GRAMMAR FILE UNIT 1: review of past tenses past simple

Past Simple - We use used to:

We use the past simple: to talk about past habits and states that have now
- to talk about a completed action (or series of changed.
completed actions) or period in the past. I used to take the bus to secondary school, but now I take the
After breakfast I picked up my bag, ran down the street and train to college.
just caught the 8.15 bus. That block of expensive flats used to be an old factory.
I read my book for ten minutes and then answered some
emails. - We use would:
to talk about past habits (not states), often when the
- to be less direct, more polite and tentative. time frame has been given.
Did you want to go out for a coffee later? I would spend every summer with my gran. (NOT She would
I thought we might grab a sandwich after the film. live in the countryside.)

- Sometimes would suggests an element of nostalgia.

Past Continuous
In my early teens I usually spent a week every summer with
We use the past continuous: my French friend.
- to focus on an activity in progress in the past. On Sundays we'd go to the local market and try to find
I missed your call last night. I was watching a film from 6.00to antiques.
8.00.
While I was watching the film, Danny made some popcorn. - Sometimes it doesn't.
When my best friend was young, she would have to spend
- with always or forever, to emphasise a repeated every Saturday morning cleaning her room and doing other
activity that was also irritating. housework that she hated.
He was always moaning about the service at the IT store.

- to be more polite and tentative. Participle Adjectives and Dependent Prepositions

I was thinking we might go round to see Diane this evening. We use participle adjectives and dependent
i was hoping you could give me a hand with this assignment. prepositions to express a feeling or attitude in
I was wondering if you could give me a lift to the town centre. response to an action or event.
Participles usually end in -ed and can give additional
information introduced through a prepositional phrase.
Past Perfect Simple They were interested in the way he had constructed the
We use the past perfect simple: video.
- to talk about an action that happened before a stated
or implied time in the past. Participle adjectives are usually paired with specific
Tom called me because he'd noticed I hadn't been at college. prepositions (eg. accomplished at, dedicated to). Some
After we'd had a walk in the park, we did some shopping in can take more than one preposition (e.g. alarmed at/by,
town. annoyed about/with) but this can sometimes change the
meaning.
Note: When narrating a story in the past, we do not I was annoyed about the meeting being cancelled. (an event)
usually continue for a long period in the past perfect. I was annoyed with their attitude. (a person or behaviour)
This moves into the past simple as the action or
narration develops, even if the story described is before They can be followed by:
a point in the past. -a noun phrase. The actors were pleased with the
audience's response.
-an -ing clause. My brothers were entertained by watching
Past Perfect Continuous the match.
We use the past perfect continuous to: -a wh-clause. My parents were impressed with how
- focus on the duration of an action before a stated or talented the students were.
implied time in the past.
The bus was late and we'd been waiting for at least an hour Participle adjectives with dependent prepositions can be
by the time it arrived. joined by and into coordinating expressions. When
It was only when Tom mentioned the name of the band that I prepositions are the same we can omit the first one.
realised we'd been talking at cross purposes! I was fascinated (by) and delighted by her sketches.
Jake had a headache because he'd been struggling with
some tricky maths equations all afternoon. When the prepositions are different, both must be used.
We were addicted to and worried about the new Snapchat
feature.

Used To and Would

GRAMMAR FILE UNIT 2: verb patterns: -ing and infinitives

Verb Patterns Determiners and Pronouns
There are several types of verb patterns. This is where We use determiners before nouns to indicate which
the form of the second verb in a sentence depends on thing we are referring to or to talk about quantities or
the first verb: amounts:
- verb + -ing form - with a countable or uncountable noun: some, any. (not)
Please avoid mentioning anything too controversial. enough, half (of), all (of, a lot/lots of, more, most, no, plenty
- verb + preposition + -ing form of, none, other.
He ended up winning all his races in spite of feeling ill. - with a countable noun: a few (= some), few (= almost
- verb + object + infinitive no), (not) many, one (of), both (of), each (of), every either
The supervisor made us rewrite all our weekly reports. (of), neither (of), several, another.
- verb (+ object) + to-infinitive - with an uncountable noun: a little (= at least some). little
I voted to keep the uniform at our school. (= almost none), more, much, less, the whole.

Some verbs can be followed by both the to-infinitive and Many words which are determiners can also be used as
the -ing form. With verbs such as begin, start, continue, pronouns, to replace nouns.
prefer, hate, love and intend, there is little or no Doing some work is better than doing no work. (determiner)
difference in meaning. Doing some work is better than doing none. (pronoun)

