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Algebra Note

The document discusses various properties and proofs related to groups, including concepts such as automorphisms, centers, and normal subgroups. It explores the implications of commutativity and non-commutativity in group structures, as well as the application of Lagrange's theorem. The text contains mathematical expressions and proofs to support the claims made about group theory.

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5 views100 pages

Algebra Note

The document discusses various properties and proofs related to groups, including concepts such as automorphisms, centers, and normal subgroups. It explores the implications of commutativity and non-commutativity in group structures, as well as the application of Lagrange's theorem. The text contains mathematical expressions and proofs to support the claims made about group theory.

Uploaded by

shortsvideo1511
Copyright
© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
Conde of Group ——— lat (1,0) ve a QP ond) ben cuentas of Gi Aufined by ne free | xqe qe ¥ gent Ay cenaneye™ gre ond denoted o% Zo). then WH 2 cob ip hw a ap an Gr Since eog = °° =3 at qe 5 eet ec 26). > We pete qe tte bog, = 4°P f € +g entre Ae: he = gor eo” qe Ce yen J Now (poa)et EB po(vey) po(aov) =(pog)°% = (qop)ov = o(Po%) Th PY en Ge RS closed wrt bina operation (9), pat qeo itis. Now, Jt per > poq = 9° ' pilo( Pop )?r” = po (gop)or™ hence (» por” = ej I - gor = Pag > len Pre wy uber OY 7 4 commnk ave ge fhud 2(6) Zh. centre Of gop z(b) pote b> Z(m) +» a carsve Bee cus) 20) (coenmubo Thorens . Zo) a NOw ab mat pubgr O46 [ince wey 2le) Rrool +— Z(t) = { xe ty \ qx=¥9 4 gee} ence 42 baa H= 2(b0) eee NS nosiral 4 4 acy Nee Bs gaye 200) twe shove Jo show thot ah=Ha Jat ea peak = p=ah y for sone ae ea paha Eta: Ss arctan — Fux thes ls dt qeto > gene te * i sah € at ‘ normal a) 2 ete = to can —— i” syon @ and iy we Qe > av =Ha > Heo: condi. 2(0) then & 3s non commeukotive Gy? waits Then” pu yokes qe ay Ga none Cyc: roof == Since yee quote GP ea jp datined on contrat ulppose ca jy ayelic: aeh a» genres soy Laue? as Borne ren) aoe Now, 6 " ; 4os grake % convernence , PE wud wonte az sm place of a Ze) ; each dames e Bact uo z(o) Wwe snow? shat coz) u Yor sane indeqo' ha Pd be — acbi rary elamend of br Further bk cosets of 2 4 which Veo au ala oz , phow 1 and 4 au “integors: Then - a . p= az, / Ue oz, fo same z,, 260 7b) Jou ngs tenet =(@abnin) = ot ite ae = (atz,) (0%) = aban = yt 2,14 €Us), Tran we oe that py =P 4 Ven fe bc » commusanrve , whidh consradis Sno fod oO» ot 00 ~ ore rw adIVE The bn 5 -aydlic Vs =e vs Nov aye c Pyaposition .— Sy Show tho® every avg ° alm) 2 noxreok wbge re fron} 2= pve “howe zl) 4 oe pt H be subg °d 2(0) - Then H» avo aod 4 © Now (es hel , yet ancl =H eH [sine he 20) Ths xhx' eH Hab: a % Prove shad dv aymmeinc gp Ss; has non Linear centre , Cartviad centre) . . Proof :- tag Z(b) be Se centre Of Ss (sien 2S, ess non - Commustadive eo 2(a) + Sa by “Lagrange theovero 0(4) 4, 0(S3) ie (zt) o(26:)) 0(S3) . , enh saittntnenas, OCDE at o(z)=3 5 oe which contadicts Se theorem , Sea QQ aE @ BQ aALAAhM Sob Sb @@oOneeoe@eeca eae G&G 4 64 eG. % ; anim Centre 04 0 qe 2 sulogrp of Or: ei c Noof = ak z(n) be the. conan of gress tren 2 zh VB CF Z(t) Ayan. q ¥,7€ z(o) > xg = gr v qen- qv > Wate sarge qreagh # gen: Now qc) Sqn gy" ao (£8) = 490798 = 1q(478 2 (9848 SCH on 7 gen: > vyte 20> panee ot 7 (Oy wa aubprp °% be Remark i= yds abedion ay 20) = or aeh doe any element - The apdset pe Gr be a qe noo) = {rE | 14 =ant wy cobed normal 1s¥ OF conkrabizr of 4 un bn Then? Noemali 20% ba uber Of b- sd NK) be snormatizas Of 4 wba ed 9 gp &: ote nen) +> audsd of & ™ rp Gr and H -be o a ete = 4 > centr) hit a,b ENR) abe any 400 eliments then ata"! = 4 bab" =H then bT > bitbHbE = bb > (b'b)HC6'D) = blab > H=b tb and aner'= aGethb) ay ane! = ab'Hba! t= fasyn(as'y a =(asn(asy™ pet) 2 0 Adoph of > av! ene) be = aéen si nen > baw =H (ia-4 & ») ince ela) showing thod He NO) : shor tw0 Cony! es in Gr then, Potters 15 ~ Suppose ach Nae rte mera act N@) yO Nom bg Ahow = , show Sol™i- Lat 2 gg he too coryugored af a Jn Gy. We : é tr = Nay 0 Nog I brie jot yet Consider xlat “Abo « Then xlar =a ox Og ‘gg Blo) hE Ga Taz ot > Xe Na) x 4 ‘ lar = V4 han agh= © 4 xglo = ax’! > rgie Nea) > yx € Nog PPP A PPP PP PREF ERTAAAAAARAARRA’ AARRAK’ = Nea) 0 Nag in 61 Bw 2, Showtng drwwlby that and thn Index of Nea) Na@) 3s a novmal subgrP of O- fas usdronption, x Hin PickaNio be Re shomerpin of ip G+ ave uel} Jo seid automaxphiars in br- d Gy as colle p amen Shy iderarty Mme TN gtk of 1) ad 2 Oe tderstty — aucko mor od - b auch th EXt- 4} she an abelian gop and ven i. 1s rat aera ae a eee aa seo = Proof t= os F087) = CN) e/a 4 dO hommomarphe™ . eae a7 ; Aggin fo) = & Rion © fe tl Ente Show shad 43 (c,4> Cod, FO* * Bt Show custo rocspnso an 2 746C Oe bak dor OMY Fa Boe { fz = (ze) cara alae B fo One ont fox te every 2EC , ¢ 7c Auch trod f(2)-O=4 f » onto + ee ae oo fez) 4 $2) A es d(a +%) a ; : Hence fi» orcas Tee ~_—ai ee henane Meth 4 £ oe & @ 4 @ «a a @a A @ @ 4 & @ 4 AAMC f 4 isomoxphi oxpruamy Bs an rh a Se om nee ow ie qe cite thy “Theovem > The se of atl ausoranphuhm of 2 qe dons a cua under composttion of mop : Proof t= cof = Lk & be a gre and Alm) be dhs sek of ot autornorphisey Of G: then (> Fusther Jot a, Be A) | ste ap born ano teson reps Oo Oana | piyecKiVE + feo oan SINCE oe poth OF rornerphs™ - Tavs vs gop be oop eA) - i> Since composition of mop wy anodakve 30 gewol ano: octakivity holds Al) . WS Tae = Te 4 we Alb). Some Ce eC idonkity, elsmnent io AG). (m), then % yp on Sporn pres ww an porn yey auto mopham + So t typ bax ge & aii sob averse ex wi eee ae Jn AC) - spun (Al, 2) wo qe ond than QP jy known aukomapla Alm) 4 not abelian Treosern 144 a all auto ~ Ge “Ma jedinate de, 468 | tomovtusn) of & and A(u) Joe # qe ot ot permutation of Gi. Then Aut 6 ba subg oF ACG) - Proce freed Since Tye Aut) , Aud (od +O Lt Te Abt Then T a onir-ont , ono {10 by fo & +. Tw percutdadionn of tf. TEA): So ABS C Ato) lt TT, € Auk Tun (1, %,)0ey) = T (7.00) = TL) o Eo? =T(Q)T (mM) % T, = (T17,)0 (12) ¥ Kyeu Th ® abo hornom odphs ron (rte into b (1m) @) =(G)@ ye (50) = T,%) Again (GG 1 By cancellation Joo “=Y fas) dy Seem fF yee Auch thod T.M=¥ re ot Agao > 2 nom odo F 7E% oe y= (2) > T,(y@)=* (mT) 2)" homomerphisen is a homomorphtm eaa@a a @ @ @ @& 64. GG @.@& @ 4 4 a. 2 2 ee ahem 4 tai th..adoRo am OC. A. ae BA. mes ws abo onto ae | So, Tit, € Auth -ore ord? => Tw invertiole and ie Te hon mem ON Tey C TNA: Teta bt os eh ae cr A) T 15) ons-ont as Em) = TO) Tr) = 1 04) T(%) = T(u) ey jak eb thee y= TH) EG ) =T(rm)= Tre) =* TY 7) ay odo > Let tay) =4 jin 0 & wy iA Ti = tan a 42 TH) ye 14) STON Tet) = Tn) Tw pamornarprusm Fie kali 2 TH ane-ord le ee iio ey =? T' pa pomornarphis Z Thus ea WIemNOas pence, Auber a Aueqye of AW This = Aut i oman a ph - i ope res Salient hat Jeb. define yin > uch that Go) = qa # Kebe Then % Eston orion ; ee g > qe = ve 4 > wal: hy red. Then qq 66 wd yerigy NE y onto Abo ou) = gout eriew =m go 4 xYeb Hence , Ty Jy autornanphasm Of ond st y collid an inne auterasprarn f° Eee The sd 1(6) oo inno audomorfpham of & 4 a agp of Aut O° Reef :- Te ae ce ex identity of ov uw) £ > lt Hs i € 1(6) en HO UD) y = 08 = 8.9049" = 4,0) ye Eb Tie, = Tan © ba normal Aubxsp of Aw or - Tray shows 1(b1) of al) nnn autornorphisny « . . . ? ty € 1() > Ten qh =e = 2 (» paceret=x 4 xe] 4 and Tyg = I 1 4 » qe = () 2 (my eT: > 4 * Im) wo subgie of Aur G- > Sn 400, Iu) B formal ony Aue Gt > y Claim» TlH) » o cared avdgip of Auk he. ley 2 Aur Gr , lr %€ A(w) 5 Tq é LW). , (ao tyr JO = 9 (73001 = [9 o's) 4") ‘ pal grxg') agra ordaeae) = 4(Q): T.-9(4") [E: Romornaiphs = (a9) ¥@") = (wee) 2 Tyg yy re | > Inn(s) Prob. Ty, %, © TO ds gots Aube 18, 7 %, the 19, @) = Ty, 4 xeh i 4 reo. 2 98. Zi ake G8 = 4818, ye peb > qa, € 2) - 9, 20h) = , Z(t) 42%) %, =, ge = % Thenrern > A gip Gy 58 commutative (Gone anderen) Tg = Tey Y qebr- 7 tang axtorospin) Prod! Luk by be a commutative gip ont gee then, - rac 1,0) = Vd y reh 1,0) = * ie nein ¥ xe Conse = Supra) = LO ve = 1. bin obebon - (orollonk £- iy mw none conmwmuskostve qe ghon br “has non- trivial 4 F dittinet ehments a, bE 3 I,@) + Do) Peter cmc aso Lo din ee gguntty mb La x Thim |- i uk Oe 2m) be thy cenkw ace then Ilo) “ Jyomapric to tht quotient qe 6 ee (6) aoe = Tl) (lo) 6 Asset of att Re z(b,) ney aon coke on ® Pree w conidn NY 7 Pan mop ts Ll) given by Qcite ok eG cody ay woh es ee oer ornavphre) 2 yak 4,7 6, gudo susycdty € Ty Ty pO y) = Te = = >: b@) ier ¢ Jaa homomayphan) Now, To sfind kerb HE PES = Ie > ¥ 1Eh t,-le@ Tq) = Te Se eg > xr =4 > x4 =y ee > re tH) So, i hi gee Th rotator : Frototorn =F D> Find ame number of Inner Autorrbphmn Te) Re: S;- “- Lik 7G) be centre of HPSS Since $4 vs non- commnmdodive gps 2(6) 2 ¢ pepe poly of S- TR quer’ gp Se a nonrcuctic git Since 0(S,) = 3 = 6 3 0 (ls) = 3 which wut be aycic that Aran, Tquetent qian See wy 5 wild contradict she above proce . ees o(z¢cs) = 1 44 follow Anot Sse 16) ZG) s S, = 1) An 08). & o(zd) . 