Basic Grammar

Grammar: the word grammar is derived from a Latin word

“Greeme” which means a set of standard rules.

Definition: Grammar is the key or the rules of a language.

Or: The art /system of putting a right word in a right place is called
grammar.
Or: Grammar is the knowledge of correct speaking and correct
writing.

Word: word is a meaningful sound made of alphabet letters. They

are of two main kinds.

a. Lexical word: Lexical words are those words which give

complete meaning and do not need explanation.
Ex. Go, eat, car, boy…

b. Grammatical word: Grammatical words are those words

which do not give complete meaning and need explanation.
Ex. Noun, pronoun, verb…

Parts of speech: Parts of speech are words that form our speech.
There are nine parts of speech. They are: noun, pronoun, verb,
adjective, article, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and
interjection. Note: some scholars think that there are eight parts of
speech and consider article as part of adjective.

Classification of parts of speech

Open Class Elements Closed Class Elements

1. Open class elements: Open class elements allow grammatical

changes, they allow addition and subtraction. Open class elements
are noun, verb, adjective, and adverb. They accept new members.
We can use (prefixes, suffixes) to change either their meaning
(book-books. do-undo) or to change their structure (teach-teacher.
Play-player).

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2. Closed class elements: Close class elements do not allow

grammatical changes; they do not allow addition and subtraction.
Close class elements are Pronoun, conjunction, interjection,
preposition and article. They don’t take any prefix or suffix to
change their meaning or structure. They do not accept new
members.
1. Noun: Noun is a word that we use for the name of a person,
place, thing, animal, plant, insect, quality of mind, idea and action.
Ex: Boy, School, Book, Cow, Pine tree, Wasp, Pain, Smoking, to
smoke.
2. Pronoun: Pronoun is a word that we use instead of a noun to
avoid the unnecessary repetition of a noun in a sentence. Ex: My
name is Mohammad. I am your English teacher.
3. Verb: Verb is a word or a group of words that shows an action,
existence, situation, possession, ability etc. Ex: Go, drink, play, and
eat. Ali goes to school. Ali is a boy. Ali is in the class. Ali has a car. Ali
can speak English.
4. Adjective: Adjective is a word that modifies a noun or a pronoun.
Ex: Ali is a polite student. He is handsome. Ali is smart. John is
stupid.
5. Article: An article is a word that modifies noun in order to show
whether you are talking about a noun in general or specifically.
There are three main articles. A. An. The. “A” or “An” is the short
form of the adjective “One”, while “The” is an article abbreviated
form of “this”, “that”, “these”, “those.”
6. Preposition: Preposition is a word or a group of words that is
placed before its object (noun and pronoun) to show its relationship
with other words. It is a word or group of which connect two parts
of a simple sentence. Such as, in, on, at, to, next to, in front of. Ali
goes to school. Ali swims in a pool. Ali is standing in front of
university.
7. Adverb: Adverb is a word that modifies verb, an adjective, or
another adverb in a sentence. Ali drives slowly. Ali is very happy. Ali
drives very slowly.

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8. Conjunction: Conjunction is a word or a group of words that joins

two or more than two words, sentences, clauses or phrases. Ali and
Assad are good friends. (Here the word “and” is a conjunction and
joins two words.) He is very weak, but he works hard. (Here “but” is
a conjunction joins two sentences) I went to bed because I was
extremely tired. (“because” is conjunction which joins two clauses
together.)
9. Interjection: An interjection is a word or word phrase that shows
sudden feeling of joy or sadness. It’s followed by an exclamatory
mark or a comma. Ex: Ouch! Oh! Hurrah! Alas! Oops!

1: Noun ‫نوم‬

Origin: The word noun is derived from a Latin word “Noman” which
means name.
Definition: Noun is a word that we use for the name of a person,
place, thing, animal, plant, insect, quality of mind, idea and action.
Ex: Boy, girl, University, School, Pen, Book, Cow, Wolf, Pine tree,
Orange tree, Wasp, Bee, Love, Hatred, Sorrow, Pain, Smoking, to
smoke, writing, to write.
Parts of Nouns
Animated Noun Unanimated Noun

Animated Nouns: Animated nouns refer to living creatures. Ex:

Woman, man, husband, wife, parents, baby, child, son, girl, boy,
Tree, Cat, Dog, King, Queen…

Unanimated Nouns: Unanimated nouns refer to non-living creature.

Ex: Chair, Table, Book, Pencil, carton, bag, tray, collar, sweatpants,
perfume, gloves, gutter…

There are four main roots of noun

1: Cases of noun. 2: Kinds of noun.
3: Gender of noun. 4: Number of noun.

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1: Cases of noun: Cases of noun show where a noun is used in a

sentence. There are ten cases of noun.

 Subjective Case: In this case a noun is used as the subject of a

sentence.
Ex: Ali drinks water. Henna is a polite girl. Pamir University
is a famous institute.

 Objective case: In this case a noun is used as the direct object

of a sentence.
Ex: Ali kicked the ball. The teacher slapped Ali. Assad killed
a snake.
 Oblique Case: In this case a preposition is used between verb
and object.
Ex: I go to school. Nasir is fighting with Ali. Ali plays with
Ahmad.

 Subjective complement: In this case a noun is used as the

complement of a sentence to complete its meaning.
Structure: Be + Noun.
EX: I am a teacher. She is a lawyer. Lima is a nurse.

 Objective Complement Case: In this case a noun is used after

an object and completes its meaning. Structure: object +
noun.
EX: I told Ali the story. The public chose Ashraf Ghani the
president. She called her father step-father.

 Dative Case: In this case a noun is used as the indirect object

of a verb. Structure: Object + preposition + noun. I bought a
gift for Ali. (Formal) I bought Ali a gift. (Informal)

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 Vocative Case: In this case a noun is used before or after an

imperative sentence. Ali, go home. Go home, Ali. Assad, kill
the snake. Kill the snake, Assad.

Kinds of vocative case

Direct Vocative Case: In this case first we point out the
person and then give an order.
EX: Ali, stand up. Assad, go home. Omar, do your
homework.

Indirect Vocative Case: In this case first we give an order and

then point out the person.
EX: stand up, Ali. Go home, Assad. Drink water, Ali.

 As a part of verbal: In this case a noun is used after Gerund or

Infinitive and form Gerund or infinitive phrase.
Ex: Learning Math is boring. To wash the dishes is girls’ duty.
To recite the Holy Quran is beneficial. Smoking cigarette is
harmful for your health.

Note: in the above examples the verb is singular because

here the subject is Gerund or Infinitive not noun. If the
Gerund or Infinitive is singular the verb will be singular
otherwise if the Gerund or Infinitive is plural the verb will
also be plural. Washing and cleaning the dishes are girls’
duty.
 Appositive case: In this case a noun is used after another
noun and explains it. Structure: Noun + Noun.
Ex: Raihan is a teacher. He is very skinny. Raihan, the
teacher, is very skinny. Sardar Dawood Khan was General in
army. He was a president. Sardar Dawood Khan, the
president, was general in army.

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 Possessive case: In this case a noun is used with (’s) or (s’) to

show possession or ownership.
Structure: (i) Noun +’s + noun. (ii) Noun + s’ + noun.
Usage of (’s)
With proper nouns not ending with “S” Adnan’s brother is an NDS
officer. Nasir is Ali’s brother. This is Henna’s room. Mr. Omar’s car
is broken.
Note: proper nouns end with “S” either take ’S or S’. Chris’s job is
boring. Chris’ job is boring. Almas’ car is too old. James’s shoes are
under the table.