However, some verbs change their meaning. Every, no and other cannot be used as pronouns. We
I regret not continuing to learn German when I was at school. use each, none and others instead.
(I didn't continue and now I regret it.) There are six classes with twelve students each.
I regret to tell you that you have not passed your driving test. Sometimes more than one determiner can be used
(You haven't passed and 1am sorry about that -formal.) before a noun.
We want/need to reorganise the classroom. every few/four days many more/other opportunities
(That is our desire/plan.)
The classroom wants/needs reorganising. We use either and neither to talk about two things. We
(The classroom needs to be reorganised.) use each to talk about two or more things. We only use
I like to check with the doctor if I have a heavy cold that every to talk about more than two. All four determiners
continues for ages. are followed by a singular verb.
(I think it's a good idea.) Either of us can drive. Neither of us is old enough to drive.
I like watching TV documentaries about animals. Each of my parents has a car. Every car we had was old.
(I enjoy it.) We use both to talk about two people/things together
The lecturer went on to talk about her experiences in Africa.
and to emphasise that each is included. Both of us
(She talked about one thing and then moved on to
missed the bus.
another topic.) A: Have you got our tickets? B: No, I left both at school.
The lecturer went on talking about Africa for half an hour.
(She continued talking about Africa for half an hour.) We use all to refer to the whole of an amount or thing.
We don't usually use all as a pronoun on its own.
-Ing Form I haven't seen him all day.
As well as after some verbs, we also use the -ing form: We can use all and both after a noun or pronoun and
- after prepositions. after an auxiliary or modal.
I can't believe he left without saying goodbye. My brothers both study medicine. We have both read that
- after phrases. book.
My sister can't stand being in the house on her own at night.
- as a subject. We use (the) whole to refer to all of something, often
Understanding English grammar is certainly not easy. instead of all of. We use none to mean ‘not any amount
of something’ or ‘not one of a group of people or things’.
To-Infinitive We spent the whole day looking for his phone.
As well as after some verbs, we also use the to-
infinitive: Quantifiers
- after nouns. We can use quantifiers as determiners or pronouns,
The boss took the difficult decision to lay off ten workers. depending on their function.
- with only, to show a result. A lot of people enjoy watching football.
We arrived early, only to find that the train had been delayed (determiner - expresses quantity)
A: Would you like some sugar in your coffee? B: Yes, but only
a little, please.
(pronoun - replaces the noun)

We usually need to put of after much, many both all

each none few/a few, little/a little when they are followed
by a pronoun, a determiner or a possessive form.
Much of his talent comes from his mother.
GRAMMAR FILE UNIT 3:

comparative structures - one-syllable adjectives, two-syllable adjectives ending

adjectives in -y: + -er/-est
cooler - the coolest fiercer - the fiercest icier -the iciest
- two-syllable adjectives ending in -ful or -less: + Sometimes he behaves like a child.
more/the most
more harmful - the most harmful as
- three-or more syllable adjectives: + more/the most We use as to talk about a job, role or function.
more colourful - the most colourful She trained as a teacher but now she writes books.
We sometimes use the sofa as a bed when people come to
We use less/the least with adjectives with any number stay.
of syllables. We use as if and as though to make comparisons.
less fierce, the least harmful Tony looked as if/as though he'd been awake all night.
less reasonable - the least reasonable
Some two-syllable adjectives use more/the most. Notes:
more selfish - the most selfish more likely - the most likely - We usually use past or perfect tenses after as if/as
Two-syllable adjectives that are made from past though.
participles also take more/the most. Pamela dresses as if/as though she were a millionaire, which
more tired - the most tired more boring - the most boring she isn't.
Irregular adjectives: good - better - the best, bad - worse - Sometimes we replace as if/as though with like in
- the worst, far - further - the furthest, little - less - the more informal language.
least, much/ many - more - the most You look like you've had a nasty shock.
- We can use as instead of because.
adverbs As it was going to be a long journey, we took plenty of snacks
Adverbs ending in -ly usually form comparatives and to eat on the way.
superlatives with more/the most or less/the least. - We use as in certain phrases:
more loudly - the most loudly more carefully - the most As you know/As we agreed, we're setting off early tomorrow.
carefully less frequently - the least frequently My advice is the same as Karen's - go to the doctor.
Adverbs with the same form as the adjective take -er/- Charities such as Crisis look after the homeless.
est. I see this as a chance to earn some good money before uni.
run faster/the fastest work harder/the hardest
Irregular adverbs: well - better - the best, badly - worse - causative verbs
the worst We use have/get something done:
- to explain the fact that something was or will be done
uses by a third person. Sometimes this is something we
We use comparatives to compare two elements. arrange (e.g. having my hair cut) and sometimes it is out
There aren't as many people here today as there were of our control (e.g. having my wallet stolen).
yesterday. - when we don't necessarily know who or what caused
We can intensify adjectives and adverbs using words the action, or when the person doing the action is not
such as slightly, a bit, by far, much, easily, considerably, important. They had the car fixed.
nowhere near and way more. In general, get is more informal than have.
He's easily the most intelligent student I've ever taught. I'm having my room redecorated. I'm getting my room
We can use comparatives to show two things changing redecorated.
or developing together.
The more frequently you practise, the more proficient you'll We use:
become. - let/make + person/thing + infinitive.
We use comparative (not superlative) adjectives when I don't let my daughter go out during the week.
there are only two elements in a group. - have + person + infinitive.
He's by far the more talented of the two brothers. I had him apologise for his behaviour.
We can repeat a comparative for emphasis. - have + thing + past participle.
People are finding that they have less and less time at home I'm going to have my bedroom painted this weekend.
these days. - get + person + to-infinitive.
There are fewer and fewer courses at university today I got my brother to write my essay for me!
teaching music and arts.
like Other verbs with the same structures are: allow, enable,
We use like (= similar to) to compare two nouns. help, keep sb from, hold, force, require.
GRAMMAR FILE UNIT 4: PRESENT TENSES

present simple Nouns: We can use:

