tleebochensi
Clerhia ie, chemital Scaetion þoded
by. þaas'ag clerboie Curreat hyoyk an frluction
eleche Cunnt hy Che miCal Bcaho,
Sonductor mateial whh alles fre ou of eketnt
Eomblu al metala gsapha,
Conductos !- Con net Conductelecha arren
Mateiall which
No melals.
(Irsulatr) Eromplu Wad plaste, mnest y on -
Conductnr () elall's conduetos- AU Aolid malvial,
ypes of t Be olu
curYe
wkiis Conduct eleche
movennt elechon from n end to o hy end,
Conductos
conductos hduct eleohie cryent du to t R
wh
(U)Eeotyhe movemnt
yßes af elec hoyhe condutts
elechelyls ; comjllly disociati toto i% to Solut.
9 Shong Hu, NaoH, Nau, Ku. te,
eleahaylo !. wèh dissoclat only to Aom etat in
Aolulion. 9. HF, Aae ch(1 ), C0, lt
splulion
elechalyl:: Do not conise en
CELL TERN0NO LOGy -
) currnt;- Flo9 of elechos houpl a Concluetr
a material (hod, bar, B )Iwhlch
6) Elechode - Elechole
Conducts elechnu.
ocurs
mode !- Eleobad at his 0zdelon
Hec brcde at lohieh heduchon Cws,
d) la hode -
duct eleche ciren
3
Haß
Ha al -Pest he
Elechge
cell, whih on tlns on eehoyh
lis alld te ci dalon kall Coll. 4 seduethn
CTAs at Ke Cell, it à called e heodlutin
Ceel
(etl .
Deviu consiktg oy to tuo kat Catll are
Corneted by a Conductt
fndomental ot kedox Reactsi>
X X
Redox seactim (Shotfes onidaton -Reductn So) toeres he
bonsfy of t elechou hetoeen Che mical pecis.
oeidaln 1- Loss of elechu
-IncTease cn oxidetion numbu
eromple Na - N a e
Rocuetion Galn o elechn.
-Aecveese n oxidaHon numb
Rectox sea h'm -
(alllvsts chemita!
£kebochenial.
elechpchemial
þelential tn in to
Colls and ell nugy fem
Bedox beactien
elechial ersay
Galonic (veltaic)cell ’ shon toneau ecor Beachon, prcluus
elechieila
Elecheyte lell Non shontaneou seguirs ttn
faxt y galanc elli
elehtiy
Ahode !. where oxidatin oc
Cathode - Whe Beducin 0cCns
Satt Brid mainins eeebilal
Dolnal
heuhaleli
allpo ele hon fou fpem anr
to cathodl
Cell hcbyesentat
fmode | tnale doliton ||Cathocde kelulon la hode.
lxomsle
Cell þotintial i (E° Cele )
Cell bolenttal Ke volthge (emf) of he ul, meat
measered in e/6 (v).
Stondasd elechoe poohal (E
Each hay Cel Aas &tndasd ekchrde potntal
CRelatié to sHE Stoncdlasd hycogn elechde ).
the Beactien o sfontonens
Sxombles - t 094 v(Cathrt )
= -06 V lonede)
+)"lo alt
Hecbochemi al lella (Garonie elly )
X
+)
lu elecholt,
Salt
elechoda
bnidg
Porou plt
IM Xsoy solu
Chemical enesgy Convned to eleehial hy
elechorhicad lell.
Cell doviul Conucien ).
en Am Cusoy Aouton Kn so Aelulien ond Cu eleohode dllad
Ech eleeble a ell.
solutier ore inte Connesley by kalt bitge
are tor Connetig by Wie.
Cansd)
+ 22
llahoa)
(net el reati)
' 4 lonsist ef a U-tube
Salt bidg i
FuncHs U) Elinatis liguid functon polenlä
eleehes
(n) Boicla a pat f He flew of
Abye safreunlälen
Neasat Egualon i let uConside aa genea! Chemulal ay
t ne
fo above
Mieay
Beactin he Chonge
Con be lOittenas
Whey
7he Mathe matcal e,h wkich
Ca lled nenst
Makenatiala Can be
lBrdut)
sefrantet
Eute -Ei - 3 o 3 RT LRoactat]
at gk
LRacto|
Iwhu
K-Kydbeag loat - 34
T = Tent in K.
elesben Lae o gain (o dnste
96 soD Glett Culant.