With regular singular nouns not ending with (S). A photographer’s

job is exciting. This lady’s apartment has a nice view. That dog’s tail
is way beautiful.

With regular singular nouns ending with (S). The black ass’s saddle
is lost. The princess’s dress is made of silk.

With irregular singular nouns may or may not end with (S).This
Child’s toy is lost in bushes. My tooth’s root is bleeding. This
mouse’s tail is wounded.

With irregular plural noun. These are those Children’s toys. Those
Men’s coats are torn. The women’s dresses are sewed in Kabul.

Usage of (s’)
Use (S’) only with regular plural nouns end in “S”. The boys’ hostel
roof is dripping. The Girls’ college is very dirty and unclean.
Note: Possessive case must come with animated nouns.
Unanimated nouns do not make possessives. Structure: Animated
noun + (’s/ s’) + noun. Ex: This is Ali’s car. (Correct)
This class’s roof is dripping. The books’ covers are torn.
(Incorrect)The roof of this room is dripping. The covers of books are
torn. (Correct)

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Kinds of possessive case

Joint possessive case separate possessive case

 Joint possessive case: In this case we use (’s/s’) with the

second noun only.
EX: It is Ali and Nasir’s house. It means one house belongs to
two persons.

 Separate possessive case: In this case (’s/s’) is used with both

nouns.
EX: These are Ali’s and Nasir’s houses. It means two
different houses belong to two different persons.

Kinds of noun
There are seven main kinds of nouns.
1: Proper noun: Proper noun is a special name given to a particular
person, place or thing.
EX: Ali, Khost, Holy Quran, Afghanistan, America, Egypt, India, Italy,
Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Kabul, London, New York, Saturday,
Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, January,
February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September,
October, November, December, Mount Everest, valentine Day,
Mother’s Day. Halloweens Day, Christmas.

2: Common noun: Common noun is a word given in general to all

persons, places or things of a same kind.
Ex: Boy, city, book, artist, clown, acrobat, astronaut, actor, lawyer,
aunt, judge, baby, man, baker, nurse, cook, police officer, dentist,
singer, doctor, soldier, giant, teacher, eagle, zebra. Deer, bird,
crocodile, bear, cat, goose, cow, hen, dog, horse, dolphin, mouse.
Duck, parrot, fish, shark, goat, whale, beach, seashore, coast, park,
shop, Library, airport, market, cave, mountain, mosque, church,
playground, farm, restaurant, hill, school, hospital, hotel, stadium,
house, supermarket, island. Temple, mall, zoo, basket, drum, bed,
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cake, blanket, gate, bag, kite, box, ladder, lamp, can, chair, radio,
cot, television, cup, train, desk, truck, door, watch, egg, window
etc.

3: Concrete noun: Concrete nouns are those nouns which have

physical existence and can be seen and touched.
Ex: Boy, Ali, School, Pamir University. Holy Quran, Book, Ship, train,
owl, woman, flower, airplane, bicycle, bus, comb, girl, key,
refrigerator, swing, van, axe, ox, umbrella, orange, envelope,
basket, bowl, car, pillow, etc.…

4: Abstract noun: Abstract nouns are those nouns which don’t have
physical existence and cannot be seen and touched. We can only
think of it and feel it. Physically they do not exist but mentally they
do.
Ex: shadow, wisdom, heat, poverty, pain, Sorrow, talent.

5: Collective noun: Collective noun is a word used to name a group

of people or things.
Ex: team, Army, herd, flock, class, group etc.…

6: Material noun: Material noun is the name of substance out of

which other things are made.
Ex: plastic, Glass, Wood, Soil, iron, silver, gold…

7: Compound noun: Compound noun is the combination of two or

more than two words.
Ex: screwdriver, scarecrow, raincoat, keyboard, Frying Pan, pot
holder, curtain rod.

Formation of Compound noun:

 1: Noun + Noun: Snowman, Keyboard, fingernail, ashtray,
meatball, trash can, wheelbarrow, Eyebrow, Windpipe,

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manhole, tablecloth, watermelon, and wheelchair.

The right answer to a fool is silence.

2: Gerund + Noun: Filling station, Dining room, shaving cream,

watering can, Frying pan, weeding ring, ceiling fan, shopping bag,
sleeping bag, knitting needle.

3: Noun + Gerund: Hand writing. Body building, weight lifting.

4: Adjective+ Noun: Black magic, Holy Quran, sore throat, Red bull,
White house.

5: Noun + preposition + Noun: Father-in-Law, Mother-in-Law,

Sister-in-law.

6: Verb + Noun: Playground, fried chicken, scoreboard, workshop,

wastebasket.

7: Noun + Verb: sideburn, heart attack, backpack, nail polish,

Hairbrush, mousetrap, Fingerprint.

8: Adverb + Noun: Lovely child, Friendly dog.

There are three main kinds of compound nouns.
 Open compound noun: In this case two words have space
between them.
Ex: Body building, white house, Khost province, Governor
House, large room.

 Closed Compound noun: In this case the two words are

written without any space between them.
Ex: Housewife, classroom, playground, backache, toothache.

 Hyphenated Compound noun: In this case a hyphen is used

between them.
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Ex: Father-in-Law, Mother-in-law, brother-in-law, sister-in-

law, daughter-in-law, son-in-law.
2: Noun Gender:
Origin: The word gender is derived from a Latin word “Genus”
which means sort or type. Definition: Gender shows whether the
noun represents male, female, both or none.

Kinds of Gender
There are four kinds of Gender

1: Masculine Gender: It is a noun used only for male names.

Ex: Bridegroom, rooster, lion, king, boy, man, prince, steward,
waiter, actor, brother, emperor, father, gentleman, grandfather,
grandson, headmaster, wizard, bull, fox, ram, tiger, dog, he goat.

2: Feminine Gender: It is a noun used only for female names.

Ex: Bride, hen, lioness, queen, girl, woman, princess, stewardess,
waitress, actress, sister, empress, mother, lady, grandmother,
granddaughter, headmistress, witch, cow, vixen, ewe, tigress, bitch,
she goat.

3: Common Gender: It is a noun used for both male and female.

Ex: Governor, shoemaker, teacher, doctor, scientist, hairdresser,
etc.…

4: Neuter Gender: It is a noun which is neither used for male nor for
female. It doesn’t say whether the noun is male or female. Words
for thing are neither male nor female and are called neuter gender.
Ex: Bench, mirror, leaves, broom, ball, building, cake, rock,
computer, sky, card, socks, etc.

3: Number of Noun
Origin: the word number is derived from Latin word “Numeral”
which means count.

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Definition: Number of noun shows whether the person, place, or

thing is singular or plural. Singular is used for one person or thing.
Plural is used for more than one person or thing.
 Countable nouns: Countable nouns are those nouns that can
be counted they can be changed from singular to plural
form. They are preceded by a/an.
Ex: book, pen. Watch, child, ox, chair, woman, man.
 Uncountable nouns: Uncountable nouns are those nouns
which cannot be counted and are always singular it isn’t
preceded by a/an.
 Ex: water, milk, rice, cloth, sugar, soil, soap, experience.

Countable Nouns are divided into two categories: regular countable

and irregular countable.

