Advanced and Developed Mathematics 9

Volume 2

Vu Huu Binh
ALGEBRA
Chapter IV. The y = ax2 function.
Quadratic equations

§1. The y = ax2 function

The function y = ax2 (a ̸= 0) is defined for all x in R.

If a > 0 then the function decreases when x < 0, increases when x > 0 and is 0 when x = 0.
If a < 0 then the function increases when x < 0, decreases when x > 0 and is 0 when x = 0.
The graph of the function is a parabola with its vertex at the origin and its axis of symmetry is the y-axis.
1
Example 1. Given a parabola y = x2 , a point A(0, 1) and a line d with equation y = −1.
4
a) Let M be an arbitrary point on the parabola. Show that MA is equal to the distance MH from M to
the line d.
b) Given a point A(0, a), let d be a line with equation y = −a. Show that the locus of all points M(x, y)
such that the distance MH from M to d is equal to MA is a parabola.
Solution.
a) (Fig 1)
y
The equation
I M(x, y)
MH = y + 1 (1)
A
is always true. 1
O x
To find MA, construct MI ⊥ Oy. y = −1 −1 H
MI = |x|, AI = |y − 1| therefore

MA2 = MI2 +AI2 = x2 +(y−1)2 = x2 +y2 −2y+1. Figure 1

1
Since y = x2 , substitute x2 by 4y to get
4
MA2 = 4y + y2 − 2y + 1 = (y + 1)2 .

Therefore MA = |y + 1| = y + 1 (because y ≥ 0). (2)

From (1) and (2) we have MA = MH.

1
 b) (Fig 2 corresponds to a > 0)
Applying the distance formula to points y
M(x, y) and A(0, a):
I
MA2 = (x−0)2 +(y−a)2 = x2 +y2 −2ay+a2 .
M(x, y)
MH = |y + a| therefore Aa
O x
MH2 = (y + a)2 = y2 + 2ay + a2 . d −a H y = −a
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
MA = MH ⇔ x + y − 2ay + a = y + 2ay + a
1 2
⇔ x2 = 4ay ⇔ y = x . Figure 2
4a
1
Therefore the locus of M is the parabola y = x2 .
4a
Note. In general, for a line d and a point A not on d, the locus of all points M such as the length MA is
equal to the distance from M to d is a parabola. Then the point A is the focus, and d is the directrix of the
parabola.

EXERCISES
1. The vertical cross-section of a mirror has a shape of a parabola (Fig 3). Determine its equation,
given that its height OC = 1 cm and diameter AB = 4 cm.

y
2 C 2
A B
1

O x

Figure 3

2. A parabola-shaped gate with dimensions OC = 6 m and AB = 6 m are shown in figure 4. Determine

its equation.
y
−3 3
O

C
A B

Figure 4

2
 3. a) Determine the coefficient a of a parabol y = ax2 , given that it passes through the point A(−2, −
2).
b) Find the coordinates of a point M which lies on the given parabola, knowing that the distance
from M to the x-axis is twice its distance to the y-axis.
1
4. Draw the graph of the function y = x|x|.
3
1
5. a) Draw the graph of the function y = − x2 .
2
1
b) Let C be an arbitrary point on the parabola y = − x2 . Let K be the midpoint of OC.
2
When C moves along the parabola, find the locus of K.

§2. Quadratic equations

A quadratic equation is an equation in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where x is the unknown and a, b, c are
given coefficients, a ̸= 0.
1. Solving quadratic equations
Example 2. Given the equation

m2 − m − 2 x2 + 2(m + 1)x + 1 = 0 (m is a parameter).

(1)

a) Solve equation (1) with m = 1.

b) Find all values of m such that equation (1) has two distinct solutions.
c) Find all values of m such that equation (1) has one solution.
Solution.
a) For m = 1, equation (1) becomes −2x2 + 4x + 1 = 0.
∆′ = 22 − (−2) · 1 = 6. The equation has two solutions:
√ √ √ √
−2 − 6 2 + 6 −2 + 6 2 − 6
x1 = = ; x2 = = .
−2 2 −2 2

b) The conditions for equation (1) to have two distinct solutions are
(
a = m2 − m − 2 ̸= 0 (2)
∆′ = (m + 1)2 − m2 − m − 2 > 0


(3)

Solving (2): (
2 m ̸= −1
m − m − 2 ̸= 0 ⇔ (m + 1)(m − 2) ̸= 0 ⇔
m ̸= 2.
Solving (3):
(m + 1)2 − m2 − m − 2 > 0 ⇔ 3m + 3 > 0 ⇔ m > −1.

The required condition is −1 < m ̸= 2.

3
 c) (1) has only one solution ⇔ (1) is a linear equation or a quadratic equation where ∆ = 0. When
m = −1, (1) becomes 0x + 1 = 0 which has no solutions.
1
When m = 2, (1) becomes 6x + 1 = 0, with one solution x = − .
6
When m ̸= −1, m ̸= 2, (1) is a quadratic equation, it has one solution (repeated solutions) when and
only when ∆′ = 0 ⇔ 3m + 3 = 0 ⇔ m = −1, contradicting the proven condition.
So equation (1) has only one solution when m = 2.

2. Conditions for a quadratic equation to have solutions

A quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a ̸= 0) only has solutions when and only when ∆ ≥ 0. Therefore
the equation also has solutions if ac < 0. So when proving a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a ̸= 0)
has solutions, usually the following methods are used:
Method 1. Proving that ∆ ≥ 0.
Example 3. Show that the following equation has solutions for all a and b:

(a + 1)x2 − 2(a + b)x + (b − 1) = 0. (1)

Solution.
– When a ̸= −1, equation (1) is a quadratic, and has solutions if

∆′ = (a + b)2 − (a + 1)(b − 1) ≥ 0.