We use the present simple: - one/ones after adjectives, but not for uncountable
- for regular, habitual actions and facts. nouns.
He usually starts the day with a brisk jog. l'd like a small sandwich and she'd like a bigger one.
- to refer to written or spoken attitude or purpose. - demonstrative pronouns without one/ones.
The author supports the social enterprise. Which colour do you like - this or that?
- for dramatic effect when describing sequences of We can replace a noun with a quantifier or determiner
events. (e.g. some, all, each, none, either).
She tears the paper off the present and grins widely. All the students took part in the trek but only some completed
- in commentaries and headlines. it.
The forward picks up the ball and runs with it past Jones.
- to describe two trends together or the natural order of Verbs: We can use:
events. - a form of do to avoid repeating a present or past
As we get older, our ability to learn new languages declines. simple verb.
- for scheduled future events. They work in the same place as my mother does.
The gig starts at 8.30. - do to avoid repeating the main verb in coordinate
- with stative verbs such as think, believe, mean, know clauses and comparisons.
and prefer. Cats don't need as much looking-after as dogs do.
Thomas considers himself an expert on the subject. - so/neither + auxiliary verb + subject with coordinate
clauses, where the action is the same in both.
present continuous My classmate finished her project on time and so did I.
We use the present continuous: - do so, do it or do that to replace a verb phrase which
- for an action in progress now or an action that is describes a single specific action.
developing. I got there but just as I did so/it/that, the lecture finished.
The climate is definitely changing. - verbs like expect, think, believe and imagine with so,
- for an action that is in progress, not necessarily at this to avoid repeating the preceding information.
moment. A: Is he bringing his new girlfriend tonight? B: I expect so.
They're talking about extending the port.
- for a temporary action. We can substitute if clauses with if so or if not.
I'm working at the supermarket for a few weeks. We'll see if she's in when we call. If not, we'll catch her
- with always, for a habit that is irritating or viewed tomorrow.
negatively.
Omission
He's always leaving his phone somewhere!
- to illustrate a trend or regular routine.
They're not wearing the clothes to make a statement.
Nouns
- colloquially, with a stative verb. We can omit nouns or pronouns in the second of two
I'm guessing she's left by now. coordinate clauses.
- for a future arrangement. I arrived late and ran straight to the lecture.
We're meeting Brad at 6.15. present perfect simple We do not omit pronouns in subordinate clauses.
I visited my sister because I wanted to meet her friends.
We use the present perfect simple:
- for actions completed at an unspecified past time. Verbs
I've been to New York three or four times.
When two clauses use the same verb, we can omit the
- for an action related to the present. verb.
Newspapers are preferred by the older generation and social
I've washed the car. It looks great.
media by younger people.
- for a time period that is still continuing.
Jacky hasn't spoken to me this morning.
We can omit an infinitive phrase if the meaning is clear
- for something that started in the past and is still and after verbs followed by to-infinitive.
Although we wanted to go to the match, we didn't in the end.
continuing.
We've lived in the same house for fifteen years.
We can omit to after want and would like in if or wh-
- with adverbs such as just, yet, already, ever, never, clauses.
Pick up the laptop whenever you want [to].
since and for.
We've just been given our next assignment.

We use the present perfect continuous to focus on a

continuing activity from a point in the past until the
present or recent past.
- that is still continuing.
You've been staring at that computer screen for hours.
- that has recently finished or has been repeated.
He's shattered because he's been driving all day.
substitution and omission
substitution
GRAMMAR FILE UNIT 5: ways of talking about the present tenses
future We use the present simple for timetabled, organised
events.
future simple The exam starts at 9.30..
We use the future simple for:
- predictions and beliefs (often following I think, I know, We use the present continuous for arrangements.
I'm sure, etc.). They're putting the plan to the shareholders at tomorrow's
Pam and Mike won't arrive before 8.30 - they never do. meeting.
I'm positive you'll get through the exams easily.
- Facts. We use be to for official plans or obligation.
Most stores will be closed over the holiday period. No one is to touch the light switch until it's been checked.
- decisions made when speaking.
Don't worry, I'll ask my dad to pick us up after the film. We use present tenses (including the present perfect)
- an assumption about the present. after time clauses (e.g. clauses with when, before, as
He'll be home right now, sitting in front of the TV with a bag of soon as, once, after).
crisps! When/As soon as they give us the right information, I
complete the forms.
future continuous After/Once we've spoken to the teacher, we'll be able to make
We use the future continuous for: a start on the research.
- an activity that will be in progress at or around a point
of time in the future. We use an infinitive after be due to, be about to, be
Come round this evening. I’ll be doing my homework, but you bound to, be expected to and be hoped to.
can help me! He's due to arrive at 6.30. We're about to break for lunch.
This time next month we'll be working on a completely new They're bound to be late.
project. The government is expected to make an announcement
- an activity that is part of a normal or organized soon.
sequence of events. He's hoped to make a full recovery.
I'll be seeing Tom sometime tomorrow, so I'll tell him to phone
you. verb phrases + prepositions
A fixed phrase is often a verb + a noun/an adjective + a
future perfect simple and continuous preposition that go together.
We use the future perfect simple for: We want to impose a ban on people copying our products.
- an assumption about the present.
The conference will have finished by now.
We can only expand the phrases before the noun. We
- an activity that will be completed before a point in the typically use an adjective or a determiner before the
future. noun.
You need to consider the long-term consequences of your
The storm will have passed by this time tomorrow.
actions.
He addressed most of his comments to Paula, who seemed
We use the future perfect continuous for an activity to agree with him.
that will have been in progress up to a certain point in
the future. We can sometimes substitute the noun in the phrases
We need to hurry. Charlie will have been waiting for ages by as long as the meaning does not change.
the time we get there. We wanted to explain his effect on employee morale.