Regular Countable Noun:

Regular countable nouns are those nouns which have specific rules
to change them from singular to plural form. It always takes s/es to
change them from singular to plural.
Ex: star, stars, bat, bats, mug, mugs, fan, fans, cap, caps, bird, birds,
broom, brooms, camel, camels, desk, desks, doll, dolls, egg, eggs,
flower, flowers, fork, forks, game, games, lamb, lambs, nest, nests,
pen, pens, photo, photos, shirt, Shirts.

Pluralization of regular countable Nouns

1. Nouns ended in O, X, SH, CH, S, SS, Z, ZZ add only ES:
Tomato, Tomatoes, Fox, Foxes, Brush, Brushes, Bench,
Benches, Bus, Buses, Quiz, Quizzes, Box, Boxes, Glass,
Glasses, Watch, Watches, Bush, Bushes.

2. Nouns ended in (Consonant+ O) add only ES. Buffalo,

Buffaloes, Potato, Potatoes, Mango, Mangoes, Hero,
Heroes.

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3. Nouns ended in (Vowel + O) add only S. EX: Video, Videos,

Radio, Radios.

Words of foreign origin takes only S.

4. Nouns ended in Consonant + O and are generally a short
form add S. Photo-photos. Photograph. Kilo-kilos kilogram.

5. Nouns related to Musical instrument ended in consonant +

O add only S. Piano-Pianos. Alto-Altos. Solo-Solos. Banjo-
Banjos. Cello-Cellos. Trio-Trios

6. Nouns ended with CH, but gives (K) sound, add only (S) in
the plural form. Monarch, Monarchs, Epoch, Epochs.
7. Nouns ended in single (Z) double the last consonant and
add ES. Quiz, Quizzes.

8. If a noun ends in a consonant and Y change y to I and add

ES. Army, Armies, Story, Stories, City, Cities, Butterfly,
butterflies, cannery, canneries, lily, lilies, candy, candies,
baby, babies, cherry, cherries, diary, diaries, dictionary,
dictionaries, fairy, fairies, family, families, lady, ladies, fly,
flies, library, libraries, strawberry, strawberries.

9. If a nouns ends in a vowel and a Y just add S to the end.

Such as day, days, key, keys, turkey, turkeys, tray, trays,
donkey, donkeys, monkey, monkeys, kidney, kidneys, boy,
boys, toy, toys, trolley, trolleys.

10. If a noun ends in F/Fe change F/Fe to V and add ES to the

end. Such as calf, calves, wolf, wolves, loaf, loaves, leaf,

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leaves, knife, knives, wife, wives, life, lives, scarf, scarves,

thief, thieves.

Some nouns ended in F/Fe take only S to change them from

singular to plural. Such as cliff, cliffs, handkerchief,
handkerchiefs, safe, safes, chief, chiefs, chef, chefs, roof,
roofs.

Irregular Countable noun:

Irregular countable nouns are those which have no specific rules to
change them from singular to plural.
Ex: mouse, mice, goose, geese, foot, feet, child, children, man, men,
ox, oxen, tooth, teeth, Louse, Lice, woman, women.

Some irregular nouns’ singular and plural form is the same. Deer-
Deer. Fish-Fish. Sheep-Sheep. Offspring-Offspring. Species-Species.
Molasses-Molasses.

Some nouns are always plural and followed by plural verb form.
Tools and garments consist of two parts are always plural.
Ex: tweezers, tongs, binoculars, goggles, scissors, pliers, jeans,
pants, trousers, pajamas, clothes, shorts, glasses, scales, shears.
My pants are dirty.

Compound nouns separated by preposition, are usually pluralized

in the main noun. Such as Son-in-law, Sons-in-law, Mother-in-law,
Mothers-in-law.

2. Pronoun:

Origin: The word pronoun is taken from a Latin word

“PRONOMAN” which means for a noun. Definition: Pronoun is a
word that we use instead of a noun to avoid the unnecessary
repetition of a noun in a sentence. Ex. My name is Mohammad. I
am your English teacher.
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There are ten kinds of pronouns in English.

1. Personal pronouns 2. Demonstrative pronouns
3. Distributive pronouns 4. Indefinite pronouns
5. Interrogative pronouns 6. Reflexive pronouns
7. Emphatic pronouns 8. Relative pronoun
9. Compound Relative pronouns 10. Reciprocal Pronoun

1: Personal pronouns:‫شخصی ضمیرونه‬

I-Personal pronouns are those pronouns which refer to a person

speaking, a person who is spoken to, and a person who is spoken
about.

II- Personal pronouns are those pronouns which refer to first

person, second person and third person.

First person Pronoun: It refers to a person speaking.

1st Person Singular: I am a teacher. I am a student. I am a doctor. I
am a robber.
1st Person Plural: We are students. We are doctors. We are
teachers.

Second Person Pronoun: It refers to a person who is spoken to.

2nd Person singular: You are a student. You are a police officer.
2nd Person Plural: You are students. You are military officers.

Third Person Pronoun: It refers to a person who is spoken about.

3rd Person Singular: It is a car. She is a girl. He is a student.
3rd Person Plural: They are students. They are drivers.

The usage of (It): It; is used for animals, countries, angels, non-
living creatures, babies, and for everything when we don’t consider
their gender. It is a book. It is a chair. It is a dog. It is cat.
It is Ahmad. It is a new born baby. It is a cute little baby.

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Cases of Personal Pronouns

Subjective Objective Possessive Possessive
Person
case case case adjective
1st person
I Me Mine My
Singular
1st person
We Us Ours Our
Plural
2nd Person
You You Yours Your
singular
2ndPerson
You You Yours Your
Plural
3rdPerson
he/she/it him/her/it his/hers his/her/its
singular
3rdPerson
They Them Theirs Their
Plural

Subjective Case ‫فاعلي حالت‬

In this case pronouns are used as the subject of a sentence.

Subjective pronouns are I, We, You, He, She, It, They. I helped her.
We helped him. You helped them. He helped us. She helped me.
They helped me.

Objective Case ‫مفعولي حالت‬

In this case Pronouns are used as the object of a sentence.

Objective pronouns are Me, Us, You, Him, Her, It, And Them. I
helped her. We helped him. You helped them. He helped us. She
helped her. They helped me.

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Possessive Case ‫ملکي حالت‬

In this case pronouns are used to show possession and ownership.

Possessive pronouns are Mine, Ours, Yours, His, Hers, Its, and
theirs. Structure: verb + possessive pronoun.
Ex: This pen is mine. This car is ours. This house is yours. This
pencil is theirs.

Possessive adjectives‫ملکي صفتونه‬

In this case adjectives are used to show possession and ownership.

Possessive adjectives consist in: My, Your, Her, His, Its, our, and
their. Structure: possessive Adjective + Noun.
Ex. This is my brother. Those are our teachers. Ali is in our class.
The dog wagged its tail. This is my pen. I like its color.

2: Reflexive Pronouns‫انعکاسي ضمیرونه‬

Reflexive pronouns show that subject and object of the sentence is
same person. In this kind of pronoun the action turns back to the
subject. The reflexive pronouns are as follow; Myself, Yourself,
Yourselves, Ourselves, Themselves, Himself, Herself, And Itself.

Usages:
a. We use it after verb. A computer can’t work itself. You
should introduce yourself. The baby birds are too young to
look after themselves. I hurt myself. He hid himself. Be
careful with the knife or you will hurt yourself. Waqas
taught himself French. I prepared myself a note.

b. We use it at the end of a sentence. I made this cake myself.

I prepared a note myself.

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c. We use it after preposition (By) + reflexive Pronoun.