Let a + 1 = m, b − 1 = n, so a + b = m + n. Then

′ 2 2
 n 2 3n2
2
∆ = (m + n) − mn = m + mn + n = m + + ≥ 0.
2 4
Therefore (1) has solutions when a ̸= −1.
– When a = −1, equation (1) becomes

−2(b − 1)x = −(b − 1). (2)

1
If b ̸= 1, (2) has solution x = . If b = 1, (2) has infinite solutions.
2
Conclusion. The given equation has solutions for all a, b.
Method 2. Proving ac < 0 (If ac < 0 then ∆ = b2 − 4ac > 0).
Example 4. Show that the following equation has solutions for all m:

x2 − 3m2 − 5m + 1 x − m2 − 4m + 5 = 0.



(1)

Solution.
The product ac = − m2 − 4m + 5 = −(m − 2)2 − 1 < 0.

So equation (1) has solutions for all m.

Note.

4
 a) If ac ≤ 0 with a ̸= 0 we also have ∆ ≥ 0 so the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has solutions.
b) Only having ac ≤ 0 does not guarantee that the equation ax2 +bx+c = 0 has solutions. For example,
consider the equation m2 x2 − mx − 2 = 0, ac = −2m2 ≤ 0 but when m = 0 the equation becomes
0x = 2 with no solutions.
So when we have ac ≤ 0, we must consider two cases: a ̸= 0 and a = 0.

3. Rational solutions of quadratic equations

Example 5. Given the equation
x2 + mx + n = 0 (1)
where m and n are integers.
a) Show that if equation (1) has rational solutions then those solutions are also integers.
b) Find rational solutions of equation (1) with m = 3.
Solution.
a) If (1) has solution x = 0 then the proof is complete.
a
If (1) has rational solution x = ̸= 0 with a ∈ Z, a ̸= 0, b ∈ N*, (|a|, b) = 1:
b
 a 2 a
Substituting into (1) gives + m · + n = 0 therefore a2 = −mab − nb2 = −b(ma + nb).
b b
.
Therefore a2 .. b. Since (|a|, b) = 1 therefore b = 1. So x is an integer.
b) With n = 3 (1) becomes
x2 + mx + 3 = 0. (2)
We have ∆ = m2 − 12.
(2) has rational solutions ⇔ ∆ is a perfect square, meaning

m2 − 12 = k2 (k ∈ N) ⇔ m2 − k2 = 12 ⇔ (m − k)(m + k) = 12.

m + k and m − k are factors of 12, their difference is (m + k) − (m − k) = 2k which is even therefore

m + k and m − k must be both even or both odd. Since their product is even (12) so they are both
even. Note that m + k ≥ m − k so there are only two cases:
( (
m+k = 6 m + k = −2
and
m−k = 2 m − k = −6.

The first case gives m = 4. Equation (2) becomes x2 + 4x + 3 = 0, with solutions x1 = −1, x2 = −3.
The second case gives m = −4. Equation (2) becomes x2 −4x+3 = 0, with solutions x1 = 1, x2 = 3.
Conclusion. When n = 3:
With m = 4, equation (2) has rational solutions −1 and −3.
With m = −4, equation (2) has rational solutions 1 and 3.
With m ̸= ±4, equation (2) has no rational solutions.

5
Note. Equation (2) can be solved by using Vieta’s formulas (§3). If (2) has rational solutions then they are
also integers (according to part a)) which multiply to 3 and add to −m. Then the solutions are −1 and −3
(then m = 4) or 1 and 3 (then m = −4).

4. Integer solutions of quadratic equations

Example 6. Find integers n so that the solutions of the following equation are integers:

x2 − (4 + n)x + 2n = 0. (1)

Solution.
We have ∆ = (4 + n)2 − 8n = n2 + 16 > 0.
If solutions of equation (1) are integers then n2 + 16 must be a perfect square.
Let n2 + 16 = k2 (k ∈ N), we have n2 − k2 = −16 ⇔ (n + k)(n − k) = −16.
We see that (n + k) − (n − k) = 2k which is even, so n + k and n − k must be either both odd or both even.
Since their product is even (−16) they are both even.
Since n + k ≥ n − k, we have the following cases:

n+k 8 2 4
n−k −2 −8 −4
n 3 −3 0

With n = 3 equation (1) becomes x2 − 7x + 6 = 0, solutions are 1 and 6.

With n = −3 equation (1) becomes x2 − x − 6 = 0, solutions are −2 and 3.
With n = 0 equation (1) becomes x2 − 4x = 0, solutions are 0 and 4.
So the given equation has integer solutions when n ∈ {3; −3; 0}.

5. Relationships between solutions of two given quadratic equations

Example 5. Find values of a so that the two following equations share at least one common solution:

x2 + ax + 8 = 0, (1)

x2 + x + a = 0. (2)
Solution.
Let x0 be the common solution to both equations, then we have

x20 + ax0 + 8 = 0 and x20 + x0 + a = 0 (*)

therefore (a − 1)x0 + 8 − a = 0.

6
 a−8
– If a ̸= 1 then x0 = . Substitute into (*) and simplifying we get:
a−1
a3 − 24a + 72 = 0 ⇔ (a + 6) a2 − 6a + 12 = 0 ⇔ a = −6.

When a = −6 then (1) becomes x2 − 6x + 8 = 0, solutions are 2 and 4; (2) becomes x2 + x − 6 = 0,

solutions are 2 and −3. So the common solution of (1) and (2) is 2.
– If a = 1 then (1) becomes x2 + x + 8 = 0, (2) becomes x2 + x + 1 = 0. Both equations have no
solutions.
Conclusion. When a = −6 then (1) and (2) share a common solution.