baiain Contnuw
whee
Chane in sfontd Gibe fre en
R= lout
Tens K
We Looo hat
loge
At Gull brunm
(Bodut)
d303 RT
K= g314 fe 6SoDC
k Jmoi'k
these alue in
Than
(Bdtut)
lsaetod)
Gre Ke
+ he Me (6)
Mia
Reacta
M.]-4
P
H sed to ditumin ho Enl
3
aldo
An ekchie batly a a dv'u Consishint m
Celli heih ealenal
Heehockemiial lopneciens foevdd o
pay eleofal dvi es bech as
eleetre Cas
httemto
or He met þast been Com vyed to poduek, no more
b hoduud ond the batly becone diasl
ea)Jo ahieh
Cell staction Can be sevued by paisng dieet elecme
Current to oshesile ciecen: Thus beconolay balleui vay
be lsed Hrougl a
o0 batlsg and fulel to nhich matnials (lea bn,
Qn
khium -in baláy
senday
metal act a
Jt todus a
matba usad elecbrcheniu!
melal Kas tellent
Li6lum à scatve
od kave a
li- bon baltans
X llihiun
ano de (lMiun), catoda
dojyator, and elethslye (h
band
)de bke lical,, LIo,),
Lhiun.
þesittrely akorged bhui Lon
to elechelyt Corrla
Cathode
e onode to Ke
tn baty
tuo beact
7here aye
charglg
Cunent, Ki antd seleat.
and frviding on eechie
eleehony
tium lor to cathode, 9
sid hyto te
ne
onode)
li ’ + 1 e loxlaton at
Chag t’ Dishorge
2 Conode) ports
Non aquau elechel t usida(piF)
Cngng - bhil Chorging, bthium teN ave sulased by
onode
athodi ond seeed by ke
Lt+1e ’ (K at anole)
balleii
Abpilaty
labtos mebl, Head shons
lead- Aid Balloy (stoage Clemil eney to eech
one tKat lah
Ond a an elechie cell.
(ecmiee y tolhemid
The lommon
ib eleehoeta mnde
eleebeda máds 4 lad di oida (Ps) SaKy a þesta
4 Phg u fescad i to agud, mad s lead. Anumbey
onda
f lead slatu (-Ve blala) aye lonnectag in porales
alao Cornettoel
nunby lad orida lata (tve plata) te lad lozile
opora led Tu lead slals kils in behan
platiu. Vaiublatu are sefnaled fom adyo und crs by insula
do to
Combtat Com binahin then iommued ln fxmalely
dh dil hss, losuforcling to a densilg af hg to h3,
Dischargl When aert storge Coll u
wAen
Cell (ie, fo Aujslykg ekchial eneuyy, il á deo daid
to be discharg'ng. The lead 'elechode loxe elechons, nlhch
ad tote
oo hregk he Wiie. In hu seacion, ozidatien
Blae at the ancode
PB P e (At lend ande)
then
PA+ so, P% SQ,
he elechos heleasedl bom
anocle (lad slat) o to he
cioxde elechde Here Pbl gains
In he ohe nWosda, elechons to fom P tona.
lad undugo es Sedluction t ha a
bern 0idahm ati t4 to t2. hocl
hi th soL
The P, 2 Lon Hen (ombine
loru.
PA SOL’ PBSo,
so Ro et eaction dasing ue (o dichorgig) h;
y Jt may be notd hat Pb2, is
éhargig boh ti elechodu
bsecißital a
Charging ' wh bok ande and athode beronu Coveud at'R
PBsO, cell Ceases tunctom as a eltaic l. To
stchaye lead. stoeg ul, he seacie oeiy plou cdusing dichugi,
are Xevsed by Aasaing erfnal emt peaay Kon &olt
and he folleroing Seactiens tate plau.
keaction at the e tuminal lCahode)
Kegcion at the +ve tuminal ( anode
PBse
Hene the net seacto duiy hoy
he elechrdes cell qre sestd.
to thes esgndl tondihenu (tei Pó and PBl, icspectiey tmay alo ke
nel that the chara'y sderilom
aa lead acid ktorage ollh are waed fa many
Aveh as to husbeu
Autsly curnent fr eechital iehla,
engine ignitin, h tlbAene aiang, seliags
Saliays boin, mis,
ninu,
abosaty pspila, broadCasty Atation, autmabilu
þorleg Atetiens 4 dsobulin oe.
tt
AN1- for Dael cll Znis)/ z .
Ecu = t o 4hult z
E t = + o 6 Volt. Calculat
E cel .
so) 2 3 0 RT
LZngi] = [aus = 1M
E = Eatheli- Eamo
(-o76) = |:| Volt,
o34 -
Ecell- |-
2
wl t 37°c tom.
Call EmF.
