s)/U(s)
using signal flow graph technique.
X  X 1   3u

X 1   a1 X 1  X 2   2 u

X 2   a 2 X 1   1u

Taking Laplace transform with zero initial conditions

X s   X 1 s    3U s 
sX 1 s    a1 X 1 s   X 2 s    2U s 
sX 2 s    a 2 X 1 s    1U s 

Rearrange the above equation

X s   X 1 s    3U s 
 a1 
X 1 s   X 1 s   X 2 s   2 U s 
1
s s s
 a2 
X 2 s   X 1 s   1 U s 
s s

The signal flow graph is shown in Fig.7.

6
[Link]

1
s
 a1
β2  a2
X1 s X
s s X
X2
U β1
s 1

3

Figure 7 Signal flow grapgh of example 5

There are three forward paths.

The gain of the forward path are: P1=3
P2=1/ s2
P3=2/ s

There are two loops with loop gains:

 a1
L1 
s
a
L2  2 2
s
L1=-eh, L2=-cg, L3= -bei, L4=edf, L5=-befg

There are no combination two Loops which are nontouching.

a a
  1  1  22
s s

Forward path 1 does not touch loops L1 and L2. Therefore

a a
 1  1  1  22
s s

Forward path 2 path 3 touch the two loops. Hence, ∆ 2= 1, ∆2= 1.

The transfer function T =  

 
X 3 P11  P2  2  P3  3  3 s 2  a1 s  a2   2 s  1
X1  s 2  a1 s  a2

7
[Link]

SYSTEM COMPENSATION

PROBLEM - Design a suitable compensator for the system whose

OLTF is as shown in the block diagram. Static velocity error coefficient
is 20 sec-1the phase margin is at least 50 and gain margin is at least 10
db

R(S) C(S)
COMPENSATOR 4k/S(S+2)

H=1

STEP1
 From the performance specifications determine the value of K
from Kv
 Kv= Lim (s-0) S. G(S) =20
1

8
[Link]

 From this Lim (s-0) s 4K/(s(s+2)) = 20

 K=10 as s-0
STEP2
Obtain the BODE PLOT for the same
Obtain the Gain Margin and Phase Margin for the obtained value of
K=10
From the plot Phase margin is 17
Gain margin is +∞ db
Additional Phase lead necessary is +33
In order to compensate for the shift in the gain crossover frequency
+5 degree added

9
 [Link]

G(S)=[40/jω(jω+2)]

10
0

17
[Link]

STEP3
For a value of +38 degrees obtain ά from
Sin Φm = { (1- ά )/ (1+ ά )}
Attenuation factor ά is 0.24
Maximum Phase Lead Angle Φm occurs at the geometric mean
of two corner frequencies
Obtained from
Log ωm = ½ [ log (1/T) = log(1/ ά T)]
ωm = [1/√ ά T]
STEP 4
Amount of modification in the magnitude curve at ωm = [1/√ ά T] is
MOD [ (1+j ωT)/( 1+j ωά T)]
at ωm = 1/ √ά T
= { (1/√ ά )}= {(1/√0.24 )}= 6.2 db
-6.2 corresponds to ω= 9 rad/sec which is new gain crossover
frequency ωc

11
[Link]

12
[Link]

STEP 5
This frequency corresponds to
ωc = [1/√ ά T] is
(1/T) = √ άω = 4.41 and
(1/ ά T) = [ωc/√ ά] = 18.4
Lead Network thus obtained is (S+4.41)/(S+18.4)
STEP 6
To compensate for the attenuation due to the lead network the
amplifier GAIN is increased by a factor of [1/ ά] = [1/ 0.24] = 4.17
Then TF of the compensator is
Gc(S) = (4.17) [(S+4.41)/(S+18.4)]
The compensated system has the OLTF as Gc(S) * G(S)
= (4.17) [(S+4.41)/(S+18.4)] *{40/S(S+2)}
ANALYSIS
• Lead Compensation causes the gain crossover frequency to
increase from 6.3 to 9 rad/sec.
• Increase in frequency means increase in BANDWIDTH
• This increases the SPEED OF RESPONSE

13
[Link]

PROBLEM - Design a suitable compensator for the system whose Open

Loop Transfer Function is as shown in the block diagram. Static velocity
error coefficient is 5 sec-1the phase margin is at least 40 and gain
margin is at least 10 db.

R(S) C(S)

K / [S(S+1)(0.5S+1)]

14
[Link]

15
[Link]

ANALYSIS
• Lag Compensation networks are low pass filters
• Permits high gain at low frequencies and reduces gain in the higher
critical range
• Attenuation Characteristics of Lag network at high frequencies are
utilised than phase lag characteristics
• Shift the gain cross over frequency to a lower frequency
• Decrease in frequency means decrease in BANDWIDTH
• This decreases the SPEED OF RESPONSE (transient)

COMPENSATED SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM

R(S) C(S)

in steady state accuracy ast the expense of increasing theh transient

4.17{(S+4.41) /(S+18.4)} 40/S(S+2)

16
[Link]

17
[Link]

18
[Link]

19
[Link]

=mx

Mas
s

20