EXERCISES
Quadratic equations
6. Given the equation
mx2 + 6(m − 2)x + 4m − 7 = 0.
Find values of m so that the given equation has

a) One repeated solution; b) Two distinct solutions; c) No solution.

7. Solve the following equations where m is a parameter:

a) x2 − mx − 3(m + 3) = 0; b) mx2 − 4x + 4 = 0.

8. Find values of m, knowing that the equation x2 + mx + 12 = 0 has two solutions with a difference
of 1.
√ a
9. Given positive numbers a, b satisfying a + b = 4 ab. Work out .
b
2 2


10. Find x and y given that 2 x + 1 + y = 2y(x + 1).
a(b − c) b(c − a)
11. Find a positive number x, knowing that x = = .
b(c − a) c(b − a)
Conditions for a quadratic equation to have solutions
12. Find values of m so the following equations have solutions:

a) m2 − m x2 + 2mx + 1 = 0; b) (m + 1)x2 − 2x + (m − 1) = 0.

13. Prove that the following equations have solutions for all a and b:
a) x(x − a) + x(x − b) + (x − a)(x − b) = 0;
b) x2 + (a + b)x − 2 a2 − ab + b2 = 0.

14. Prove that the following equations have solutions for all a, b and c:
a) 3x2 − 2(a + b + c)x + (ab + bc + ca) = 0;
b) (x − a)(x − b) + (x − b)(x − c) + (x − c)(x − a) = 0.

7
 15. Show that if a, b, c are non-zero numbers then one of the following equations will have solutions:
ax2 + 2bx + c = 0, bx2 + 2cx + a = 0, cx2 + 2ax + b = 0.
16. Show that the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a ̸= 0) has solutions, knowing that 5a + 2b = c.
17. Let a, b, c be the side lengths of a triangle. Prove that the following equation has solutions:

a2 + b2 − c2 x2 − 4abx + a2 + b2 − c2 = 0.

18. Prove that the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a ̸= 0) has solutions if 2b ≥ c + 4a.

19. Prove that if bm = 2(c +n) then at least one of the following equations has solutions: x2 +bx +c = 0
and x2 + mx + n = 0.
Rational solutions of quadratic equations
20. Let a, b, c be rational numbers, a ̸= 0 and |b| = |a + c|. Show that the solutions of the equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0 are rational.
21. Show that the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has no rational solutions, if:

a) a, b, c are odd integers; b) abc is a prime number.

22. Find integer values of m so that the solutions of the following equation are rational:

mx2 − 2(m − 1)x + (m − 4) = 0.

Integer solutions of quadratic equations

23. Find integers n so that the solutions of the following equation are also integers:

x2 − (n + 4)x + (4n − 25) = 0.

24. Find a prime number p, given that the equation x2 + px − 12p = 0 has two integer solutions.
1 1 1
25. Given pairwise coprime positive integers a, b, c satisfying + = . Prove that a + b is a perfect
a b c
square.
26. Find positive integers a, b, c so that the equations x2 − ax + b = 0, x2 − 2bx + c = 0, x2 − cx + a = 0
all have integer solutions.
Relationships between solutions of two given quadratic equations
27. Find values of m so that the two following equations share at least one common solution:
a) x2 + 2x + m = 0 and x2 + mx + 2 = 0;
b) x2 + mx + 1 = 0 and x2 − x − m = 0;
28. Find values of m so that the two following equations share at least one common solution:
a) x2 + (m − 2)x + 3 = 0 and 2x2 + mx + (m + 2) = 0;
b) 2x2 + (3m − 5)x − 9 = 0 and 6x2 + (7m − 15)x − 19 = 0.

8
 29. Find integer values of m so that the two following equations share at least one common solution:

2x2 + (3m − 1)x − 3 = 0, (1)

6x2 − (2m − 3)x − 1 = 0. (2)

30. Find values of m such that one solution of the equation

2x2 − 13x + 2m = 0 (1)

is twice a solution of the equation

x2 − 4x + m = 0. (2)

31. Given equations:

ax2 + bx + c = 0, (1)
cx2 + bx + a = 0. (2)
Know that equation (1) has positive solution m, show that equation (2) has solution n so that
m + n ≥ 2.
∼ Examples: 37, 49 to 51, 53 to 55.
Exercises: 124 to 126, 147, 148, 151 to 153, 155 to 160.

§3. Vieta’s formulas and their applications

1. Vieta’s formulas
b
If the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a ̸= 0) has solutions (∆ ≥ 0) then their sum is − and their
a
c
product is .
a
Applications
a) Efficiently finding solutions: Given the equation

ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a ̸= 0) (1)
c
– If a + b + c = 0 then (1) has solutions x1 = 1; x2 = .
a
c
– If a − b + c = 0 then (1) has solutions x1 = −1; x2 = − .
a
b c
b) Determining the sign of solutions: Given the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a ̸= 0). Let S = − , P = .
a a
Then we have:

P<0 Solutions with opposite signs

∆≥0 S > 0: Two positive solutions
Solutions with same signs
and P > 0 S < 0: Two negative solutions

9
2. Find two numbers knowing their sum and product
To find two numbers given their sum S and product P, we solve the equation x2 − Sx + P = 0.
Example 8. Given an equation with parameter m:

mx2 − 2(m + 1)x + (m − 4) = 0. (1)

a) Find m so that equation (1) has solutions.