I helped her by myself. I cut my finger by myself. I prepared
a note by myself. (It means that the action has been done all
alone)

3: Emphatic Pronouns‫تاکیدي ضمیرونه‬

Emphatic pronouns are the reflexive pronouns used for the sake of
emphasize on an action. Emphatic pronoun Consist in; Myself,
Yourself, Yourselves, Ourselves, Themselves, Himself, And Itself.
Structure: Subject + emphatic pronoun + verb.
1: A computer itself can’t work. 2: I myself watered the plants.
3: She herself cooked the rice. 4: They themselves caught the
thieves.

4: Demonstrative pronouns‫اشاروي ضمیرونه‬

Demonstrative pronouns are used to point out everything near or
far from the speaker. Demonstrative pronouns consist of: This,
that, these, those and such.
Structure: This/That/ These/Those/Such+ Verb + rest of the
sentence.
This; is a demonstrative pronoun that we use for everything,
singular in number, near the speaker. This is Ahmad. This is a
room. This is a car. This is water.
These; is a demonstrative pronoun that we use for everything,
plural in number, near the speaker. These are Boys. These are
rooms. These are cars. These are pens.
That; is a demonstrative pronoun that we use for everything,
singular in number, far from the speaker. That is Ahmad. That is a
room. That is a car. That is a doll.
Those; is a demonstrative pronoun that we use for everything,
plural in number, far from the speaker. Those are Boys. Those are
rooms. Those are cars. This is my car. This is not my car. This is my
car. Is this my car? Yes, it is. No, it’s not. Is this not my car? Isn’t
this my car? No, it is. Yes, it isn’t.

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5: Distributive pronouns:‫توزیعي ضمیرونه‬

Distributive pronouns are those pronouns which talks about each
person or thing separately and are used to replace nouns
individually.
Ex. One, Each, Every, Neither, Either, None.
Structure: Distributive pronoun + verb + rest of the sentence.
I bought two cars. Each is made in Japan. Neither is made in Japan.
Either is made in Japan.

6. Indefinite pronouns:‫نا ټاکلي ضمیرونه‬

Indefinite pronouns are those pronouns which do not specify a
person, place or thing. It talks about it in general. Indefinite
pronouns start with four words such as, some, any, no, and every.

Indefinite Person (pronoun) Thing Place

pronoun (pronoun) (adverb)
Some Someone/Some Something Somewhere
body
Any Anyone/Any body Anything Anywhere
No No one /Nobody Nothing Nowhere
Every Everyone /Every Everything Everywhere
body

Some; is used in affirmative sentences before uncountable and

plural countable nouns. I saw someone. I saw some body. I ate
something. I went somewhere. Ali eats something. (object).
Ali goes somewhere. (Adverb cannot be object or subject).

Some; is used in interrogative sentence to show offer or request.

Do you want some apples? Do you want something? (Offer) Can I
have some apples? Can I have something? (Request)

Any; is used in negative and interrogative sentences before plural

countable nouns. Did you see any one? I did not see anybody.
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Did you eat anything? I did not eat anything. Did you go anywhere?
I did not go anywhere.

No; is used in positive sentence but gives negative sense. She saw
no one. She saw no body. She ate nothing. She goes nowhere.

Every; is used in positive, Negative and interrogative sentences.

She respects everyone. She respects everybody. She eats
everything. She goes everywhere. She doesn’t respect every one.
She doesn’t respect everybody. She doesn’t eat everything. She
doesn’t go everywhere. Does she respect every one? Does she
respect everybody? Does she eat everything? Does she go
everywhere?

7. Interrogative pronouns:‫پوښتونکي ضمیرونه‬

Interrogative pronouns are those which are used to ask questions
in sentences. Interrogative pronouns consist in: Who, Whose,
Whom, Which, What….etc.

Structure: WH + Auxiliary + Subject + rest of a sentence. Who are

you? Whom do you want to meet? What is your name? Whose is
this car? Which is the most beautiful city in the world? Who are
you? Whose is this pen? Whom did you talk with? Which is your
pen? What are you doing?

ESL students make mistakes while using WH-question. The first

mistake they make is that they don’t use auxiliary verbs in the WH-
question. Why you come here? Where he goes? What he does?
When he goes? Where he plays? What he likes? Why he goes to
school? When he goes to bed? The second mistake is that they use
the words in a disorder formula. Ex: What you are doing? What he
can do for us?

Who; is used to ask question about people. Who are you? Who is
your English teacher? Who is your close friend in the class? Who
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does persuade you to learn English? He recites the Holy Quran.

Who does recite the Holy Quran?

What; is used to ask questions about things and actions. What is

your name? What is your native language? What is your favorite
hobby? What is your great ambition? What do you do at your free
time? What is your nationality? What are the days of the week?
What are you talking about? What is the time?

Which; is used to show choice such as. Which is your car? Which is
the most beautiful city of the world? Which do you prefer?

Whose, is used to ask about possession. Whose is this umbrella?

Whose are these gloves? Whose is this pen? Whose are these
computers? Whose is this cell phone?

Whom: Who is used instead of whom, especially in speaking. Who

is he sitting with? With whom is he sitting? Who is he talking to? To
whom is he talking? Who is he playing with? With whom is he
playing?

Whom; is generally used only in very formal English. With whom

are you playing? Whom are you playing with? Whom is he talking
to? To whom is he talking?

8. Relative pronouns‫نښلونکي ضمیرونه‬

The relative pronouns are used to join main clause with the
adjective clause. Relative pronouns consist in: Who, Whom, Which,
that. I know a man who is from Kabul. I saw a girl whom you want
to marry. I bought a car which is red. I killed a snake that was very
dangerous.

9. Relative Compound Pronoun:

Relative compound pronoun is used with the word ever. Relative
compound pronouns are; whomever, whoever, whichever,
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whatever, etc. Ex: I will buy whichever I want. The coach will select
whomever he pleases. He seemed to say whatever came to mind.
You can call whomever you want. Whoever comes is welcomed.
You can eat whatever you want. Whoever crosses this line first will
win the race.

10. Reciprocal Pronoun:

Reciprocal pronouns are those which are used to show mutual
relationship. Reciprocal pronouns are each other, and one another.
Each other: It refers to two person or items. They love each other.
They killed each other. They helped each other. They punched each
other. They tickled each other. One another: It refers to more than
two person or group. They slapped one another. They chucked one
another. They kicked one another. They stared one another.

3. Verb: The word verb is derived from a Latin word “verbum”

which means action or state.

Verb: Verb is a word or a group of words that shows an action,

existence, situation, possession, ability etc. Ex. Go, drink, play, eat,
shut down, switch on, switch off etc.

 Action: He lit the cigarette. His beard caught on fire. He poured

water on his face. They helped Ahmad. They played cricket.
They fried the leftovers.

 Existence: He is in the class. She is at home. They are in the

dining room. Ali is in his office. They are in the swimming pool.
She is at the white house.

 Situation: He is a student. She is a teacher. He is sick today. He

was sick yesterday. We are soldiers. They are soldiers. They are
players.

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 Possession: He has a car. She has a car. I have a nice dog. We

have a nice house. They have an expensive computer. Ali has a
roll top computer.

 Ability: I can speak English. You can speak Pashto. They can play
football. She can write. Ali can play football. Waqas can recite
Quran. I can read and write.

Categories of Verbs: there are three main categories of verbs.

1: Form of Verbs. 2: Kinds of Verbs. 3. Mode of Verb.

According to form verbs are of two main types, Regular and

Irregular which can be changed into five different forms.