N. 2
tt
ECelc' =t o40 Volt
that Ezztt = to76 Volt
Sol i E z l - t t = +o76 V
(Cathooh)
=+4V Ectlc' =- 04V
T37+2T3 = 30K
= - o 4 -(- o7)
Z33RT
= o 2 G - 2-393X&314Bu + o-36 Ard
2 6S
of Cell
KN,3 what the cell ceacisu amol emf.
al 298K od the el
/PL
o799 b
yren that EPle= +0:|25 Vet, EA
So
+ e
Pb Ph+ 2e
+
= - D |25 V (( Arooli)
Er/eL
= to79? V (atho)
2:303 RT
E = E°
o|25) 2-343 x83|4XZ43
= o777 - (- D2XD2
o924
2.
o9933 V As
N, 4 - calula EMF
Fs)|E+ (o)ll Hzd ([Link])NHg) (atm), Pt ls)
Gien that ts/E -o 44|V,
2H + 2e H2
Fe
Fe + >Ht
Eceel= Eo 2 3 3 RT
nF
=o- (-o44) - 2Z3 X8 314X24&
2 x9 6SD0
o 4 4- - o
2
D44| -
AN. 5 - Calulat
'(o2r)
= to34Valt.
Cell eaie
H 2H + 2e
L393 RT
=(o-34 -o) I x62)
DX 2
034 - o2
D3 4 X-o 684 7
2
[Link].
properties. These materials hon-conductive materials that exhibit
them iAaa polarize in tha - excalla
Compasle
may bebe clyf
+lomfesie malvial may hadl as a matawiad
clfnal
/es Conpesitien,
otch ove mitually insouble, dtevig in ferm ond usually
bhoses Such a Cernbinalion , besns.
and amig du thnit
Kind and al
hebenties dyeunt n
Atratay hoatus'e
(meas, þelymy and sami a) are
malinad ca he onentienal mitias
Ahengh, even uj ti Ak iripeuabit ; V) Bela tryk
stfns; oN) maintain Jesestans v) ckeakly and eaily feti
-neo, cmtact ond humal shoex
creed and atiguu &hey
bhegt,t Vi) Loon ekemlal Conduehivit
(Vni)
Gbu; v)BK
- able;
ad ) betls Cossesen and orida ti en
N) les tunal bonsin
indubiu, tam petatin
induhia,
) I automobile
Hssialin
drawing diu,Vlva, bump es6,
tabine erginu, oire
lu, stovOng tanks, fabvatin sooy and ftoors, foniby
pray noz3 sbd mochiney ek.
Sbel goods (Lanin terns Aakeb), Ayk
boalr) od ohy Alt Bas 10cket , airCyalt
pslabon le tonbrnnd of
ti) Aeronautiial tny), delep , misi la eé.
mul
antennae, elechee cleit bpore!
(eg PcB)
Cemmunilalio
eubment bs ballite heltiey
Saflel,
Dielectric ceramics andits applications in modern devices.
Dielectric Ceramics are a class of ceramic materials that are poor conductors of electricity but can support
electrostatic fields. They have high electrical resistiviy and high dielectric constants, making them ideal for use
in devices where insulation or energy storage in the form of electric fields is needed.
Definition:
Dielectric ceramics are non-conductive materials that exhibit excellent dielectric (electrical insulating)
properties. These materials polarize in the presence of an electric field but do not conduct current, which makes
them ideal for controlling and storing electrical energy in'various electronic components.
Properties:
High dielectric constant (er)
High electrical resistivity
Low dielectric loss
Good thermal stability
Mechanical strength
Resistance to corrosion £nd oxidation
Common dielectric ceramic materials include:
Barium titanate (BaTiOs)
Titanium dioxide (TiO:)
Magnesium silicate (MgSiOs)
Alumina (Al:03) (used for insulation)
Applications in Modern Devices:
1. Capacitors
Multilayer Ceramic Capacitors (MLCCs) are made using dielectric ceramics like BaTiO.
Used in mobile phones, laptops, TVs, and automotive electronics.
Provide compact energy storage, filtering, and decoupling.
2. Microwave Devices
Dielectric ceramics are used in resonators, filters, and antennas.
Found in wireless communication systems and satellite technology.
3. Substrates for Electronic Circuits
Used as insulating layers for integrated circuits and semiconductor packaging.
Example: Alumina substrates in high-frequency and power modules.
4. Piezoelectric Devices
Some dielectric ceramics (e.g., PZT: lead zirconate titanate) show piezoelectric behavior.
Used in ultrasound imaging, sensors, and actuators.
5. Thermistors and Varistors
Dielectric ceramics with temperature- or voltage-dependent resistance.
Used in temperature sensing and circuit protection.
6. Dielectric Resonators
Used in oscillators and filters in RF/microwave circuits fòr high stability.
Piezoelectric ceramics discuss their applications in modern devices
Piezoelectric Ceramics are advanced ceramic materials that generate an electric
charge when subjected to
mechanical stress and, conversely, deform mechanically when an electric field is
applied. This unique property
makes them highly valuable in various sensing,actuating, and energy
conversion applications.