b) Find m for equation (1) to have two solutions with opposite signs. Between those two solutions,
which has the greater absolute value?
c) Determine m for solutions x1 , x2 of (1) to satisfy 4x1 + x2 = 3.
d) Find an identity relating x1 , x2 not depending on m.
Solution.
a) With m = 0 then (1) is −2x − 4 = 0, with solution x = −2.
With m ̸= 0 then (1) is a quadratic, ∆′ = (m + 1)2 − m(m − 4) = 6m + 1. Equation (1) has solutions
1
when and only when ∆′ ≥ 0, meaning m ≥ − .
6
1
Conclusion. (1) has solutions when m ≥ − .
6
2(m + 1) m−4
b) According to Vieta’s formulas, S = ,P= .
m m
m−4
The condition for (1) two have solutions with opposing signs is: P < 0 ⇔ < 0 ⇔ 0 < m < 4.
m
Then, because 0 < m < 4 therefore S > 0, therefore the positive solution has the greater absolute
value.
c) We have:

2(m + 1)

 x1 + x2 = (2)
m





x x = m − 4



1 2 (3)
m




 x1 + 4x2 = 3 (4)


m ≥ − 1


(5)

6
m−2 5m + 8
From (2) and (4) we get x2 = , x1 = .
3m 3m
(m − 2)(5m + 8) m − 4
Substitute into (3): = .
9m2 m
1
Simplifying the above yields 2m2 − 17m + 8 = 0, therefore m1 = 8; m2 = , satisfying condition
2
(5).

10
  
1
So when m ∈ ;8 equation (1) has solutions satisfying the identity.
2
1 2 4
d) With m ≥ − , we have x1 + x2 = 2 + , x1 x2 = 1 − .
6 m m
2
Substituting = x1 + x2 − 2 into the expression where x1 x2 is the subject, we get
m
x1 x2 = 1 − 2 (x1 + x2 − 2).
Therefore x1 x2 = 5 − 2 (x1 + x2 ).
Example 9. Given the equation mx2 − 2(m − 2)x + (m − 3) = 0. Find values of m so that the solutions x1 ,
x2 of the equation satisfy x21 + x22 = 1.
Solution.
The conditions for the equation to have two solutions (distinct or repeated) are m ̸= 0, ∆′ ≥ 0.

∆′ = (m − 2)2 − m(m − 3) = −m + 4; ∆′ ≥ 0 ⇔ m ≤ 4.

With 0 ̸= m ≤ 4, the equation has solutions x1 , x2 . Applying Vieta’s formulas:

2(m − 2) m−3
x1 + x2 = , x1 x2 = .
m m

Therefore
4(m − 2)2 2(m − 3)
1 = x21 + x22 = (x1 + x2 )2 − 2x1 x2 = −
m2 m
⇔ m2 = 4m2 − 16m + 16 − 2m2 + 6m
⇔ 0 = m2 − 10m + 16
⇔m=2 or m = 8.

m = 8 does not satisfy the condition 0 ̸= m ≤ 4. Therefore m = 2.

Example 10. Given the equation x+ 2mx + (m − 2) = 0. Find values of m so that the solutions x1 , x2 of
the equation satisfy |x1 | + |x2 | = 4.
Solution.
1 2
 
3
∆′ = m2 − m + 2 = m− + 1 > 0 so the given equation has solutions x1 , x2 .
2 4
According to Vieta’s formulas, x1 + x2 = −2m, x1 x2 = m − 2.

|x1 | + |x2 | = 4 ⇔ x21 + x22 + 2 |x1 x2 | = 16

⇔ (x1 + x2 )2 − 2x1 x2 + 2 |x1 x2 | = 16

⇔ 2m2 − x1 x2 + |x1 x2 | = 8. (1)

Consider x1 x≥ 0, then m − 2 ≥ 0, (1) is 2m2 = 8 ⇔ m = ±2. Choose m = 2.

11
Consider x1 x2 < 0 then m − 2 ≥ 0, (1) is

2m2 − 2x1 x2 = 8
⇔ m2 − (m − 2) − 4 = 0
⇔ m2 − m − 2 = 0
⇔ m = −1 or m = 2. Choose m = −1.

Conclusion. m ∈ {2; −1}.

Example 11. Given the equation x2 + ax + b = 0 with solutions c and d, the equation x2 + cx + d = 0 with
solutions a and b. Find a, b, c, d knowing that they are nonzeros.
Solution.
Applying Vieta’s formulas to the equations, we get:

c + d = −a (1)

cd = b (2)
a + b = −c (3)
ab = d (4)
From (1) we get a + c = −d. From (3) we get a + c = −b. Therefore b = d.
From (2), since b = d ̸= 0, we have c = 1. From (4), since b = d ̸= 0, we have a = 1.
Substituting a = c = 1 into (1) gives d = −2, therefore b = −2.
Example 12. Given the equation
x2 + 5x − 1 = 0. (1)
Without solving the equation, create a quadratic equation whose solutions are the fourth power of the
solution of equation (1).
Solution.
We see that equation (1) has solutions. Let x1 , x2 be the solutions of (1), we have x1 +x2 = −5, x1 x2 = −1.
Let y1 , y2 be the solutions of the required equation, we have y1 + y2 = x41 + x42 , y1 y2 = x41 x42 .
We have
x21 + x22 = (x1 + x2 )2 − 2x1 x2 = 25 + 2 = 27.
Therefore
2
y1 + y2 = x41 + x42 = x21 + x22 − 2x21 x22 = 729 − 2 = 727
y1 y2 = (x1 x2 )4 = (−1)4 = 1.

The required equation has solutions with sum 727 and product 1 so it is in the form y2 − 727y + 1 = 0.

12
 EXERCISES
32. Efficiently find solutions:

a) mx2 − 2(m − 1)x + (m − 2) = 0; b) (m − 1)x2 + (m + 1)x + 2 = 0.

33. Without solving the equation, consider the sign of solutions (if any):

a) 3x2 − 7x + 2 = 0; b) 5x2 + 3x − 1 = 0;
c) 2x2 + 13x + 8 = 0; d) 4x2 − 11x + 8 = 0.