going to Many nouns are followed by the same prepositions as

We use going to for: their adjective or verb.
- actions that are inevitable or unstoppable. We get complaints about our prices. People complain about
It's going to get dark soon. our prices.
She's going to faint. The book had an influence on his thinking. The book was
- intentions or plans made before the time of speaking. influential on his thinking.
They're going to make everyone pay more tax.
I'm not going to invite Harry because he doesn't get on well Note: There is no rule to explain which prepositions go
with Jenny. with which verbs or nouns. It is important to learn and
record these d complete phrases.
GRAMMAR FILE UNIT 6: conditionals

basic conditional forms We can use the following alternative conditional

structures:
Zero conditional - should instead of if with the first conditional (should +
We use the zero conditional (if + present tense + present subject + infinitive + future simple). We use this structure
tense) for general truths or consequences. in more formal situations, to be more polite.
If you get headaches while working on the computer, it's Should you require further assistance, the receptionist will be
because you're straining your eyes. available to help.
- if + subject + were to + infinitive with the second
First conditional conditional (if + were to + infinitive + would + infinitive in
We use the first conditional (if + present tense + future less likely situations.
form or might/could, etc.) for the consequence of a If I were to increase my offer, would it be accepted?
possible future action/situation. We can also use When using this form, we can also use inversion, for
words/phrases like unless, in case and provided that more formality.
instead of if. Were I to increase my offer, would it be accepted?
If elephant hunting continues, the animals will become extinct. - inversion with the third conditional (question form of past
I've brought my homework with me in case we have some time perfect + would have + past participle in more formall and
to study. less likely situations.
The new road will be built soon unless the local residents Had we asked, they would have agreed to our request.
protest against it.
linking expressions
Second conditional
Introducing Example
We use the second conditional (if + past simple +
would/could/might + infinitive) for hypothetical actions/ a condition if, even so, as long as
situations in the present.
an addition as well as, what is more
If I didn't drink a strong coffee at breakfast, I wouldn't be able to
function in the morning. a purpose in order to, so as not to

Third conditional an example for instance, namely, that is

We use the third conditional (if + past perfect + would a cause because of, due to, owing to
have + past participle) for hypothetical actions/situations
a consequence therefore, as a result
in the past.
If the band had included our town on their tour, we would a limitation in reality, even though
definitely have gone to see them.
a reformulation of
in other words
mixed conditionals what was said
We use mixed conditionals:
in contrast, whereas, whilst, on the other
- to speculate about the possible result in the present of a a contrast
hypothetical action/situation in the past if + past perfect + hand, otherwise, nonetheless
would + infinitive). a constant truth no matter when/why/where/how
If I'd taken that temporary job in the summer, I would have a lot
more money now.
Linking phrases can be followed by:
If the train hadn't been delayed, we'd be there now.
- to speculate about the past result of a hypothetical - a clause.
We can make the video if we have enough money.
action/ situation in the present (if + past + would have + We collected data in order to prove our point.
past participle). I'm not helping you. In other words, do it yourself.
If Jane and Mark were fitter, they'd have done the marathon - a noun (including an -ing form used as subject).
with me. He can win the competition as well as helping the weaker
If the website were more interesting, it would have had a lot players.
more hits by now. Owing to this delay, we cannot deliver on time.
- to speculate about the future result of a hypothetical • a clause or a noun.
action/ situation in the past (if + past perfect + would + We had several great meals. For instance, the Italian restaurant
infinitive). was very good
If Ben hadn't hurt his ankle, he'd come skiing with [Link] We can also use back-referencing to connect ideas:
concert [Link] my dad's car hadn't broken down, he'd be I didn't understand him. What he meant was that the project
giving us a lift to could not be saved.
He and I did not agree. Where we differed was in our
approaches.

alternative forms
GRAMMAR FILE UNIT 7:
past modals
We use past modals for: reported speech
verb tenses in reporting
1- possibility: We usually change the tense of the original verb so that it
- to say that it is possible that something happened before moves further back in the past. We also change time
this moment. expressions and pronouns as necessary.
He could/might/may have gone round to Sue's. He was talking 'We spoke to him yesterday,' they said. → They said that they
about seeing her today. had spoken to him the day before.
You may (well) have noticed that my brother's bought a new We do not change the tense if the situation we are
car. reporting still exists and if the reporting verb is in the
- to talk about a (missed) opportunity. present tense.
We could have taken an earlier flight. We were at the airport 'She's working in Paris! → He says she's working in Paris.
three hours early!

2- certainty:
- to say that it is likely or that we are certain that modal verbs in reporting
something has/hasn't already happened. We usually change modal verbs in reported speech.
Jack must have received my card. I sent it a week ago. will → would - can → could - may → might - needn't →
didn't have to - must → had to
3- unfulfilled obligation, regret or criticism:
Modal verbs are often reported using other verbs
- to say that something required or desired didn't happen.
(e.g. must, should, ought to → advised, urged; let's →
You should have told me about Tim and you splitting up.
suggested).
- based on experience.
'You should ask for help.' → He advised me to ask for help.
I ought to have known that he'd forget our arrangement.
He's got a terrible memory.
- to show annoyance. reporting verbs
Reporting verbs can be followed by:
She could/might have replied to my email!
- a that clause.
4- predictions: He told us that he was going to be late.
- based on known information. - a to-infinitive.
The plane should have landed by now because it was only a They decided to plan the presentation at the weekend.
two-hour flight. - a preposition + -ing.
She insisted on going out to dinner with him.
5- reduced conditionals: - a preposition + a noun phrase.
- to speculate or give an opinion without giving the full They hoped for better weather.
conditional form. Reporting verbs often express the reporter's interpretation
You would have had a great time at the gig. (if you'd gone) or point of view.
He alleged he was innocent. (The reporter didn't believe him.)
need They claimed they did not remember. (I do not believe them.)
We can use need to as a main verb in the past to say that
it was/wasn't necessary to do something. reported questions
I needed to get some help with my research, so | asked Sally. We report questions using:
- if or whether.
We use needn't have + past participle to say that They wanted to know if/whether we were going to help them.
something was done unnecessarily. - wh-question words.
I needn't have hurried to finish my assignment because the They asked what our intention was.
teacher is away for four days. - for.
They asked (us) for our opinion.
dare
We can use dare to mean 'have the courage": Note: We invert the subject with wh- questions.
- in the past, as a main verb. 'Who is she?' → I asked who she was.
I never dared to go into the study without permission.
main clauses connected with and/but
- in the negative, as a modal. If two main clauses are connected with and or but, we
I dared not go any further in the car. The road was too icy. need to put that after the conjunction:
i'Il come, but I'll be late.' → He said that he would come but that
he would be late.
If the subject is left out in the second clause, then we do
not use that:
"I used to be a software designer and worked for myself!
→ He said he used to be/had been a software designer and
had worked for himself.