Definition:
Piezoelectric ceramics are materials that exhibit the piezoelectric effect, meaning they can
convert mechanical
energy into electrical energy and vice versa. These ceramics are typically made from
ferroelectric materials that
are polarized during manufacturing to align their electric dipoles.
Properties:
Convert mechanical vibration to electric signals and vice versa
High mechanical strength
High electromechanical coupling efficiency
Stable performance over a wide temperature range
Durable and long-lasting
Common PiezoelectricCeramic Materials:
Lead zirconate titanate (PZT) - Most widely used
Barium titanate (BaTiO:)
Zinc oxide (ZnO)
Potassium sodium niobate (KNN) lead-free alternative
Applications in Modern Devices:
1. Sensors
Vibration sensors- in industrial equipment for monitoring wear and tear.
Pressure sensors -in automotive airbag systems, medical devices, and industrial automation.
Ultrasonic sensors - for distance measuring (e.g., parking sensors, robotics, fish finders).
2. Actuators
Piezoelectric ceramics deform when voltage is applied, making them ideal for:
Precision motion control (e.g., autofocus systems in cameras, inkjet printers).
Micro-actuators in micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS).
3. Ultrasound Imaging (Medical)
Piezoelectric transducers are used to generate and receive sound waves in
ultrasonography.
Provide real-time imaging in diagnostics, pregnancy scans, and cardiology.
4. Buzzers and Microphones
Used in buzzers, beepers, and piezoelectric microphones for converting electrical
signals to sound and vice versa.
5. Piezoelectric Motors
Compact motors for precise movement in optical systems, satellites, and scientific
instruments.
6. Energy Harvesting
Converts mechanical vibrations (like foot traffic or machine motion) into
electricity.
Used in self-powered sensors, wearables, and remote loT devices.
7. Fuel Injection Systenms
In modern cars, piezoelectric actuators control fuel injectors with microsecond precision, improving fuel
efficiency and reducing emissions.
8. Smartphones and Wearables
Haptics: Piezo actuators provide vibration feedback in touchscreens and wearables.
MEMS microphones: Use piezoclectric clements for compact, high-quality audio sensing.
Emerging Applications:
Flexible electronics: Lead-free piezoelectric films for bendable devices.
Implantable medicaldevices: Powering tiny sensors and stimulators inside the body.
Structural health monitoring: Embedding sensors in bridges and buildings for real-time
stress/vibration detection.
Ferroelectric Materials
Definition:
Ferroelectric materials are a class of crystalline substances that exhibit spontaneous electric polarization, which
can be reversed by the application of an external electric field. This behavior is similar toferromagnetism in
magnetic materials, hence the name ferroelectric.
In simple terms, these materials have electric dipoles that can be aligned or switched under an electric field, and
they retain this polarization even after the field is removed.
Properties of Ferroelectric Materials
1. Spontaneous Polarization: They naturally polarize without an external electric field.
2. Hysteresis Loop: They show a characteristic polarization vs. electric field curve (like magnetization in
ferromagnets).
3. Non-linear Dielectric Behavior: The dielectricconstant changes with the applied electric field.
4. Piezoelectric and Pyroelectric Effects: Most ferroelectrics are also piezoelectric (generate voltage under
pressure)and pyroelectric (generate voltage under temperature change).
Examples of Ferroelectric Materials: -Barium titanate (BaTiOs), Lead zirconate titanate (PZT), Potassium
dihydrogen phosphate (KDP), Lithium niobate (LiNbOs)
Applications of Ferroelectric Materials in Modern Devices
Application Area Description & Devices
Non-Volatile Memory Used in Ferroclectrie Random Access Memory (FeRAM), which retains
data without power. It offers faster write speeds and low power
(FeRAM)
consumption.
Capacitors High dielectric constant makes them ideal for multilayer ceramic
capacitors (MLCCs) used in electronic circuits.
Piezoelectric Devices Employed in sensors, actuators, and ultrasonie transducers, particularly
in medical imaging and sonar applications.
Used in modulators, switches, and frequency doublers in laser systems
Electro-optie Devices
due to their strong interaction with electric fields and light.
Application Area Description & Devices
Energy Harvesting Convert mechanical vibrations intoelectrical energy for self-powered
devices (e.g., in wearable sensors or IoT devices).
Tunable RF Components Utilized in phase shifters, filters, and antennas where their permittivity
can be adjusted using electric fields, useful in 5G and satellite tech.
Infrared Sensors Pyroelectric ferroelectrics detect IR radiation, used in motion detecetors
and night vision devices.
Microelectromechanical Ferroelectric thin films are key in microactuators and micromotors,
Systems (MEMS) enabling compact and efficient electromechanical