34. The equation x2 + mx + 8 = 0 has solutions x1 , x2 . Prove that

√
|x1 + x2 | > 4 2.

35. Determine values of m so the following equation have distinct solutions with the same sign:
(m − 1)x2 − 2x + 3 = 0.

36. Find values of a so the two solutions of the equation x2 − 45x + a = 0 are prime.
37. Solve the equation x2 − mx + n = 0, given that the equation has two distinct positive solutions and
m, n are primes.
38. Let x1 , x2 be the solutions of the equation 2x2 − 3x − 5 = 0. Without solving the equation, work out:
1 1
a) + ; b) (x1 − x2 )2 ; c) x31 + x32 .
x1 x2
39. Given the equation x2 − 2(m − 2)x + m2 + 2m − 3 = 0. Find values of m so that two distinct

solutions x1 , x2 of the equation satisfy

1 1 x1 + x 2
+ = .
x1 x2 5

40. Given the equation

x2 − 2mx + (4m − 1) = 0.
Find values of m so that the solutions x1 , x2 (x1 > x2 ) of the equation satisfy x1 − x2 = 2.
2
41. Given the √ x + mx − 3 = 0. Find values of m so that the solutions x1 , x2 of the equation
√ equation
satisfy −x1 = 3x2 .
42. Given the equation x2 + mx + n = 0 where 3m2 = 16n. Show that between the two solutions of the
equation, one is three times more the other.
43. Given the equation x2 − (m + 2)x + (2m − 1) = 0 with solutions x1 , x2 . Create an identity relating
x1 , x2 independent from m.
44. Find two numbers, know that:
a) Their sum is 2, their product is −1.
b) Their sum is 1, their product is 5.

13
45. Form a quadratic equation with the following solutions:
√ √ √ √
a) 3 and 2 3; b) 2 − 3 and 2 + 3.

1 1
46. Given that x + = 2 and y + = 3. Without solving for x and y, evaluate
x y
x y
A= + .
y x

47. Show that there exist a quadratic equation with rational coefficients which has one solution being:
√ √ √ √
3− 5 2+ 3 √ √
a) √ √ ; b) √ √ ; c) 2 + 3.
3+ 5 2− 3
48. Form a quadratic equation with solutions
a) the square of the solutions of the equation x2 − 2x − 1 = 0;
b) the reciprocal of the solutions of the equation x2 + mx − 2 = 0.
49. Determine numbers m, n so that the solutions of the equation x2 + mx + n = 0 is also m and n.
√ 
A 2+1
50. Show that there exist polynomials A(x) and B(x) with integer coefficients so that √  is
B 2+1
equal to:
√
a) 2; b) 2.

51. Given pairwise distinct numbers a, b, c and c ̸= 0. Know that equations

x2 + ax + bc = 0 (1)

and
x2 + bx + ca = 0 (2)
share at least one solution.
a) Find the remaining solutions of the two equations.
b) Show that the remaining solutions are also solutions to the equation cx2 + bx + a = 0.
52. Given equations:
ax2 + bx + c = 0 (1)
and
cx2 + dx + a = 0. (2)
Know that equation (1) has solutions m and n, equation (2) has solutions p and q. Show that
m2 + n2 + p2 + q2 ≥ 4.

14
53*. Given equations:
ax2 + bx + c = 0 (1)
and
cx2 + bx + a = 0. (2)
Find an identity relating a, b, c know that the solutions x1 , x2 of equation (1) and the solutions x3 ,
x4 of equation (2) satisfy
x21 + x22 + x23 + x42 = 4.

54. Given equations x2 + bx + c = 0 with solutions x1 , x2 and x2 − b2 x + bc = 0 with solutions x3 , x4 .

Know that x3 − x1 = x4 − x2 = 1. Find b and c.
55*. Find numbers a, b so that equations x2 + ax + 6 = 0 and x2 + bx + 12 = 0 share at least one solution
and |a| + |b| is minimized.
56*. Let x1 , x2 be the solutions to the equation x2 − 6x + 1 = 0. Also let sn = xn1 + xn2 where n is a positive
integer.
a) Calculate s1 , s2 , s3 .
b) Find an identity relating sn , sn+1 , sn+2 .
c) Prove that sn is an integer for all positive integers n.
d) Find the remainder when s50 is divided by 5.
∼ Examples: 38 to 41, 56, 57.
Exercises: 127 to 136.

§4. Reducing equations into quadratic equations

I. Higher-degree algebraic equations
An algebraic equation with degree n is any equation in the form
an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ... + a1 x + a0 = 0,
where n is a positive integer, x is the unknown, a1 , a2 ,..., an are given real numbers, an ̸= 0.
Algebraic equations with degree n are commonly solved by reducing them into linear and quadratic equa-
tions.
The following are common methods to solve equations with a degree higher than 2.
1. Factorization
Example 13. Solve the equation √ √
x3 + 2x2 + 2 2x + 2 2 = 0.
Solution.
 √  √
x3 + 2x x3 + 2 + 23 = 0
 √  √   √ 
⇔ x + 2 x2 − x 2 + 2 + 2x x + 2 = 0
 √ h  √  i
⇔ x + 2 x2 + 2 − 2 + 2 = 0.