GRAMMAR: EMPHASIS WITH INVERSION

Negative element + Auxiliary + Subject + Verb

Negative adverb= no sooner, not only, under no circumstance, rarely, never, etc.

Example:
a) I had only just sat down to eat when the phone rang
b) Hardly had I sat down to eat when the phone rang

When words and phrases like not only, under no circumstances, seldom, must not, not until, and had only begin a
sentence the auxiliary and subject are inverted

Use than, when you start a sentence with no sooner

Use when, when you start a sentence with hardly

CLEFT SENTENCE: WH- TYPE

This specially focus on the verb

a) Antony Boland misses chicken curries from his favourite take-away in Dublin
b) What Antony Boland misses are chicken curries from his favourite take-away in Dublin

The wh- clause can precede or follow the verb be (though initial position is more common)

a) They want a better life

b) What they want is a better life
c) A better life is what they want

We can add Do to replace the main verb

a) So Conolly started up Rural Resettlement from his front room
b) So what Conolly did was (to) start up Rural Resettlement from his front room

CLEFT SENTENCE: IT + BE
This often implies a contrast with something else and never focus on the verb.

a) For many, the chief motivation is the children.

b) For many, it is the children that are the main motivation

This could focus in different things.

Extreme Ajdectives, pueden ir con: absolutely, Completely, Extremely, Utterly

block out a memory – to deliberately prevent a memory chart – to describe or record changes or developments /
from being recalled, often as a psychological defence to plan or map progress
mechanism conceptual – based on ideas rather than physical reality
commit sth to memory – to make a conscious effort to current – belonging to the present time / generally
remember something permanently accepted at the moment
have a selective memory – to remember certain things cutting-edge – highly innovative or advanced
while conveniently forgetting others doodle – to draw absent-mindedly
jog someone’s memory – to help someone remember engaged (with) – actively involved or interested / formally
something they had forgotten committed
memorise – to learn information so that it can be recalled erase – to remove completely / to eliminate traces of
exactly something
realise – to become fully aware of something / to exclusively – only and solely
understand something clearly facilitate – to make a process easier or more efficient
recall – to retrieve information from memory / to officially flawed – having weaknesses or imperfections
order someone to return flush sth away – to get rid of something completely
recognise – to identify someone or something as freak sb out – to cause strong fear or anxiety
familiar / to officially accept or acknowledge something full-on – extreme or intense
remember – to have a recollection of something / to keep get into sth – to become interested or involved / to start
something in mind doing something enthusiastically
remind – to cause someone to remember / to make gush – to speak with excessive enthusiasm / (of liquid) to
someone think of something similar flow out suddenly
trigger a memory – to cause a memory to surface hang around with – to spend time socially with
unexpectedly infuriated – extremely angry
word for word – using exactly the same words as the make stuff up – to invent false information
original manipulate – to control unfairly or deceitfully / to handle
designated – officially assigned for a particular purpose / skilfully
clearly identified marked improvement – a noticeable positive change
fundamental – forming a basic or essential part mind-blowing – extremely impressive or surprising
impartial – not biased or favouring one side modify – to change something slightly
inspirational – motivating or encouraging in a positive mundane – ordinary and lacking excitement
way on a positive note – ending with something optimistic
partial – incomplete / biased or favouring one side operate as – to function in a particular role
reassuring – making someone feel less anxious or overall – considering everything / general rather than
worried detailed
substantial – large in size, importance or value pave the way – to make future progress possible
character study – an in-depth analysis of a fictional play a vital role – to be extremely important
character provocative – causing strong reaction, debate or thought
episode – a single event or part of a series / a short pure invention – something completely fabricated
period marked by a particular situation quit – to stop doing something / to leave a job or activity
flashback – a scene that returns to an earlier time / a raise awareness – to increase public knowledge or
sudden vivid memory of the past concern about an issue
sequence – a series of related events in a particular order read up on sth – to study something in preparation
showcase – to present something attractively or realm – a particular field or area of activity
prominently / an event designed to display talent ripple effect – a series of indirect consequences
take liberties with – to change or interpret something run into trouble – to encounter difficulties
freely without strict accuracy scamper – to move quickly with short, light steps
accomplished – highly skilled or successful / completed scrapbook – a book used to keep memorabilia such as
successfully photos or notes
advent – the arrival or beginning of something important slippery path – a risky course of action that may lead to
allegory – a story with a hidden moral, political or problems
symbolic meaning stick to sth – to continue without changing course / to
as far as sth goes – to the extent that something is follow rules or plans closely
relevant therapeutic – having a healing or calming effect
banter – playful and friendly exchange of remarks unnerving – making someone feel anxious or
build followers – to attract and gain supporters, uncomfortable
especially online or publicly witty – cleverly humorous
caught up in the past – mentally preoccupied with burning ambition – a very strong desire to achieve
previous events something
charismatic – having a strong personal charm that colossal amount – an extremely large quantity
inspires admiration or loyalty dismal failure – a complete and very disappointing failure
endearing character – a personality that makes someone immediacy – the quality of being direct or urgent
easy to like in a huff – in an annoyed or offended state
eternal student – a person who keeps studying without in good shape – physically fit / in good condition
ever finishing or settling into a career in person – face to face, not online or by phone
formidable challenge – a very difficult task that demands maintain – to keep something at the same level or
great effort condition