Regular Verbs:
Regular verbs are those verbs which have specific rules to change
them from one form to another form. They always take
“S/ES/IES/D/ED/IED” when we change them from one from to
another form. Ex. Hope- Hopes-Hoped-Hoped-Hoping.

Irregular Verbs:
Irregular verbs are those verbs which have no specific rules to
change them from one form to another form. They do not take
“D/ED/IED” when we change them from one form to another form.
Ex. Go- Goes-Went-Gone-Going.

1: None conjugated form:

It is the first form of verb without adding anything. It is used in
present tense with I, We, You, They, plural nouns, and after modal
auxiliary verbs.
Accuse, tease, disturb, bother, store, shade, Fire, Hire, Invite,
ignore, Activate, deactivate, Appreciate, Achieve, Approve, Arrive,
Bake, Make, Apologize, come, set free, see, agree, flee, release,
guarantee, disagree, Bury, Cry, Fry, Increase, decrease, Abuse,
misuse, promise, prove, provide, Carry, Identify, marry, satisfy,
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convince, persuade, Copy, deny, refuse, shy, spy, unify, verify,

occupy, supply, betray, cheat, destroy, demolish, employ, convey,
send, pray, survey, spray, delay, postpone, Stay, pay, Go, Fix, Wash,
Watch, cross, Kiss, Graze, learn, listen, live, lock, look, love, make,
move, obey, open, place, play, pull, push, punish, quarrel, fight,
rob, run, say, see, sell, shake, shut, close, sing, sit, sleep, smell,
smile, stand.

2: Inflected form:
It is the first form of verb including S/ES/IES to the end. It is used in
present tense with third person singular (He, She, It and singular
noun). Structure: Verb 1st form + S/ES/IES)

Note: Verbs that end in O, X, SH, CH, S, SS, Z. Add “ES” to the end.
Goes, Fixes, Washes, Watches, misses, crosses, guess, Kisses,
Buzzes.
Verbs that end in consonant + Y, change Y to I and add ES. Fly, flies,
fry, fries, carry, carries, cry, cries, dry, dries, try, tries, spy, spies.
Verbs not ending with O, X, SH, CH, S, SS, Z or Consonant + Y add
only “S”. Plays, asks, begins, boils, breaks, brings, buys, calls,
catches, changes, comes, completes, cooks, counts, cuts, digs,
dines, drinks, eats, fills, finishes, forgets, gets, gives, helps, hides,
holds, jumps, kills, laughs etc.

3: Conjugated form:

It is the second form of verb which is used in forming simple past

tense. (Verb 2nd form). went, fixed, washed, watched, kissed,
buzzed, grazed, played, kicked, stopped, studied, took, talked, tried,
understood, thanked, thought, threw, used, waited, walked, wore,
wrote, did, kept, hired, accepted, advised, checked, invited,
wanted, felt, left, placed, decided, flew, suffered, wept, cried,
smelt, sat, told, stood, saw, slept, wasted, played etc.

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4: Super conjugated form:

It is the third form of verb which is used in forming all perfect

tenses and passive voices. (3rd form) gone, eaten, thrown, taken,
written, drunk, fixed, washed, watched, kissed, grazed, played,
kicked, turned, posted, loaded, leveled, murmured, lost, fried,
married, accustomed, added, agreed, attended, beautified, bled,
encircled, collected, compelled, encouraged, stolen, stood, bitten,
met, lied, dug, told, increased, improved, believed, found, shut,
sent etc.

5: Derivational form:

It is the first form of verb including ING which is used in all

progressive tenses. Going, fixing, washing, watching, kissing,
buzzing, asking, beginning, boiling, breaking, bringing, buying,
calling, carrying, catching, changing, coming, flying, completing,
cooking, counting, cutting, digging, drinking, Eating, filling, getting,
giving, helping, hiding, holding, jumping, killing, laughing, leaving,
learning, living, playing, pulling, pushing, reading, selling, shaking,
talking, teaching, shutting, telling, using, washing etc.

Un Inflected Conjugated Super Derivational form

conjugated form form conjugated
form form
Fix Fixes Fixed Fixed Fixing
Wash Washes Washed Washed Washing
Drink Drinks Drank Drunk Drinking
Throw Throws Threw Thrown Throwing
Eat Eats Ate Eaten Eating

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Rules of Forming Regular Verbs.

1:VERBS ENDS IN–E Hope-Hopes-Hoped-Hoped- ED Form: IF THE VERB ENDS IN (E)
Hoping Date-Dates-Dated-Dated- JUST ADD (D)
Dating ING Form: IF THE VERB ENDS IN (E)
DROP (E) AND ADD (ING)
VERBS END IN (EE) Agree-Agrees-AGREED- ED Form: IF THE VERB ENDS IN (EE)
Agreed-AGREEING. JUST ADD (D)
The final (E) IS NOT DROPPED ING Form: IF THE VERB ENDS IN (EE)
ADD (ING)
Die-Dies-Died-Died-Dying ED Form: IF THE VERB ENDS IN
2:VERBS THAT END IN Lie-Lies-Lied-Lied-Lying (IE)ADD JUST (D)
IE ING Form: IF THE VERB ENDS IN (IE)
CHANGE (IE) TO (Y) AND ADD (ING)
3:VERBS THAT END IN Enjoy-Enjoys-Enjoyed-Enjoyed- ED Form: IF THE (Y) IS PRECEDED BY
–Y Enjoying. A VOWEL KEEP THE (Y) AND ADD
Vowel + Y Pray-Prays-Prayed-Prayed- (ED).
praying. ING Form: IF THE (Y) IS PRECEDED BY
A VOWEL KEEP THE (Y) AND ADD
(ING).
Consonant + Y Study–studies-studied-studied- ED Form: IF THE (Y) IS PRECEDED BY
studying. A CONSONANT CHANGE (Y) (I) AND
Change these: Try, Fry. ADD (ED).
ING Form: IF THE (Y) IS PRECEDED BY
A CONSONANT KEEP THE (Y) AND
ADD (ING).
4: VERBS THAT END IN Start-Starts-Started-Started- ED Form: IF THE VERB ENDS IN TWO
TWO CONSONANT Starting. CONSONANT ADD (ED)
Change these: Fold, Kill. ING Form: IF THE VEB ENDED IN
TWO CONSONANT JUST ADD (ING).
5:VERBS THAT END Rain-Rains-Rained-Rained- ED Form: IF THE VERB ENDS IN TWO
TWO VOWELS AND A Raining. VOWEL & A CONSONANT ADD (ED).
CONSONANT Change these: Fool, Dream. ING Form: IF THE VERB ENDS IN TWO
VOWEL & ACONSONANT ADD (ING).
6: VERBS THAT END IN One syllable verbs. ED Form: IF THE VERB ENDS IN ONE
A VOWEL AND A Stop-Stops-Stopped-Stopped- VOWEL AND ONE CONSONANT
CONSONANT Stopping. DOUBLE THE LAST CONSONANT
One vowel + one Change these: Rob, Bag. AND ADD (ED)

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consonant. ING Form: DOUBLE THE LAST

CONSONANT AND ADD (ING).