15
 √ √
The equation x + 2 = 0 has solution x = − 2.
 √ 
The equation x2 + 2 − 2 x + 2 = 0 has no solutions (because ∆ < 0).
√
The given equation has one solution x = − 2.
2. Substitution
√ 3
Example 14. Solve the equation 2x + 3x2 − 2 = 0.
Solution.
√ √
The given equation is equivalent to 2 2x3 + 3 · 2x2 − 4 = 0. Let y = x 2, the equation becomes
 √
 2
y=1  x=
y3 + 3y2 − 4 = 0 ⇔ (y − 1)(y − 2)2 = 0 ⇔ ⇔ 2
y = −2 √
x = − 2.
√
2 √
Conclusion. The equation has two solutions: and − 2.
2
Example 15. Solve:
a) x4 + 3x3 + 4x2 + 3x + 1 = 0; (1)
b) x5 − x4 + 3x3 + 3x2 − x + 1 = 0. (2)
Solution.
a) We see that x = 0 is not a solution of equation (1). Divide both sides of equation (1) by x2 ̸= 0, we
get:    
2 3 1 2 1 1
x + 3x + 4 + + 2 = 0 ⇔ x + 2 + 3 x + + 4 = 0.
x x x x
1 1
Let x + = y then x2 + 2 = y2 − 2, we get y2 + 3y + 2 = 0. Therefore y1 = −1; y2 = −2.
x x
1
When y = −1, we have x + = −1 then x2 + x + 1 = 0, no solutions.
x
1
When y = −2 we have x + = −2 then (x + 1)2 = 0, therefore x = −1.
x
Conclusion. S = {−1}.
Note. Equation (1) can also be solved by factoring into

(x + 1)2 x2 + x + 1 .

b) We see that x = −1 is a solution of equation (2) because the sum of the coefficients of even power
terms is equal to the sum of the coefficients of odd power terms. Factor (2) into

(x + 1) x4 − 2x3 + 5x2 − 2x + 1 = 0.

We now solve the equation

x4 − 2x3 + 5x2 − 2x + 1 = 0. (3)

16
 We see that x = 0 is not a solution of equation (3). Divide both sides of (3) by x2 ̸= 0, we get:
   
2 2 1 2 1 1
x − 2x + 5 − + 2 = 0 ⇔ x + 2 − 2 x + + 5 = 0.
x x x x
1 1
Let x + = y then x2 + 2 = y2 − 2, we get y2 − 2y + 3 = 0, no solutions.
x x
Conclusion. S = {−1}.
Remark.
a) The equation in part a) of the form ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + a = 0 (a ̸= 0) is a symmetric quartic
equation. To solve this kind of equation, we divide both sides of the equation by x2 (because x ̸= 0)
1
then use the substitution y = x + . Then
x
1 2
 
2 2 1
y = x + 2 = x2 + 2 + 2 ≥ 2 + 2 = 4, therefore |y| ≥ 2.
x x
1
Note that if m is a solution to the symmetric equation then is also a solution.
m
b) An odd degree symmetric equation (like the symmetric quintic equation ax5 + bx4 + cx3 + cx2 +
bx + a = 0) always have −1 as a solution. Therefore we can factor to reduce it to an even degree
symmetric equation.
c) The method of dividing both sides of an equation by x2 ̸= 0 also applies to equations in the form
 2
4 3 2 e d
ax + bx + cx + dx + e = 0 where = ,
a b
d
which are regressed equations. The general substitution is y = x + .
bx
Example 16. Solve the equation

4(x + 5)(x + 6)(x + 10)(x + 12) = 3x2 . (1)

Solution.
Method 1.

(1) ⇔ 4 x2 + 17x + 60 x2 + 16x + 60 = 3x2

  
60 60
⇔ 4 x + 17 + x + 16 + = 3 (because x ̸= 0). (2)
x x
60
Let x + 16 + = y then (2) becomes
x
1 3
4y(y + 1) = 3 ⇔ 4y2 + 4y − 3 = 0 ⇔ y = ; y = − .
2 2
1 15
With y = we have 2x2 + 31x + 120 = 0 ⇔ x = −8; x = − .
2 2
17
 √
3 −35 ± 265
With y = − we have 2x2 + 35x + 120 = 0 ⇔ x = .
2 4
Method 2.
Let x2 + 16.5x + 60 = y from which the equation becomes y2 = x2 .
Consider the two cases y = x and y = −x to get the four solutions of the equation.
Remark.
a) Equation (1) is in the form (x + a)(x + b)(x + c)(x + d) = mx2 where ad = bc. We group

[(x + a)(x + d)][(x + b)(x + c)] = mx2 .

ad
The substitution can be y = x + (or with an additional constant like method 1) or
x
y = (x + a)(x + d) (like method 2).
a+b+c
b) With equations in the form d(x + a)(x + b)(x + c) = mx (see Exercise 65b) where d = ,
2
m = (d − a)(d − b)(d − c), substitute y = x + d. The equation always have one solution x = 0.
c) For equations in the form (x + a)(x + b)(x + c)(x + d) = m where a + d = b + c (see Exercises 64a,
b, c, d) we group
[(x + a)(x + d)][(x + b)(x + c)] = m,
the substitution can be followed from there.
d) For equations in the form (x + a)4 + (x + b)4 = c (see Exercises 66b, c, d) we use the substitution
a+b
y = x+ .
2
Example 17. Solve the equation

x4 + (x − 1) x2 + 2x + 2 = 0.


(1)

Solution.
Method 1.
(1) ⇔ x4 + x2 (x − 1) − 2(x − 1)2 = 0.
Let y = x2 , z = x − 1 we have y2 + yz − 2z2 = 0 ⇔ (y − 3)(y + 2z) = 0.
With y − z = 0 then x2 − x + 1, no solutions.
√
With y + 2z = 0 then x2 + 2x − 2 = 0 ⇔ x = −1 ± 3.
Method 2.
x = 1 does not satisfy the equation. Dividing both sides of (1) by (x − 1)2 yields
2 2
x2 x2 − 2(x − 1) x2 x2
 
+ =0⇔ + − 2 = 0.
x−1 x−1 x−1 x−1

x2

2 y=1
Let = y, we have y + y − 2 = 0 ⇔
x−1 y = −2.