7 6 = o(x(s)). ots) Thay O(S3) = O(1W) = 6. Problem > Ho Ban dnfinte cyclic qrp prove hot O(Authr)= 2, Aur G = Ae of all aukomaprom of 6 gol i- Since & OP ingiotte Cybie gry’ sy womarphic 40 CZ /F)> a oe @ b be an audomatphien of (2%). Jat Since § in a genviator of 6) which Ws cychic, Ao fM) iy aso genwiabes of (2). Now th only gowraien of 2 aw 14-5: Thoulne gay = -$ ost ee 44 b= 1 then g om) n néz Fen give o Nee Again 4 ba) =-* axe only two posible So thow since & 2(2,*) qrnafore (ate) = 2° Them t- sy a finske cyclic ge by'a’ of ordby 9 fo) Ba YP Y war dim), wheve then prove nod Aut go) yy th «no of tvE inteqes 2n ard pire do n- Prool im bak Ts be an antomaphiarn « a by a gervictoy op, Tea) 55 oe, guerre Since 2Tt> =o = Ted rime $0. enwrckor of &, whoo m2n and p Lt a™ be a Q yn: per ws take one Auch) | and comider mapping T 42% 5 To = 2" 4 ren. T, hamemnhory ence. fe Cue So ape te hor T = Pres s Tc) =e ett Neo yeh + 0 W/o (uw) =n, Ta) =e wee 2 C8)/m - Now since rm as pms to 9 and ¥=€ Ret = fe} gru-ons > > T a injective mop bE Since tr 4 inte So, T b anor , onto hence ince antomorpuian and mm pars #09 Trbrh 5 Teas or each min and thes NO 4 ws On aurtornnpris - To = by des than 1: automorpham — of 00) x Thre 2- Treen Proof i= ak He $6.29, 4 - 4n poate ovdsn 2: ; a Te Aux (Ss), 28 Ts an Bscenar pres + Ss S3 noo «HSS oe) TANES, hex tH even; element sof 4 anmcerenie cS than otn)=2, © O(tm)) = 2 + te. THEM now ge + hey. ee ee ea a ee ea a he Tay qaiieled ton, uk ws dinote ak by T's Since 7, Spb menos Ten ok RN inte, Conepanddy =! Js a perouitadten 2 Te AC) f Maye en om bin) = oe) Qe oem wer OCH) = (te) Sa ee > Tod=TH) > 1H) = ce i 7, and % agree ™ ene fe. Jornenks OF S. wou show ho q and T ogee 08 “Ss Now we TO 13) = 7,Cena), cr) 27, (19 00) = 70,3500) F023) > 1,029 So T, and agus on alt ebmets of Sz oy Aimidartyy shasing iT Gisiz) = % (32) Cael, Gr) Thy, T, and Ty, agus on all) elurnends of Sa° aS ben) = d%) > 12% ie. > one-ans d » onto :_ tow Ava (tus) —> PCA © (AuO>S:) = aoe ® Bud GCMBSs) 4 A(t) ARAL AARAAHRQQAARS fro QO) O( Aur) 4 ofa) = 3 =6 . $3 Ps §5 taney audomerphitm Ano 2 LH) rio) > a o(xte) = & ox 0(ttsd) = § Tm) & Aalo*S) Bur ge 6 OCA HS) )=6 Hence ° (Healer) ay AukS, = S3 PP PP PPP PPP PPE FPELAAA Khanna Bharmibaya Exi-2> La Z= gre oh wee ida auton ann por c eeoate foy=-%* * an auko modphinen, Mm don) =F cns—m S w= S Fy» more Again , Aince ener GD = 0) ee yind Poe en m = fen) t FO) shows 4% a. hoenornerpuarn Neu FC0k™) = _(nt%) = fence Bf » 20 automopuarn Exrr& > Sf ht be one obebian Grp, then ths bene dojies mab [Link] st da) = +! ‘ Ds not On aukomopuarn ; Since G4 none abelian, =F ap eg OR an Now Fey) =o) Fo) son ayy! = ety" > cay =e! ee Sas a) consxadi ton Hence f » not an qusomedphaae « ees ae CON a abelion group 4 ardin n (nzodd >t) we show o has a non ‘xvi! ute moxpNrra « befme fro & at: oes tren € Ban austomerphiseo Now 44 ale eae ‘aersity oxfprisen x sProblun Li- Li Tbe SA®- 4 ae thin fa) = ¥ ¥ Leb Pan H LEH. SS sae! 4 ree > owl? ears > ox) =102 ¥ nels and os o(x) (O/H) ate thn o(x) =2% ‘i alo) > o(tr) 1» even, whichis OC Hence & Iu Pell ts seagull © 2d proved an autornoyphaseo 04 br. Show a y aeb- deduce that o( Ta) = 0(a) (bab!) = 0(0) 4 a,beh- Suppose now o@)= mm (Ta = Ta? = TC = © ey A fron T (0) = Tle) Ta) een’ 54 C One 2 o(ta) =9 = o(a) - : Saino inginde 4o > inbaicia tren oCto) 3) Ol) = sat bane OG): ane P. > (Tay=e > Te) = atizg 7 3 ola) = inginite ce finde a PLE EE LERLAALALAAANAAAAAANASAAS Contr aichon. SLL SL New bab! = 7,00) * o(tya) = of) > o(bab!) =0(a) + Protohom & ¢ - 44 Fr ooh St: t $08) = » an ausomanpham , whew 1 ws dows gixed t t