futile effort – an attempt that has no chance of success not in the know – not informed about something
lukewarm response – a reaction showing little important
enthusiasm otherwise – in a different way / if not
petty argument – a trivial or unimportant disagreement play mind games – to manipulate someone
resounding success – a very clear and impressive psychologically
success pulsing – beating or moving with a regular rhythm
strong competition – rivals that are difficult to defeat purist – someone who insists on strict adherence to rules
total failure – complete lack of success or traditions
unmitigated disaster – something that is bad in every randomly selected – chosen without a specific pattern
possible way rigorous – extremely thorough or strict
vast number – a very large quantity scout – a person sent to gather information / to search for
it’s a win-win situation – a situation where all parties talent
benefit sedate – calm and slow-moving
it’s back to square one – a return to the starting point sidetracked – distracted from the main purpose
after failure slam – to criticize harshly / to shut with force
let something get the better of you – to allow emotions sneer – to show contempt through facial expression or
or difficulties to control you tone
not for the faint-hearted – too difficult or frightening for stock up on – to buy large quantities for future use
sensitive people the ride of your life – an extremely exciting or intense
rise to the occasion – to perform well when it matters experience
most the stuff that dreams are made of – something ideal or
stay on top of the game – to remain competitive or fully perfect
informed thinking time – time allowed to consider a decision
think big – to plan ambitiously throb – to beat strongly and regularly
bitterly disappointed – extremely unhappy because throw a move – to attempt an action, especially in flirting
expectations were not met or competition
fatally flawed – having a serious weakness that causes adapt – to change something to suit a new situation
failure adjust – to make small changes in order to improve or fit
heavily influenced – strongly affected by something or something
someone alter – to change something, usually slightly
massively important – extremely significant amend – to make improvements or corrections, especially
not entirely convinced – still having doubts to a text or law
painfully shy – extremely shy in an uncomfortable way evolve – to develop gradually over time
perfectly plausible – completely believable or reasonable modify – to change something slightly
strictly limited – restricted by very firm rules or revamp – to improve or update something significantly
boundaries transform – to change something completely
thoroughly fed up – extremely annoyed or bored make sb’s day – to make someone very happy
widely believed – accepted as true by many people pay sb a compliment – to say something positive about
wildly exaggerated – greatly overstated beyond reality someone
adulthood – the state of being an adult turn sb’s life around – to cause a major positive change
all-out argument – a very intense and serious dispute in someone’s life
awesome – extremely impressive / inspiring awe do a good turn – to perform a kind act
be down to – to be the responsibility of / to depend on do a simple act of kindness – to do a small, considerate
big time – to a great degree action
blurry – unclear or difficult to see or understand do good – to have a positive effect
come out on top – to be more successful than others do sb a favour – to help someone
creep in – to appear gradually and almost unnoticed give a helping hand – to help someone who needs
daunting – seeming difficult to deal with assistance
declaim – to speak in a loud, dramatic way give praise – to express approval or admiration
defensive – overly concerned with protecting oneself from give sb a hug – to embrace someone affectionately
criticism make a difference – to have an important effect
deflect – to avoid dealing directly with criticism or blame / make sacrifices – to give up something valuable for a
to cause something to change direction greater good
fleeting moment – a very brief period of time advantageous – beneficial or helpful
hang on every word – to listen with extreme attention conscientious – careful, responsible and hardworking
heady – causing excitement or strong emotion deniable – able to be denied or plausibly rejected
heated debate – an angry or intense discussion emotional – relating to feelings / showing strong feelings
hold a grudge – to continue feeling resentment enviable – desirable and admired by others
escapable – able to be avoided or escaped scruffy – untidy or worn-looking
excessive – too much or too great shabby – old and in poor condition
flexible – able to adapt easily / able to bend without skimpy – very small or revealing
breaking stylish – fashionable and attractive
global – worldwide equivalent (to) – equal in value, meaning or function
gullible – easily tricked or deceived fit in – to belong or feel accepted
imaginary – existing only in the mind identical (to) – exactly the same
incapable – unable to do something indistinguishable (from) – so similar that no difference
indecisive – unable to make decisions easily can be seen
legendary – very famous and admired individuality – the quality of being distinct or unique
literary – relating to literature or writing on the same/a different wavelength – thinking in a
numerous – many similar or different way
problematic – causing problems or difficulties rebellious – resisting rules or authority
rational – logical and reasonable splitting image of – an exact likeness of someone
reversible – able to be undone or returned to a previous stand out (from) – to be clearly noticeable
state synonymous (with) – closely associated in meaning
suspicious – causing doubt or mistrust / feeling distrustful a far cry from – very different from
unnoticeable – not easily seen or detected a world of difference between – a very large difference
analogy – a comparison used to explain something anonymity – the state of being unknown
alley – a narrow street carbon copy of – an exact duplicate
arch – a curved structure / showing irony or mockery cause an uproar – to provoke strong public reaction
business is booming – business is very successful challenge the norm – to question accepted standards
cognitive resources – mental abilities such as attention compatible (with) – able to exist or work together
and memory consistent (with) – in agreement with
come into play – to start to have an effect catch up with – to reach the same level as someone / to
default – the usual or automatic option / failure to meet an talk with someone after time apart
obligation come up against – to face a difficulty or opponent
detritus – waste or debris face up to – to accept and deal with something difficult
discharge – to release / to carry out a duty get away with – to do something wrong without being