1. Plow –Plows-plowed-plowed- Verbs End in W, X, Y. DON’T DUBBLE

One vowel + W plowing THE LAST CONSNENT AND ADD
One vowel + X [Link] –fixes-Fixed-fixed- Fixing ED/ING in 2nd, third and in ING form.
One vowel + Y 3. play-plays-played-played-
playing
One vowel + C [Link] Picnicked Picnicking If the word Ended in C add an extra K
and then add Ed/Ing.
ED/ING Form: 1ST SYLLABLE
First Syllable Stressed Two syllable verbs.
STRESSED JUST ADD (ED) AND (ING).
One vowel one 1:Listen listened listening
consonant 2: open opened opening

2: Kinds of verbs:
There are two main kinds of verbs.
1: Main verb. 2: Auxiliary verb.
1: Main Verb:
It is also called lexical or ordinary verb. It is a verb that shows an
action, existence, situation and possession.
Ex: Ali recites the Holy Quran. Henna drinks water. Assad plays
flute. Ali is in the class. Assad is at home. We are students. They are
players.

Kinds of main verb

There are six main kinds of main verbs.
1: Transitive Verbs. 2: Intransitive Verbs. 3: linking Verbs.
4: Causative Verbs. 5: Stative Verbs. 6: Phrasal Verb.

1: Transitive Verbs:

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Transitive verb always shows action, followed by direct object and

can be changed into passive voice. Structure: Action Verb + Direct
object (Noun/Pronoun/gerund/infinitive/noun clause).
Ex: Hina recites the Holy Quran. Ali likes Assad. Ali likes him. Ali
likes reading. Ali likes to read. Ali likes what he says.
Note: “I go home” And “I go down town” are exceptions; these
sentences cannot be changed into passive voice.

Kinds of Transitive verbs

There are four main kind of Transitive verbs.

I: Mono Transitive verbs. II: Di – Transitive verbs.

III: Complex Transitive. IV: Pseudo Transitive.

I: Mono Transitive verb: Structure: Mono Transitive verb + Direct

object. It is a verb followed only by one direct object. Such as: She
recites the Holy Quran. Ali helped her. Assad destroys the school.
Ahmad assembles the car parts.

II: Di – Transitive verb: Structure: Di-Transitive + Direct object+

indirect object.
It is a verb that is followed by two objects; one is direct object and
another indirect object.
Ex: Assad is playing football with Ahmad. Ali is reciting Holy Quran
with Ahmad. I bought a gift for Ali. She taught Holy Quran to the
students. Ali plays football with Ahmad. Ali tells Ahmad the
secrete.

III: Complex Transitive.

It is followed by complement. And cannot be changed into
passive voice.
Ex: Ali drives carefully. Ali recites beautifully. Ali plays
beautifully. She drives slowly. Action verb + adverb.

IV: Pseudo Transitive.

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It is followed by object, but cannot be changed into passive voice.

Ex: have, own, suit, possess, and fit. I have a car. The dress suits
Linda. The coat fits Ali. Ali possesses a good personality.

2: Intransitive verbs:
Intransitive verb always shows action, followed by indirect object
and cannot be changed into passive voice. EX: He goes to school.
Structure: Action Verb + Indirect object.
 Ali goes to school. He swims in the pool. (Indirect Object)

3: Linking Verbs:
Linking verbs are those verbs that link the subject to its
complement which is an adjective. It doesn’t show action.
Structure: Linking verb + Adjective.

Linking verbs are Be, taste, smell, look, seem, sound, get, feel…etc.
She looks beautiful. The rose smells sweet. I am happy. She is
upset. The rose smells sweet. She looks beautiful. She seems upset.

4: Stative Verbs:
It is also called non-progressive verb and are only used in simple
tense. It is a verb that only shows state, existence and condition.
They do not describe activities that are in progress.
Stative verbs have five main categories
Common None Progressive Verbs.
Mental Know, realize, Believe, feel, Imagine, doubt, Want, need,
State understand, suppose, remember, prefer, mean
recognize think* forget
Emotional Love, like, Hate, dislike Fear, envy Mind, care
appreciate
Possession Possess Have* Own Belong
Senses Taste*, smell* Hear, feel* See*
Seem, look*, Cost, owe, Consist of,
Existence appear* weigh* Be*, exist contain, include

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Exceptions: Verbs with an asterisk are also commonly used as

progressive verbs, with a difference in meaning.

None Progressive (Existence, state)Progressive (activity in

progress.)
THINK I think he is a kind man. I am thinking about my exams.
HAVE I have a car. I am having trouble with this car.
TASTE This food tastes good. The chef is tasting the sauce. **
SMELL This flower smells good. Ali is smelling the flower right
now. **
SEE I see you. The doctor is seeing a patient.
FEEL I feel pain in my leg. I am feeling sick and tired right
now.
LOOK She looks pale; I will take I am looking out of the window.
her to hospital.
APPEAR He appears to be asleep. The actor is appearing on the
stage.
WEIGH How much do you weigh? The grosser is weighing
potatoes.
BE Ali is foolish. Ali is being foolish.

5: Causative verbs:
It is a verb in which the subject doesn’t do anything, but causes to
object perform an action. Causative verbs are as follow: Get, Have,
Help, Let, Make etc.

I: Get:
Get means to encourage or persuade someone do something.
Structure: Get + object + to + verb 1st form Get Ahmad to recite
the Holy Quran. Get Assad to do his homework. Structure: Subject +
Get + object + to + verb 1st form.
Ex: Ali gets his students to study hard. Ali gets Assad to graze the
goats.

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II: Have:
Have means to choose/hire or to request someone do something.
Structure: Have + object + verb 1st form. Have Ali teach us English.
Have Assad help you. Have him help you. Have Ali talk to the
soldiers.

III: Help:
Help means to assist someone to do something.
Structure: Help + object + (to) + verb 1st form. Help Assad draw a
picture. Assad helps his brother (to) draw a picture.

IV: Let:
Let means to allow or permit someone to do something.
Structure: Let + object + verb 1st form. Let them play cricket.

V: Make:
Make means to force someone to do something.
Structure: Make + object + verb 1st form. I make the students study
hard.

6: Phrasal Verb:
It is the combination of main verb plus preposition or adverb means
participle. Verb + participle is called phrasal verb: [Link] +
Preposition.2. Verb + Adverb. Keep on, run over, put out, put on,
turn off, turn on, shut down, mess up, wake up, tear up, look up,
cut down, give up, bring round, bring up, carry on, carry out.

Kinds of phrasal Verbs

1: Separable Phrasal Verb: 2: Inseparable Phrasal Verb.

I: Separable Phrasal Verb:

Separable Phrasal Verbs are those verbs in which verb or participle
can be separated by noun or pronoun.
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 : Verb + Participle + Noun. Not Separated. (Correct) Ali turns

off the fan.
 : Verb + Noun + Participle. Separable. (Correct)Ali turns
the Fan off.
 : Verb + Pronoun + Participle. Separable. (Correct)Ali turns
it off.
 : Verb + Participle + Pronoun. (Wrong)Ali turns off it.

Because pronoun can’t be used after participle.

Note: Separable phrasal verbs can be changed into passive voice.
Waqas shuts down the computer. (Correct) You should cut off his head. (Correct)
Waqas shuts the computer down. (Correct) You should cut his head off. (Correct)
Waqas shuts it down. (Correct) You should cut it off. (Correct)
Waqas shuts down it. (Wrong) You should cut off it. (Wrong)
Note: pronoun cannot be used at the end of separable phrasal verbs.
(Ali brings round it. (wrong)

II: Inseparable Verbs:

Inseparable verbs are those verbs that cannot be separated; a noun
or pronoun cannot separate the verb and participle.