ie a™! ¢ 2a) 4+ abbr ms | anow thak (scl aicg be any emer: Conn , f (a%x0%) = Casa)” | Brannon = Fee!) fod $C = $ (ava) arya = axa obs daa yo = caste. “Tea Th a” e 2H) wv ael Roblin St= Shwe thor AM Qs a where > » a ge of non zax0 soxionals: Goludiod = refine a mOpPI| 2 Auk Si ee ole) = 70) Then cH) $0 A «(3) =0 then <(1)=¢@ 5 1=° Sp we yt 9 emtradicions Tus, ot) © Now Q(eon) = -°90) = = (nw) — =o (2) soy = o(t) ( 6(@) = ott) | = qt) tt) = () ns) = 0():6(4) ie. © Ba -chomomofphisry . Lt ‘now ce Ker be any elyrard, then O(e) = 1 idordity of ea Sia) =tp a, cee 4 xeR. D> = 1 ideaty: > Kero= {thm ° dy onan one Te snow 0 2 ons0 he € Bf be any element befins prare aX (8) > bon Os aye Cy rar BOD ausornaphiy ond tis =p € Auk & Sree GD) = Dw» onto Ue ac ooe gind 6 and hence 0 antomarphib we in _ Probie 8 > 3 tw ony 9 in which fe 40" nowe Geo, ten oe dhox 1 “has A non gavial audomarphintn , Gms «Bde RES Tees ase (ae) te oie ws 44 cree ae an auxorearphaam at nr: then 7) = 74) >o =4 A Fe Ge, a combradiction wer PPP PPI PPP EEE T1111 AAAAAAAAAAQAAAAS -~wTwrewvwrewevwervevwew weve wvrve wereoewe = hobtern (3 4) Gy dspon- abel ort . 4 yon an, then 4 inn! austomorphinrn of br jy ] non- tnuial as Get Pavel Sees 4+ x,7eb. > weley ay Teo: > zy 4 76h a contro dichton ‘ >a Db abdlion, $n any COE, G hos non - tviod ausomadprsm (Bi- Show that a finke gyP having mae shan 4220 elements hos 0 nonedivial anrorarpru . SAN te sy F ge Ae gre | than Gy hos a non dnvial autores pra fle gee 4 gen Tan oF Jy abelian br Can be sugendid as a vector space y oves Zo 4 Commnvidators. ar Gr be andl ayibedh 4h ab . corarrutakor a and b. oe Blab -b (alld Ld b= fa'b'ab | abe ny EG. geraection of all thee audio of & which conkaans O ‘pa dubatp of & comoining yp » calid comms arey aubgep 0 & on daxved avbyyh and » denote? ot Then t- La & be oh comnrnskOO% aso 4 xp Gr Shen tp & a nocneneran Ne ws Gaetan f ; “EB abelian , we woul) show br SK: , Now | dince y abelian (Kade) =(Ky) Ch) TED Ron kOw) try BY" nye € K a ren 6 }& Thin shows that K contain U, Sv ek of al coroners Oh onkoining vO. We know that 6 & the amalbd aubgre of & & GEK. vy La get heh be any elamert | than wig tng eu S 443 ehH =H > ec Corottarsy by 1 abelian & tr! = fek Proof t= Lat x be abelian. Lat Ke fey Then & = a SO ao ene fet be fee . w= Se} 5 Sy abelian renal 4 & si Bate : gt da try smallud ub pS FOE crscining <-a nam nmr hr eaih & nae aee ony elamerd then 4 a,b €% be Ov othaolse ac! blab € on’ = heh o cornrnusdodt VE y ’ ’ » ' , » » t \ » > all ob = Spavob ans > pence 6 jy abeban . , p Probes w-13S- For Wi =S3, prove thas Gl = Ag » y Sot ota) divide ol) =6 ae y > (Gye ain a zars | of) =1 2 ot =§14 2 rw obelian Ge contradic ' ol) = 6 = 08) = ot =o- Bud & by aban being aS 3 ' gv chs i GAg & conkradickion i) oe Gy abeion aie i 5 WEA? o(s') = o divides o(A3) = 3,9 connadtichion a ol’) = : Bur Ay > only gubgr Oh adn 349 Sy (a tee Np wo nommal svbgYP of & and NAG = fC} how Probie TS thos N © Z (6) - golht. Mt oe eceos xivtan € 60 ss = (i's) EN % py nooo sodgr Of agi anse BME xe 1» iten € AN = See eens > Poca nezes) ¥ nen. a Rings ——— Ths abuckwe (R, +, x) comisting of a nen- embhy set R and Yo binany compositions dinoted by Cede ee Cae Jung ty th yovlowing axioms wu sasissied . iy (R,4) 2 an obelian gyp- jy (Rx) a seri - ep jii> ¥ a,b,c ER axCbtc) = axb + ox (ath)xe = axe zx Lujt abta burive tow] (right Abrasive Joo], Thus sting aatisticd (, +7) gakisficn 140 youowing property a,b,c eR. K w called gra aructioo (8A) A plicative semicgip- at “ind (R,x) of sahcallad cout ehiment of ty sivas compostion C+) cabled Te idandty gaditve adareity ond 28 danoted by She Aymboot '0! called 3 amet of yrs ng and dh additive inverse of 284 jr ement tq’ denoted by a! called dhs negate f(a. ae idee elnert of HY multipli cation cornposition (x) 44 s denoted by Fh pete concn calls unr of a f ¥ : , . a ih rust plicadi ve inverse. of lg) Jay exh 1d He awn 1 gonored by ai or Oo - HPP PPPPPPP PP PETE E11 11% AAAAAAAAAAAAAAL Type ol Rags > $+ Ring woith unity i> i+) y aad 4 be ong with unity 3} ies identity exists be YF eek Auch trad 4 aeR. A ding (R enulti pli cative ea=ae =O corned VE Jang ay Bs A xing (RA) gad 40 be muti plicadive compotion alk commusaawe Fe: arb = bxa ¥ a,beR Rin Soe eS Eran Enh oe 4+> The sd & consisting Of o aiog!t elument 0 with tO dro =o and Or0=0 composition Pica ccit cama ya Jung calla 2HO ming null xing ox Trivial xing a> The ae oF qaesr Z 4X addition and mubiplication of intega (2, +.) » a 28: commmutont ve sing ky bie muipliankicn 4 eit OF grr unity elemerd wt 44 > jatego® » commusadive and 1 ® ae Cornrausarive Ting * (a + DRAM) cea Ws (m2,4,%) . 