endeavour – an effort or attempt punished
fatigue – extreme tiredness get out of – to avoid doing something
flood in – to arrive in large numbers get round to – to finally find time to do something
go down (well) – to be received positively go in for – to be interested in or take part in
go viral – to spread rapidly online go on about – to talk about something excessively
ground-breaking – completely new and innovative go on at – to criticise or complain repeatedly
hold down a job – to manage to keep a job live up to – to meet expectations
holding operation – an action taken to maintain a read up on – to study something in preparation
situation temporarily stand up for – to defend or support
informed – having knowledge or information stay away from – to avoid
initiative – the ability to act independently / a new plan or anti-establishment – opposed to traditional authority or
action institutions
multitude – a very large number bowler hat – a hard felt hat with a rounded crown
pop-up – appearing suddenly and temporarily come to nothing – to fail to produce results
radical rethink – a complete change in the way comprise – to be made up of / to include
something is considered conviction – a firmly held belief
raise concerns – to express worries diehard – strongly loyal or resistant to change
relieve the pressure – to reduce stress or strain disdain – strong dislike or contempt
repercussion – an unintended consequence exclusivity – the state of being limited or elite
rough sleeper – a homeless person who sleeps outside fringe – unconventional or marginal
self-esteem – confidence in one’s own worth get caught up in – to become involved unintentionally
spread like wildfire – to spread very quickly get my head round – to understand something difficult
stable – steady and not likely to change get sth spot on – to do something exactly right
stem the flow – to stop or reduce movement or progress get wound up – to become annoyed or upset
tackle – to deal with a problem directly go further than that – to exceed expectations or limits
take sth for granted – to fail to appreciate something grid – a network or framework
weigh up the pros and cons – to consider advantages hand sb sth on a plate – to give someone an advantage
and disadvantages without effort
bootcut – slightly flared trousers that widen from the knee irony – a contrast between expectation and reality
down mainstream – accepted by the majority
embroidered – decorated with stitched patterns non-conformist – refusing to behave according to rules
faded – having lost colour through age or washing or traditions
flared – widening gradually from a narrow point norm – a standard or usual pattern
pleated – folded into narrow, regular folds peer – a person of equal status
ripped – torn, often deliberately as a fashion style
pretentiousness – trying to appear more important or ahead of the game – more advanced or prepared than
cultured than one is others
purport – to claim or appear to be something aptitude for – natural ability or talent
quest – a long or difficult search bring in – to introduce / to earn money
stance – a position or attitude on an issue budding – beginning to develop
stay buried – to remain hidden or forgotten bulk – the main part or largest portion
subculture – a group with values different from the buy into – to believe or accept an idea
majority check sth out – to examine or investigate
the mind boggles – used to express disbelief chuck out – to throw away or expel
trademark – a distinctive feature cocooned – protected or isolated from the outside world
up your game – to improve performance come in for – to receive something, often criticism
usher in – to introduce or begin something new defining – that strongly shapes or characterises
wane – to decrease gradually something
wholly – completely diagnosis – identification of a problem or illness
accumulate – to gradually increase the amount of dodgy – dishonest / risky or unreliable
something over time dole out – to distribute, usually in small amounts
acquire – to obtain or gain possession of something downward spiral – a situation that keeps getting worse
collect – to gather items or receive money regularly eat up – to consume completely / to use resources
consume – to use up resources, food or energy embark upon – to begin something new
hard – difficult / firm or solid emote – to express emotions clearly
clutter up – to make a space untidy or overcrowded flip – to suddenly change / to turn over
easy prey for – someone who is vulnerable to being flooded with – receiving too much of something
exploited full-blown – fully developed
go without – to manage or live in the absence of generate – to produce or create
something get the hang of – to learn how to do something
hang onto – to keep or retain something give a heads up – to warn or inform in advance
hard sell – aggressive persuasion / something difficult to glass ceiling – an invisible barrier preventing
persuade people to accept advancement
insatiable desire for – a desire that cannot be satisfied go under – to fail or collapse financially
knock-down price – a very low price homegrown – locally produced or developed
part with our money – to give money away, often immersive – deeply engaging or absorbing
unwillingly initial – first or early
pass up an opportunity – to miss or decline a chance living proof – clear evidence through existence
push the right buttons – to say or do things that produce mind-blowing – extremely impressive or surprising
the desired reaction mine – to extract / to exploit for information
sentimental value – emotional importance rather than pocket – to take or keep for oneself
monetary worth pulse – rhythm / current state or feeling
spare cash – extra money available set the bar – to establish a standard or level
splash out on – to spend a large amount of money spouse – a husband or wife
watch your money – to be careful with spending stumble – to trip / to struggle or fail
breakthrough – an important discovery or development the rumour’s going round that – people are saying that
buyout – the purchase of a controlling share in a the time is ripe – the moment is right
company tick a box – to meet a requirement superficially
cover up – an act of hiding the truth unparalleled – having no equal
crackdown – strong action to stop illegal or undesirable utopian – idealistic but unrealistic
behaviour delusion – a false belief strongly held despite evidence
cutbacks – reductions in spending or resources dream – a series of thoughts or images during sleep / a
downturn – a decline in economic activity hope or aspiration
drawback – a disadvantage fallacy – a mistaken belief or faulty reasoning
fallout – negative consequences of an event fantasy – imagination unconstrained by reality
feedback – information or reactions given in response hallucination – seeing or hearing something that is not