 : Verb + Participle + Noun. (Correct) We listen to the

Radio.
 : Verb + Participle + pronoun. (Correct) We listen to it.
(radio)
 : Verb + Noun + Participle. (Wrong) We listen radio to.
 : Verb + Pronoun + Participle. (Wrong) We listen it to.
Note: Inseparable phrasal verbs can’t be changed into passive voice.
 We listen to the radio. (Correct)  We heard from Ali. (Correct)
 We listen to it. (Correct)  We heard from him. (Correct)
 We listen radio to. (Wrong)  We heard Ali from. (Wrong)
 We listen it to. (Wrong)  We heard him from. (Wrong)

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2: Auxiliary Verbs:‫کومکي فعلونه‬

It is also called helping verbs. Helping verbs are used to help some
other verbs to form different tenses. The auxiliary verbs consist in:
Am, is, are, was, were, have, has, had, do, does, did, can, could,
shall, will, should, would, may, might, ought to, must, need, dare,
used to.
These auxiliaries are classified into three parts:
1- Principle auxiliaries: 2- Semi model auxiliaries:
3- Model auxiliaries:

1. Principle auxiliaries: The principle Auxiliary verbs are mainly

used to form negative, interrogative and different other tenses.
It is also called primary auxiliary verbs.

Kind of principle auxiliary verbs:

I: To be auxiliary verbs: Be-is/am/are-was/were-(been-being). Ali is
reciting the Holy Quran. Assad is playing cricket now. We are
grazing goats.

II: To do auxiliary verbs: Do/does-did- (done-doing). Ali does not

play cricket. Assad did not inform his father. Do you recite Holy
Quran?

III: To have auxiliary verbs: Have/has-had-(having). Have you seen

Ali? Has she been to Kabul?

Note: the principle auxiliaries can be used both as an ordinary and

auxiliary.

Examples: He is a lawyer. Ali has a nice car. I have an English book.

She does her homework. They do not have enough money to go to
UK.

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2- Semi model auxiliaries:

Semi auxiliary verbs are used both as an auxiliary verb and as a
main verb. It is used in positive, negative and in interrogative
sentences. Be going to. Have to/has to, had to. Would rather. Had
batter. Be supposed to. Used to. Ought to.

 Be going to + verb 1st form: It is an expression used before

base form of verb to show future intention. I am going to help
her. He is going to play football.

 Have/Has to + Base form of Verb: It is a semi-model-auxiliary,

used before base form of a verb to talk about present obligation
or necessity. EX: You have to sleep. Has to, is used with third
person singular, He, She, It, and singular noun. Have to, is used
with, third person plural, they and I, We, You. EX: She has to
wash the car. They have to wash the car.

 Would rather + verb 1st form: It is an expression used to show

choice or preference. I would rather study English. I would
rather not stay here.

 Had better + verb 1st form: This is an expression used to show

warning or to give an advice. You had better study hard for the
exam. You had better not slap my children. They had better
change their house.

 Be supposed to + verb 1st form: It is a verb phrase which

means “be expected to” you are supposed to help her. We are
supposed to teach the student. The students are supposed to
learn their subjects.

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 Used to + verb 1st form: It is an expression used to show past

habit and situation no longer exists in the present. I used to
smoke cigarette. I used to fly kites in my childhood. I didn’t used
to smoke cigarette.

 Ought to: it is used for advisability and obligation. (Positive) You

ought to study hard. You ought not to cross the red lights.

Note: Ought to, is less commonly used than “should”. Should is

used in positive, negative and in interrogative in common but
ought to, is not commonly used in positive, negative and in
interrogative sentence.

 Dare: It shows courage and it can be used both as an auxiliary

and ordinary.
Ex: Dare you talk to him? (Auxiliary) I dare to climb that
mountain. (Auxiliary).

 Need: Need shows a necessity and it can be used both as an

auxiliary and ordinary verb. EX: You need not help her.
(Auxiliary) She needs money. (Ordinary)

3- Model auxiliary:
Model auxiliary verbs are used to show different feelings of a
speaker. They do not take any (S) or (ES) when they are used with
3rd person singular. They can neither be infinitive nor present and
past participle.

The model Auxiliary verbs consist in: Can. Could. Will. Would. May.
Might, shall. Should. Must.

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1- Can: Can means be able to or know how to.

 Shows present and future ability. Can you come today?
(tomorrow)
 Present and future possibility. Afghanistan can win.
 Can is used for informal permission. Can I come in sir?

2- Could
 Could is used for the past ability. He could get first position.
 Could is used for present & future (formal) possibility. I could
learn English.
 Could is used for polite request/permission. (formal) Could you
bring me a glass of water?
 Could is used for past possibility/suggestion. (could + have +
verb 3rd form)
 We could have won the match. We could have arrested the
thieves.

3- Will:
 Will is used for forming future tense. I will start a new class next
semester.
 Will is used for weak future plan. I will go to Kabul tomorrow.
 Will is used for willingness/promise and determination. We will
help her. I will marry you. (Promise) I will get first position this
time. (Determination)

4- Would:
 Would is used for imagined situations. He would win the match.
 Would is used as the second form of will in indirect speech.

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5- May:
 May is used for present and future possibility. I may go to
Kabul.
 May is used for polite permission. May I come in sir? (common)
 May is used for wish or prayer. May Allah bless you. May Allah
speed you. May Allah rest your soul in peace.

6- Might:
 Might is used for present possibility. (weaker than may) I might
pass the test.
 Might is used for permission. (less formal than may) Might I
come in?
 Might is used for past possibility (might + have + verb 3rd form)
I might have gotten first position.

7- Shall:
 Shall is used for forming future tense, used with I, We. I shall
buy a car.
 Shall is used for making suggestion and forming tag question.
I Shall go with you. Shall I?

8- Should:
 Should is used for present advisability. You should go to doctor.
 Should is used for mild obligation. I should go to school.

9- Must:
 Must is used for strong obligation. (Positive) I must earn a lot of
money.
 Must is used for prohibition. (Negative) You must not enter to
that room.

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Some must have expressions used in English.

 Let’s + verb 1st form:

We use “let’s” with the base form of verb when we suggest
something to someone. Let’s go to park. Let’s cook eggs. Let’s
kill the snake. There are two possible negatives with Let us. EX:
Let us not stay up late tonight. Do not let us stay up tonight. Let
us not kill Ahmad. Do not let us kill Ahmad.

 Let me + verb 1st form:

We use “let me” with the base form of verb to show
permission. Let me help you. Let me kill the snake. Let me feed
the baby. Let me do your homework.

 I think:
We use “I think” before a clause when we are not sure about
the information. I think he lives in
Khost city. I think he studies at Cambridge University.

 Want + to verb 1st form:

Want is used with “to verb 1st form” to show desire. I want to
buy a car. I want to go to USA. I want to play football. He wants
to recite the Holy Quran.
 Like + to + verb 1st form: Like + verb 1st + ing. It is used to show
desire.
. I like to learn English. I like to read the book. I like swimming.
I like playing.

 Know how to + verb 1st form:

It Shows ability. Ali knows how to swim. Henna knows how to
write. I know how to shoot. We know how to drive a car.

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 Wish: Wish, is a verb used to show a desire which cannot be

fulfilled. I wish I were you. I wish I were a child. We wish we
could swim.

 Be about to + verb 1st form:

It is a phrase. We use to show that an action which is going to
happen very soon. I am about to finish fourth month. I was
about to burn my hand.

 Think so, hope so, and guess so: are used to show agreement.
I think so. 90% certainty. Does Ali go to school every day?
I don’t think so. I think so. I guess so. 40% certainty. Will Ali quit
his job? I guess so. I guess not. I hope so. Expectation. Will you
be in USA next year? I hope so. I hope not.