3 The ae R= §a,b} wort addition (4) ene nui plication (8) Riera ouCe RE Sig neg OF wat leo] Jy 0 Commutative 39g with unity , O ay its Ze0 element and ,Neeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee ® Te et driv aU oes Renal eth oda) aunomonman eluments dd a xing Of maknces- 94 ss sting cart undq bet noo cornrustastve o> in maces ag ¢8A- with (zx) »o commutative sing ; ja Aer 3? ats algebric dsbuckwe ave GP and (z,x) wsiky because (2,4) Conner ae Aasiatuieg divmoutive Lav - Ris (ateyee =a +{0te) an eument 0 wn K Ri 2 Thou exists ato =0ta =O: arch teed additive inverse ‘Kis, 2 ten ON awk F ca) sn BR carted Auch thos ata) = cata =o ie otc Ceormudodive 4° +) Ris (axb)x¢ = ax (bx) Camociaaits 1" x) Rig far be = arbtaxc = [i Dl) Bit * (atb)xe = axe + bre Cad. Thm 17? For any eamet , 2,6, 6 Of Ring K Aya a. b) acr)+-@) = cab By (eae ab 2) albeo nem mao e) (b-6)@ = ba- ca: Proof ¢~ @ b= bto ab = a(bto) ab = ab +40 ADAG Gua [ by dtnbusive property] NC radix adeitin and mustiplicadion PSS PELE PICLLUALVALAVAAAAAAAAAS SS b) c) d) e) ® oll EeteF> (@) bit M ve sek Of ‘ sg matilipi codion - M1 fornn Coy ueé cancellation Jaw) > oad Simla} b= btO ba= Coto)a Ly oa = ba toa Cy astabatine bel O= Od -b = 0-b afb) = afo-b) 2aCh)= a-o ab) {aber ath) = - (ob) be Ot© (carb -a(ore) CP soe > (a)b= a (cayeb) = = (ace) = -C@»)) = ab Cred st * HES a(p-c) sa b4 eo) aaribusive probe) qe = abtace) Coy = ab- ac (b-ca = bat Ca Pe cual EN Arnott ve poet] axa rnatnces over i¥eQe wearin addition egg at mat ced of HY *4PE [oe under a sing @) wm be act of ee Paition ond enalrpcasin » Tas asdeged thou urity 4a a noo = , commutative - xing Ext. °7 The -ahez = eaten, 4 1 38,45,65 form a ving cab multiplication modulo 7- Onupa From dine tol ak 2 cat 7 da Commudadive dung wits unity ,O » its 2x0 emer ond 1 & ws unity elument « Jat = (mayer) = 7% Hence R wa “comrevkohve Rig Example t= The 0G of 220 fom [ee Oe bus ABzO° a 2ST. 8 Poet Bx Ibe) <0. coed any spsegrod lit R be a ving « An aro- divisor, Sf 7 an eluent ab curves CR O46 th cadded O+b gudh thos =o % ba=O: oavice, oven Lvegets pathy 308 asive sing ® » x, te Seagal domo i~ ence demoais ay ab=0 ak ec! aso of =O" > 's comers BHVE 280g K » cod on indegrad domain 4% thon fo | mo divisovs” Extc (at 22 wd peymocmc. useg7oh domain: Eo A cocnsst ost VE ying % yan weypo domain 3h + ajocek (ato) ana. Sar GAM Proofs bat K be an isege Jonas wi = ab = ac (a0) The ab- ac =0 a(b-o =0 e Ome b-6 =° gince #0 , oe b=c Convortely Lat aber be any clamor waith ato Avppae Ab =° nen pbb = 0:0 ; >, b=0 gen condseon to ot thet A Hence ab =O > bao whens » an integral domam + it Remark * SA iy an ‘ q KR » dard to Aasispy Lift cancdlation Jou + for all a,b,c ER heat ab=ac > b=Cc- Simalanly we can talk of sight cancellation Lous Definakion ¢- ; : Defirton 2- Ay element a 4 Riag Kenn ey) cath javertibh (ora unit) wert pale eee ect oma pinay Ting, oF Ses BE Nescaes can rs cate Gs ging 2 Ake? tela 3h non Z¥O element > of IK ferro» a ar wrt mruttipli Cot i ‘ aed eomes4 » A sung K wi unt va oe sting +00" 70% oe shave plicosve pnver Seo ae ee sige ae Since 9 division sing ced) a v "ak Ae ae ciara ae cain ROMER, eee a a 4 ond foo ee aiviaion sting (Held iis ost 400 laments bee wera gid wy an inde gral domasn Paced 2 La ZR tee a tietd , then Roy a cornmrutative otis, ab =o Tusa toe Cle een A=O ox bHOR ubpesse a po RO a! exiedd grua 8 =O Lhhanhhhhh PPPKPHPEERTAC~AAAVAAGAA AQ ERERRQRAQKS which shoeos thot Kw indegred domain: ak a division stig 3s an divisors Avision xing, OK Nn comrnsadive Ag « wrids 4h sony =a => A ron omett aubsck § of a sing KY 4S forens a yung und tv binary, conn pouitt ows og K. ar iedegor Js a anpring of to wing SR4"7 anid to be a avexing aR # %. a iS _ a ual pusnrbod” qa aoa sory? a &. Kwa Ng cold gaviol aubrings of & K Subxing of 7 indeqal doman wt jron (03 08 *« MW ve an integral