hold up – a delay / a robbery real
intake – the amount taken in illusion – a false perception or misleading appearance
offspring – children or young imagination – the ability to form mental images or
outcome – the final result concepts
outlay – an amount of money spent part – a role or function
outset – the beginning realism – representation of things as they are
setback – a problem that delays progress reality – the state of things as they actually exist
takeover – acquisition of control of a company make out – to understand / to see with difficulty / to claim
turnover – the amount of business done / staff make sth up – to invent or fabricate
replacement rate put sb on – to deceive or joke with someone
upbringing – the way a person is raised take in – to understand / to deceive / to absorb
workout – a session of physical exercise take on – to accept responsibility / to employ / to assume
a faint chance (that) – a very small possibility a role
take sb for sb – to consider someone as something patch up – to repair / to resolve a conflict
figment of your imagination – something that does not photoshop – to digitally alter images
really exist plausibly – in a believable way
get into character – to adopt a role or personality portray – to depict or represent
give a convincing performance – to act or perform prime example – a clear example
believably put a strain on – to cause stress or pressure
give sb the impression – to make someone think put sth into perspective – to understand importance
something relative to other things
go to great lengths – to make a lot of effort reluctant – unwilling
know sb through and through – to know someone very rivet – to hold attention
well show up – to reveal / to arrive
put on a brave front – to appear confident despite splintered – broken into pieces
difficulty stitch together – to assemble or combine
the façade slips – the false appearance is revealed stricken – seriously affected
the semblance of – an appearance or outward sign take its toll – to cause damage or exhaustion over time
above-board – honest and legal tangible – concrete or perceptible
authentic – genuine and real tell porkies – to lie
betray – to be disloyal / to reveal unintentionally throw in – to add extra
bluff – a deceptive action / to deceive by pretending unsettling – disturbing or worrying
candid discussion – honest and open talk wired into – closely connected
cheat – to act dishonestly word association – a mental link between words
deceive – to deliberately mislead yield – to produce / to give way
disguise – to hide the true nature
fake – false or counterfeit fight your corner – to defend your position or opinion
falsehood – a lie or untrue statement strongly
fib – a small lie for want of a better word – used when no better
forge – to create illegally / to falsify expression is available
fraud – deception for gain get sth off your chest – to say something you have been
hoax – a deliberate trick or deception holding in
impersonate – to pretend to be another person go back on your word – to fail to keep a promise
make-believe – imaginary have a way with words – to be good at expressing ideas
mock – to ridicule or imitate sarcastically have the last word – to make the final comment or
mythical – existing only in myths decision
play a prank – to play a trick hold back – to restrain or hesitate
prankster – someone who plays tricks in a word – briefly or concisely
pretend – to act as if something is true put into words – to express verbally
scam – a fraudulent scheme put it down on paper – to write something
scammer – a person who commits fraud shine a spotlight on – to focus attention on
tell a whopper – to tell a big lie sit up and take notice – to start paying attention
discredit – to harm someone’s reputation take sth lying down – to accept something without
bail sb out – to help someone out of trouble, often protest
financially word of mouth – information passed verbally
be down to – to be caused by words fail me – used when one cannot express emotions
be economical with the truth – to avoid telling the whole wordsmith – a skilled writer
truth emphasis – special importance or stress
be upfront about sth – to be honest and direct inhibition – restraint or self-consciousness
cerebral – intellectual involvement – participation or engagement
deliberately – on purpose loosen – to relax / to make less strict
compelling evidence – strong and convincing proof monotonous – dull and repetitive
creative with the truth – manipulating facts posture – body position
disciple – a follower or learner presentation – a formal talk
exploit – to take advantage of pressure – stress or force
frame – to structure or present speech – formal spoken address
freeboot – to act dishonestly or illegally accommodate – to adapt or provide space
garner – to gather or collect age-old – very old
get clear bashing – to receive strong criticism alive and kicking – active and healthy
hybrid – a combination of two things at your fingertips – easily available
immerse yourself – to become deeply involved atrocity – a shocking or cruel act
it is worth noting – something deserves attention avid – enthusiastic
jumping-off point – a starting point beef (about) – to complain
keep the creative juices flowing – to maintain creativity boycott – to refuse to engage as protest
mannerism – a habitual gesture or way of speaking build on – to develop further
ordeal – a very difficult or painful experience cliff-hanger – a suspenseful ending
part and parcel (of) – an essential part date back to – to originate in the past
debatable – open to argument promote – to support or encourage
deceptively – in a misleading way put ideas out there – to share ideas publicly
didactic – intended to teach, often moralising put sth down to sth – to attribute a cause
ensnare – to trap or catch refrain – a repeated phrase / to stop oneself
entice – to attract or tempt slumped – dropped or collapsed
foreclosure – legal repossession of property speak out (against sth) – to express opposition
give presentation – to formally present successive – following one after another
gravity – seriousness / physical force switch off – to stop paying attention
hard-hitting – forceful and impactful tap into – to make use of
in the first place – originally that says it all – that explains everything
inaccessible – difficult to reach or understand that’s a given – something obvious
make money (from) – to earn profit that’s me done – I’ve finished
mine sth for ideas – to extract ideas that’s sb/sth all over – typical behaviour
notably – especially trawl – to search thoroughly
pacey – fast-moving turmoil – chaos or confusion
perceived – regarded or understood unashamedly – without embarrassment
profess – to claim or declare undermine – to weaken
prominence – importance or visibility unflinchingly – without hesitation