18
When y = 1 then x2 = x − 1 ⇔ x2 − x + 1 = 0, no solutions.
√
When y = −2 then x2 = −2(x − 1) ⇔ x2 + 2x − 2 = 0 ⇔ −1 ± 3.
3. Bringing both sides to indices of the same power
Example 18. Solve the equation x4 = 24x + 32.
Solution.
Add 4x2 + 4 to both sides to get x4 + 4x2 + 4 = 4x2 + 24x + 36
"
2

2 2 x2 + 2 = 2x + 6 (1)
⇔ x + 2 = (2x + 6) ⇔
x2 + 2 = −2x − 6. (2)
√
Equation (1) has solution x = 1 ± 5, equation (2) has no solutions.
√
Conclusion. The given equation has solution x = 1 ± 5.
Example 19*. Solve the equation
x3 + 3x2 − 3x + 1 = 0.
Solution.
x3 = −3x2 + 3x − 1
⇔ 2x3 = x3 − 3x2 + 3x − 1
 √ 3
3
⇔ x 2 = (x − 1)3
√
3 1
⇔ x· 2 = x−1 ⇔ x = √ .
1− 3 2
1
The given equation has solution x = √ .
1− 3 2

II. Rational equations

Substitution is especially useful when solving rational equations. Without substution, solving what is left
after simplifying will involve complicated higher degree equations. The following examples demonstrate
some common methods.
1. Divide the numerator and denominator of the fractions by x
Example 20. Solve the equation
2x 7x
− = 1.
3x2 − x + 2 3x2 + 5x + 2
Solution.
2
Conditions are x ̸= −1, x ̸= − . We see that x = 0 is not a solution.
3
Dividing the numerator and denominator of both fractions by x ̸= 0 yields
2 7
− = 1.
2 2
3x − 1 + 3x + 5 +
x x
19
 2 2 7
Substituting 3x + 2 + = y, the equation becomes − = 1.
x y−3 y+3
√
−11 ± 97
Condition: y ̸= ±3. The remaining solution is left to the reader. Final answer. x = .
6
Note. The method above is used for equations of any of the following types:
mx nx
a) Type 1. 2 + 2 = p.
ax + bx + d ax + cx + d
ax2 + mx + c ax2 + px + c
b) Type 2. + = 0.
ax2 + nx + c ax2 + qx + c
ax2 + mx + c px
c) Type 3. 2
+ 2 = 0.
ax + nx + c ax + qx + c
In each type, the quadratic trinomials featured have equal leading coefficients and equal constants.
2. Completing the square on each side (rewriting the equation into the form A2 = B2 )
Example 21. Solve the equation
4x2
x2 + = 12. (1)
(x + 2)2
Solution.
Condition: x ̸= −2.
2x 2
 
To rewrite the equation into the form x + 2 − = B2 , we add 4 to both sides.
x+2
 2
2 2x
(1) ⇔ x + 4x + 4 − 4x + = 16
x+2

2x 2
 
2 2x
⇔ (x + 2) − 2(x + 2) · + = 16
x+2 x+2

2x
2 x + 2 − =4 (1)
x+2

2x 
⇔ x+2− = 16 ⇔ 

x+2  2x
x+2− = −4. (2)
x+2
√ √
(2) has solution x = 1 ± 5, (3) has no solutions. Therefore x = 1 ± 5.
3. Finding relationships between two substitutions
Example 22. Solve the equation
2 2
x2 − 4
 
x−2 x+2
20 −5 + 48 · = 0. (1)
x+1 x−1 x2 − 1

Solution.

20
 x+2 x−2
Condition is x ̸= ±1. Set = y, = z, we get
x−1 x+1
20y2 − 5z2 + 48yz = 0. (2)

Method 1.
If z = 0 then y = 0, invalid.
If z ̸= 0, divide both sides of (2) by z2 to get
 y 2 y
20 + 48 · − 5 = 0. (3)
z z
y 1 5 2
Let = a, we get a = , a = − . From there we can find y, z, x. Answer. x = 3, x = .
z 10 2 3
Method 2.
(2) ⇔ (10y − z)(2y + 5z) = 0. From there, find x.

III. Irrational equations

Example 23. Solve the equation √
x2 − 1 = 2 2x + 1.
Solution.
1
Condition: x ≥ − . Add 2x + 2 to both sides:
2
√
x2 − 1 + 2x + 2 = 2x + 1 + 2 2x + 1 + 1
√
" √
2
2 x + 1 = 2x + 1 + 1
⇔ (x + 1) = 2x + 1 + 1 ⇔ √
x + 1 = − 2x + 1 − 1
" √
x + 1 = 2x + 1 (1)
⇔ √
x + 2 = − 2x + 1 (2)
(
x≥0 √
(1) ⇔ Solve x2 − 2x − 1 = 0 to get x = 1 + 2.
x2 = 2x + 1.
(
x+2 ≤ 0
(2) ⇔ Solving x2 + 2x + 3 = 0 yields no solutions.
x2 + 4x + 4 = 2x + 1.
√
So x = 1 + 2.
Example 24. Given the equation
√ √
18x + 44 − 6x + 8 = 2x + 6. (1)

Spot the mistake in the following attempted solution.