domain: NR Tiere tk om empty — Aubsck S of a sing K ba svboxing of K ap abes > %, able S; Pool = kd S be a subsiing of K Ane a,bes > abes Clos) abes > abeS as J aodgrp of a-be S, we 4nd A-b, ables. APPL LPLCL ELLER EAVVAVAALANAAAAAAAAAS ee a cD ee Oe ee ee Sure 24 Tomy Sage ee ey bask S and ee wo dubsings of 2 ing R. ie define Cia gorelses teT J shen colt GtT ba non void subset ® Sum of to dpiosings 4 not be a subbing - roof :- Take ov teatance dhe ong M of 2X2 integer - Ia gs sek Of aances over (8 ion Jokes prd all masrices OF dro dye ve an whey. ° aici Manno of ans 4yre (8 Sand T we gupsings 04 a 0 x at eeu [t hls “| ( 3 Thak S+T doe not 4 Bh ee 4 pbicad owns hold, * psig Then closwe sobsing o % condorring S ws coed 3 sabring GN Since jnkeweckion of aubyings Js a Aubbxing the aubyting gerroseal by a avbset Sof wi of att Aubsunga of f, containing Sa ja js cho that be jracrseion defination _ oF Iasueanbes cs Jung, bhy ok i z¢a)= §xea| ee oT Ww callud centre ol te aan dos F 4 ee a a gi jy collt ee Definition $= A non eos pa a. vtight idsad of ® 4 {y- abel Se Cex: ERD ox et pel ) : jy coda idiot of = A bo bet oy , ay ast, 5x would meas , jy idaad oF, 4 fo fn_0 ang & by © dual except Shae Pe Any : wy be dre ting 4 = tk Cate non idtal of 7 od even toege on Es aek Face > aren ) b= a) Pooler + er then Ac a(n) ; ; ‘ne fn) ¢& ,E» an ictal (evr ae 4 auoayp both dad ideals. aie a prOPED idaal- SSLLLLLOLLL ELLER TALASAVAVANAAAANAAAAS bddd DOECKTHSECRC CCPC CCC ECECCECESCCSESS . i fe fe dit frobtin shat Ke seg sims yaar {LS 2] dhen Lealels ae eae gus A 2 nok o Salt Rule eenleas of 2X2 mabicds ue ‘ebeqors « a,b ieaeqesj pee ee fa 0 ale iat 8 i ae or, ° ° idaad of ™ az, ao [ee] ee aa (elles: (3 oes. te Sn Sh gomne JUG 1 Be not o sigh) ydvod AK: Re ae moueces of fae 2 -[%a 0 a 2)-[48] [allel xt {ca giiae sarees } pers 0 Sa (EA 2kL- £6 (aarcta Mat idol oR. fe idsad >» also a aubsuing ° ax oY be el > [exif oi: |b olen 642 up idaod lB an idea) of o ving. shad 4 Peoj:- it 1 be % sew T wa a,b el Favet aubsing we nnd show ne ne ae Ne ous abel > ger wed ek > obel Hence TI wa aubting: Ke i KE A aoting rong pp be 00, AER Profs WRT <2, 4,7 a aubring ol Ka ts Ze Wdegar , Q = Rastovals « Be ee bud ay @ 55 nok on tial « yah Heck very 4 {ob =0 in RO Thy Z toring 04 K eee co + Aho e aoung 4 ‘4 =o ob ~ and , KHeefre ie Kage 4rd { Sy Aubin of ima on a ON aa aa ea a mo ( t f freel|é° A+B +> Sorm_of Toe Tae A and & be S00 idtals of a ving Re We dajineAd B ht 4o be she sek {aib] ach, bes } ,cablid aura of TY tdaals A and®é- Thee !- A ond 8 ou two ideals of R then A+B BON and 6. vauals of K, cordaining both A BOO one ACB Again, x, re Ate a> 4 Fat y =a, tb, 4 Aorrt a,,4, E85 b, 6, €6 Since Fatt © Catbs) 7 Gat b,) = (a) Cb a) Me ry € AtB R be ony ements tron xn notre Ate, TE my = (are) ¥ = avtby EAB A, 6 avn ideals Wwe (ath) = yaryb € At Rresyennioe cle Th Again Ae on Reine to all ae AtB and for OM bes, Boce b= bto € ArB we hove ACAtB gc At8 Femank ‘= (i) we can show that A On tdaol of At: Prool “~ a, ,0,€A => 0,-4,€ A A wy an ideal of K, again edomens hn ne Ak® be OM aca and yo dome aeA, of B=a,4br be6. also ay = a (arts) = 0d, +Oby en wy a,aen >» aa,en. aed, beBSR > ab, CA 2 Aa, ab, eA Simiarehy , 60.€ A« Showing frat Aw an tdeal of At8- ai $y A® a Ly tdral and 8, avght dial of K shen +8 max not be an idsal of R. Consider ees idsad of R on A= oi bo and 8 1 angi ida of R and B= (3 5 Ax® wrt have member of type 1 ay(aud l4 4) ¢ At ae A oe Ae Si fence Ax8 Ja not an idial of K- efiaition = bit S be any aubsek of 0 ring K - pp said to be qewmased by S of An idtal A of 8 spo Tien: 4 pond & be #00 o 4 ving K, then Ate = Proof i- WKT Arg » on tdial of K, conkairing A and 8, pros AB jy an idtal corgoiring AUB « [oSeasloee ; 7 e any ideal Of K ate , AUB ST th pe Aye Soe TO elenent Than Reerore on ig 40m aca and bEB Since aed chub et eevee 15 wo fied awe, 01 4 on ae: S rere thad AtB eT wid) proves prs there + K Tan ATS » ts amnalbss iduat of KR. Pin t- 44 eR be an eument and ean ayalvess whow Roma corn nuded VE Jing fren J » OF jduok of K salt Si +o oy OF aoel eey Ne can)¥ = Aeros ue peel > Ola jael. TK bang commnssenves Ht wd be beth sided tdsal eres t- 44 the sting wy nok coonmsscanve, one CON show trod ah an Re ond emalne ky wo Hp ae Pert acd gre ting of even iaeqoe St» commutative sing esithowd unity « 8 elumenis -has_ no frotolem {2 > Shou that o eee F cvith only Aubsicld of F au f0,15and nom tiviol avbjield , vee fF. SATE ye shove (f° 8- ba Fis F-fo} dhen O(F*)=7 and Aa Since. Ft ya ye 4 each divisor of o(F*) , thee exiak As. doos pate, J ony too #PE ain ord 4 and 1. They Hofoy, KL{o} order, jr wid be cyclic: Thus 4 a uagut aubgtp spd Hand |r of thet order - ew eran | ne wf of F and wilh -hove ads 2 and 8, ae the auofieds fo,15 and F. Note o 4 anja to be O asye : thou wd be orh{ two avo} the ving of 3X3 monces over seats. Show frobem 13-7 tA R be She peal rst | sno aubaing of K ont Nee rt t yatty, diy uaty of R- gol t- 4a 55 easy to check dha SO subbing of K - Seda x er\y 77 oy oy OH 2 eeily yy “| ay OY yshich belongs #95: Senta SNe va aan Bay 3m SH ae Ee Se real eae x # ; de? ince Veena Bel = aut oe qind Sect |i(.3 3. > aed AVL 313 <3: 4 4 S hos und 4h A Dries iy ys A gent porn ut | 6 10 fy Vz 4s whi) ws Ate 18 of. | Pp ) ) , ) , ) ) ) , ) > ) tg ts ls » Kern ake tH 57 dn continration . to thr above yore bax Yotlowing obaewattona! p rte mol (@) ‘ £7, t,2> shay nity 1, but ats awoiing Et? of een untegen hab 10 unity Re 25 ee) . ‘ P yy > has some vest 4 ar thak of its pount ng 20,4)": (e) Finally, we notice we OP five vor 2596) without UM pohich has O instance, # ving R= avbing wou wonky + i (eslieee Taks or A 4(22]> a ut oy tos ge faslieshte aes an). ie a jrould te[ 59] nes az deb: musk be (eos Now nao (IL Troan, St KPO unit sa [2] ‘| {'s0|+ [oo] no, wt Be oe to. check tH s={ [oo] lee7 off and chaos EtG sone tna wd Any ead! pime oda Jb of orden pr, (po ams) may not shen tt Kg he Hence 5 Jaa subing Peobbtare tt to Sours com must onive* dy AYng OS i ofa) -o(R) =p . amen ye Rao e some guments, then x=na, Yeroa Ye Same indequrs 0m - Now Y= (raycma) Senos aca (nay(na) = ye « Hence & » coennnkadt Ve + . ‘ 10 tt Tai) is Renee oe of 2x2 massice (oe eh loeblee] over Z, with gecord YO? saving 7° enmiass Then » a sing und makaX addition and maxik mubiiphication: Since fea Teall feeh ea eat oak- (esa we find R a nok commntosnve and abo ak hos 4= a elomend - Do a ee ~w~wrree WA R bea sting ond U be an ictal oubuciee é é owe addition abelian gp and 0» 4 aatgrp of 2° a subpip ok. Te set of al ditinct cosets of V additive abdlian gp E , when (atu)e(btv)= (aru abe ® bn oadinve qh. 1a 7 aoathon 8 duyined by ub plication bs dajined as follow + - (arvMotu) = abtv 5 a, beR we fist shows that musiptiadion oe ae i a’tU =a4U0 , ie meL hen) CalgvyxCeay) =ab40 algu2a40 > a'-aeU > al = O44 fexnore ueU Now ee ee uyCetts) 0 = wo au, HHH, FaB—AP = ub A, UU, an idaad of K since VU » ua, €& VU ub au, alk -obev > albu = sou Calty) % (Btv)= atl, Dae abbtU. jhoeloe, we con prot * oe a , i ef en i ago coxive te eo ee ots in K . hence my be 28 & 4s coiled quotient Ring « es Se ree FC OCF PKI SFI SFC FIFI EEE 41> U=@) = nub ting then E.=R oeRk PS Re tone Onn coe ae ing & ts Os 3> » coon mukactive sing 4nen) ee xing KE y abo commrunkai ve Vig” Ba proper idaal sag ung fond 2 a> 44 K va Jung q = iy a ding potty anaky 140: ok 4nen @sek—P quotion: Yin ley Qe ees OG) wn U an tdaod of f. Rites rowstoat ing: E ws A COnY od ve sung n * G 1 4 p= (622 ,+, 5 fo by commasaaie A 240, art on KO MAH iimoet On: BY 140 2405 musth puicative cdankity tlomert tdad of R. U= U= (62, +,') then U bs an D oe hon ote Pear Oe oe §o,35 then y » anidra) of R i 2, es 2404 O Rx not on ineqral domain . ee integral domain but I Quotient ring Kw U NN ; ———— WY S be a one empty subset of oy at i Ww . amaliad —idtat of K containing) a Aus ay said by th ‘Ths convening to each) idaol K - La R be yaad of K containing said of K> St frineipal of fatal ine. Bing - a Ring Rk. Ww inberseck on ly an idaal of K and JA tals of K containing S as w fo be ane liad gerwated by S. ato’ belonging jo K, the Amallas be a pincipol idsad quote a sung ON Wo» aoid +O aaid to be ne ated by (a) CO <0?" by ‘a and ws dan Ext- WR be xing pull idsal (0) ws the amas ‘deol ok containing jhe dlernens 0, We fof pul) ideod aight oa pindpad ‘dot ol Re Exi- be R we 4 sung cory uny 1 ust! yr U be dhe amatlnd ideal of K containing 1° Since O ds an ideal aek, 1ED Sracev >aev conmequuntty jy ths principal idaa) qenenobed by 1. Bye mz pincipal idead of 2 Motes Since al) subset Paolo mz gence me TU .