4
Condition: x ≥ − . (2)
3

21
Multiply then divide (1) by the conjugate of the LHS to get

(18x + 44) − (6x + 8) 12x + 36

√ √ = 2x + 6 ⇔ √ √ = 2x + 6
18x + 44 + 6x + 8 18x + 44 + 6x + 8
"
x+3 x+3 x+3 = 0 (3)
⇔√ √ = ⇔ √ √
18x + 44 + 6x + 8 6 18x + 44 + 6x + 8 = 6. (4)
Solving (3) yields x = −3, invalid because x does not satisfy (2).
Solving (4) and combining with (1), we get
(√ √
18x + 44 + 6x + 8 = 6
√ √
18x + 44 − 6x + 8 = 2x + 6

√ 6 + (2x + 6)
therefore 18x + 44 = = x + 6.
2
Because of (2), x + 6 > 0. We have

18x + 44 = (x + 6)2
⇔ 18x + 44 = x2 + 12x + 36
⇔ x2 − 6x − 8 = 0
√
⇔ x = 3 ± 17, satisfying (2).
√
So the solution to equation (1) is x = 3 ± 17.
Solution.
Applying the rules of finding two numbers given sum and product, we get
√ 6 + (2x + 6) √ 6 − (2x + 6)
18x + 44 = = x+6 and 6x + 8 = = x.
2 2
Therefore (√ √ (√ √
18x + 44 + 6x + 8 = 6 18x + 44 + 6x + 8 = 6
√ √ ⇔ √ √
18x + 44 − 6x + 8 = 2x + 6 18x + 44 − 6x + 8 = −x.
The condition for x does not only also have x + 6 ≥ 0 but also includes −x ≥ 0 (meaning x ≤ 0). So the
4 √ √
condition is − ≤ x ≤ 0. x = 3 + 17 is invalid because x > 0, choose x = 3 − 17.
3
Example 25. Solve the equation s r
1 1
x + x + + x + = 2.
2 4
Solution.
r
1 1 1
Condition: x ≥ − . Let x+ = y ≥ 0 then x = y2 − .
4 4 4

22
Substitute into the equation while noting that y ≥ 0, we get
r
1 1 1 1
y2 − + y2 + + y = 2 ⇔ y2 − + y + = 2
4 4 4 2
1 2 √ 2
 
2 1
⇔ y +y+ = 2 ⇔ y+ = 2 .
4 2
1 √ √ 1
Because y ≥ 0, y + = 2 therefore y = 2 − .
2 2
2
√ √

1 1 1
Then x = 2− − = 2 − 2, satisfying x ≥ − .
2 4 4
√
The solution to the equation is x = 2 − 2.
Example 26. Solve the equation
1 1
+√ = 2.
x 2 − x2
Solution.
√ √
Conditions: x ̸= 0, − 2 < x < 2. (1)
Let p
2 − x2 = y > 0 (2)
1 1
therefore 2 − x2 = y2 . Then x2 + y2 = 2 and + = 2.
x y
Let S = x + y, P = xy. The conditions then become S2 − 2P = 2 and S = 2P.
1
It is easy to find P = 1, S = 2 and P = − , S = −1.
2
With P = 1, S = 2, x, y are solutions to X2 − 2X + 1 = 0. We get X = 1 therefore x = 1, y = 1 which
satisfies (1) and (2).
√
1 −1 ± 3
With P = − , S = −1, x, y are solutions to 2X2 + 2X − 1 = 0. We get X = . Because y > 0,
2 2
√ √
−1 − 3 −1 + 3
x= ;x= .
2 2
√
−1 − 3
Conclusion. The solutions to the equation are x = 1; x = .
2
Example 25. Solve and analyse the equation
√
q
a − a + x = x (a is a parameter).
Solution.
√ √
Substitute a + x = y, the equation becomes a − y = x. This is equivalent to the system

x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0

 (1)
x2 = a − y (2)

 2
y = a + x. (3)

23
Cancelling a from (2) and (3) yields

x2 − y2 = −(x + y)
⇔ (x + y)(x − y + 1) = 0
⇔ y = −x or y = x + 1.

a) The case y = −x. Since x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0, x = y = 0. So a = 0.

b) The case y = x + 1. Substitute into (3):

(x + 1)2 = a + x ⇔ x2 + x + 1 − a = 0. (4)
√ √
−1 ± 4a − 3 3 −1 − 4a − 3
(4) has solution x = − with a ≥ . Because of (1), x = − is invalid.
2 4 2
√
−1 + 4a − 3
Solving the condition x = − ≥ 0 yields a ≥ 1.
2
Conclusion. If a = 0, the equation has one solution x = 0.
√
−1 + 4a − 3
If a ≥ 1, the equation has solution x = − .
2
If 0 ̸= a < 1, the equation has no solutions.

IV. Other types

Example 28. Find values of m so that there exist numbers x, y satisfying equations

4x − 3y = 7 (1)

and
2x2 + 5y2 = m. (2)
Solution.
Make x the subject in (1), substitute into (2) and simplify to get

49y2 + 42y + (49 − 8m) = 0. (3)

From (1) we see that if y exists, x also exists. Therefore we only need to find the condition for (3) to have
solutions. We need to have

∆′ ≥ 0 ⇔ 212 − 49(49 − 8m) ≥ 0 ⇔ 9 − (49 − 8m) ≥ 0 ⇔ m ≥ 5.

So there exists x, y satisfying equations (1) and (2) when m ≥ 5.

Example 29. Find pairs (x, y) satisfying both equations:

x2 + y2 + x + y = 18 and xy(x + 1)(y + 1) = 72.

Solution.
Let x(x + 1) = a, y(y + 1) = b, then a + b = 18 and ab = 72.

24
We have a and b as solutions to the equation X2 − 18X + 72 = 0, hence X ∈ {12, 6}.
When X = 12, x(x + 1) = 12 ⇔ x2 + x − 12 = 0 therefore x ∈ {3, − 4}.
When X = 6, x(x + 1) = 6 ⇔ x2 + x − 6 = 0 therefore x ∈ {2, − 3}.
Answer. (3, 2), (3, − 3), (−4, 2), (−4, − 3) and all permutations.
Remark. The equations above do not change when x and y are swapped. In this case, we find the product
xy and sum x + y and solve associated quadratic equations.
Example 30. Find pairs

25