# fouows rer all ideal subseh ove pindpat ideal - PPOCLERELE LALLA AAA AAR subse (0,t4,48,--- ) Byes) Sy ths oung oe 2% dy ds an idea). ‘4k jy the Amal dual conaining th eliment 4. Thoa{ae Sk wy oN principal tdiad <4 % (4). Prine sda) ino Eng an ido) peR » ward? go be poume i dual jn a Ring K, 44 aveR? > one ach % bEP. 3 dn tre ning 2 Jno prime ideal: ster, =O 06 b=O. _ pull ideal fo a, be {oy > abzo>e ce Beene: earthen ae fo} x be $0}: a x Sin ie q 2 ws a pime idual . eo nome tWseger 1 « > srmer 2divida a o% 2 Ext- The ideal 27 Gn the Jan bx a,b € 22 > ab- 29 je 2 in diviaow of ab 2 wa diviaos of Simvlooly Ae 1 on & afb > BE az: Thun aE 27 S ether 2627 % be 22 Thowjxc 22 we prime idsad . she ideal 42 in thy Xing 2 Pal ee az ae a¢4z- Aividw b- Now | | sd aeru pire iduab zw nore Exac There i= Sn 9 comms He xing K with aunty 1, an taal 2 otierd iQ x an weg! py prime idea) otk ans yy doen aint proof i= uk P be oP Si , Y ince Rasy G commubatt ve ing with unity fi , then ime ideal un Ring R. eooeog soo @¢@ ee Soe [Link]” —_— 2 os eo ee CO quetiens 1 : i Ng K wy commatahve Jeng with unity Ae hat (asp) Cbtp) =? phe atp , P+? ef tren a beR Now — (aap)Cbtp) =° 25) abarec -P abe P. > either aeh a beP. > Pas a piime idsed x btpre By emaen oct ciac no divis of °, Tras the quotes’ 204 g corks , thou|ac sa beeqral domain: canyerse i= Conversely AUPE ei on idsal Jo ving © auch trai tS quotes Ving 4 bb an integral domain - freopt- ke ASC abt p =P » Corp @tP=P Oh ee weno ne Qi ee © ebsoed queties . i trad & » on wmseqre® omar s einen ate =P or btP=P ice * gino meee PET: Th obe PR ® emer EP beP- fe. | hee pame iduod Thenroo > px R be o cory usrOR VE Ring potty UN « Ihe vgod mf ay maximal + a and ony Hf R na qiad ™ moximal ideal of & Proof to MP pon akOXVE 3099 with unity - R wa o 2 BR jp aso o commutator sting with unity Mm 2 be a nom zero lament: ha yam € & mM then yam $M rEm: (4 sung R wy not commutative AR im vight jdsa) and Ro is ap idiot ol 8]. Now, ar ow» abwoup conraans in <07 * 4 R wo cormmusbasive JUNG poity undy then - Ra =ak = We pre ger [VER 43» eo check 78 Sy on idaed VR. Since au OC jwo idtals of R sy an ideal of R Thewlre m4xR ws abd an idaad of R agen: grote € mtxR and me mtx CR. bat Mis mazimal Caiven) miak =k Ths 4eR => pemseR 42 M44T for aon VER. Lam = (mea) +) 44h = (mcr ™) thos (at) » enubiiphicative inverse. of Quam) «Hence Rk wa geld: m OEE ————————— OO Suet, <= Suppor oy 0 fell ; ht Tbe ideod of K such thax ¢ mcr ER. ; > J some aer auch trod ce a s ne - ay kone emer oe : io $ > arm hos mubtiphicadive ‘averse ink Ng ¢ ly ak be bem eR mM oi ncaa ao Prowl 3- Suppose M » an ideo) ok ats a meter at agm ey ac% ——— EE Sa ee g + (oar) (oem) = 141 ¢ ve abt™ = sar0 rd a abe 1M $ i Mm. Now? ab- 1 zy borne me a neo 9 Olin Cah oars e Bee (et pan tdiod). « g Ago ab-1 6M é > ab-1¢T (cl) e De (ob-D cL $ jee: qer. o TER saat conkoidQ unity equals +s sing) s thew 2 maxema + a a qa Thexemi- 44 Ku wing & Md tdtal of R mich thot & Phere 71 3 ‘a a marimas ideo! - a a 4 4 5 q 4 a Now x yo tietden agm bo o mould adm > aan. ~aet Js a nga~zixo element ok m™ ipl cakive inverse an RL «6 f ay bam howe araky even af & dots dy esr Sy unity Ob oa eens cae aot hove Uy) ® (adr) (bere) = > aban = e qcob € met e er Ciuc’) > aber (x » ase ber) > cél pa. ¥ be ay eee (ating 4) in Pa Cal ie Bey cre met peek yee TAY Ye idsol > (Gero so au > yet Sh 4 Cova Marea Pee Sevattaray of Hh above Theater t A commutative oding wit unity ano yiad 4 and andy a4 ak hos ne proper field econ Ca ! 4 Ko ba iad Jk chaos no pooper idual « Convers Supe * K sha no proper ids joy 4 (dual of R. - R wa yidd . js igtaton p10 by thee maximal wR wp ied: Ro then : aa a SNE! homornnpresrn of o wing Rese i - 4 to th quovier® 2808 = w vo» romerpric ate Kemet of th ng nen its i 4 daenorphic ad homornasfhic mag? of 0 sung R ‘Soe ptient ving K of R and conensely « to 4ome 5 Prooft- Ld Ft R> Ri be an mio sting dhornomedphars —— uatth kesf = , which an idaal of B. ae Re eo prove es denote te zr Of a . 1 i gre mop ee aaa ate boy 4 aeR, Ki the fo =o( te avo of). aan nhnnionbo0eeeheeehne aaah & 4K EKROAMARAEDR

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