 Would you mind + verb + ING:

This is an expression used to make a polite request. Would you
mind answering my question? Yes, I would: It means that you
don’t want to answer that question. No, I wouldn’t: It means
that you want to answer that question.

Mode of Verbs: The word mood is taken from the Latin word
“Modus” which means method. Mood is the method by which a
verb is used to express a particular action

Kinds of Mood
There are five kinds of mood.
I: Declarative mood: In this case a verb is used to show a general
statement or fact. Example. Allah is one. We are in the class. Assad
writes his homework.

II: Imperative Mood: In this case a verb is used to give an order,

warning, advice, direction, and instruction. Example. Go home. Stop
there. Do your job. Open the door. Study hard.
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III: Interrogative Mood: In this case a verb is used to ask a question.

Example. Can you speak English? Were you sick yesterday? Will you
help her? Do you study every day? Do you graze goats?

IV: Infinitive Mood: In this case to + verb 1st form is used and acts
as a subject. To err is human, to forgive is God. To promise is easy,
to perform is difficult. To earn is hard, to spend is easy.

V: Subjunctive Mood: In this case a verb is used to show a

condition, wish/prayer, supposition, or unreal situation/action in
the present, past, and future. If I were you, I would help her. I wish
I were rich. May Allah bless you!

Qualities of Subjunctive mood:

1. Were; is used instead of “Was” with all subjects. I wish I
were you!

2. No singular/plural concept. It does not take S/ES/IES even

with third person singular. Allah bless you. Allah speed you
in your work. God save the king, King save the nation.

3. It does not require any auxiliary verbs when changed to a

negative form, but simply “Not + verb” is used. It is
important that Ali not make fun on him.

4. We use such expression for example, it is important, vital,

imperative, obligatory, and necessary.

5. We use such verbs, advice, suggest, and recommend.

6. Instead of is/am/are, only “Be” is used. It is important that

Ali be on time. It is important that the report be submitted
this week.
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Structure: this structure indicates that something is already late.

a. It + is + time + subject + simple past. EX: It is time
you said sorry. It is time you came to class. It is time
you helped her. It is time you called.

b. Subject + verb + that + subject + verb + rest of a

sentence. EX: You advise that Ali come on time. You
advise that Assad graze the goats.

c. Subject + to be verbs + adjective + that + rest of a

sentence. EX: It is vital/important/obligatory that Ali
not make a noise in the class.

d. With fixed traditionally expression is used to express

prayer. EX: Allah bless you. Allah speed you in your
work.

Adjective: ‫صفت‬
The word Adjective is taken from a Latin word “ADJECTVUS” which
means to add or conclude.

Definition: Adjective is a word that modifies a noun or a pronoun.

Ex: Ali is a polite student. He is handsome. Ali is smart. Mohammad
is handsome. Ahmad is stupid.

The word adjective shows the following fourteen facts.

1. Opinion: He is an arrogant boy. Ali is a stupid person. Assad

is ‫ش‬smart boy.

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2. Shape: Ali hates triangle houses. Assad loves squired

houses.

3. Origin: Ali is Afghan. He is American. I am Russian.

(Nationality)

4. Color: Ali is wearing white shirt. She is wearing black shoes.

5. Material: I love to live in a wooden house. She lives in a

mud compound.

6. Size: Ali is skinny. Assad is heavy. Ahmad is chubby. Ahmad

is muscular.

7. Temperature: The weather is hot today. The weather is

cold.
8. Time: They reached on time because they had an early
start.
9. Distance: Afghanistan is far. North Waziristan Agency is
near.
10. Age: Assad is young man. Ali is a middle age person. Adam
is an old man.
11. Purpose: We need a frying pan. She bought a sleeping bag.
12. Quality: Ahmad is a dishonest boy. I have a rotten apple.
13. Quantity: Hina has much rice. They have a little water to
drink.
14. Number: There are three children in the garden.

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Roots of Adjectives: There are three main roots of Adjectives

I: Cases of adjective: II: Kinds of adjective: III: Degree of adjective.

Cases of Adjectives: There are four cases of adjectives.

1. Attributive Case: In this case, an adjective is placed before

a noun. Structure: Action verb + Adjective + Noun.
Ex: I bought a nice car. I killed a dangerous snake. I talked to
a smart boy.

2. Predicative Case: In this case, an adjective is placed after a

linking verb. Structure: Linking verb + Adjective.
Ex: Ali is happy. Hina is smart. The exam seems easy. Ahmad
looks handsome. Your idea sounds interesting. The soup
tastes awful. I feel sad. Ali got tired.

3. Past Positive Case: In this case, an adjective is placed after

an indefinite pronoun. Structure: Indefinite pronoun +
adjective.
Ex: I bought something important. I didn’t buy anything
important. I bought nothing important. I love everything
important. I saw someone famous. I faced somebody
notorious.

4. Abridged Case: In this case, an adjective is placed between

non-action verb and noun. Structure: non-action verb +
noun.
Ex: Ali is a smart boy. Ali is a happy person. She is a beautiful
girl.

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Kinds of Adjective:
There are thirteen different kinds of adjectives.

1. Possessive Adjective: Possessive Adjectives are used to

show possession or ownership.
Structure: Possessive Adjective + Noun.
Ex: My, your, his, her, its, our, their.1: This is my pen. This is
your pen. This is his pen. This is its tail. This is her pen. This
is our school. This is their house.

2. Interrogative Adjective: Interrogative Adjectives are used to

ask question in a sentence. They are; whose, what, which.
Structure: Interrogative Adjective + Noun. What time is it?
Whose pen is this? Which cell phone is yours? Which class
are you in? Whose book is this? What time does your class
begin?

3. Relative Adjective: Relative Adjectives are used to join two

clauses. There is only one relative adjective whose.
Structure: Relative Adjective + Noun + verb + Complement.
The girl is crying. Her paper is rejected. The girl whose paper
is rejected is crying.
We met the boy. Someone killed his father. We met the boy
whose father was killed by someone.

4. Distributive Adjective: Distributive Adjectives are used to

talk about each person, place or thing separately.
Structure: Distributive adjective + Singular Noun + Singular
verb.
Ex: every, each, either, neither. Each boy is allowed to join
the class. Every teacher is responsible for his mishap. Every
student is intelligent.

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5. Demonstrative Adjective: Demonstrative adjective are used

to point out a person, place or thing that is near or far from
the speaker. Demonstrative adjectives are; This, That,
These, Those.
Structure: Demonstrative adjective + singular/ plural Noun +
verb. 1. This pen is mine. That pen is mine. These pens are
mine. Those pens are mine.

6. Emphatic Adjective: Emphatic adjectives are used to

emphasize on the noun. Emphatic adjectives are; very and
own.
Structure: Emphatic adjective + Noun. This is my own
house.

7. Descriptive Adjective: Descriptive adjectives are used to

show quality of a person, place or thing. Ex: He is
handsome. The weather is warm today. Pamir University is
a famous educational organization.

8. Numeral Adjective: Numeral Adjectives are used to talk

about the number of countable nouns.

Kinds of numeral adjectives: it has two kinds mentioned

below.
a. Indefinite Adjectives: Indefinite adjectives don’t show
the exact number of countable nouns. They are; many, a
few, few, a lot of, lots of, any, some, many.
Note: A lot of/lots of; they are used both for countable
and uncountable nouns. Singular. A lot of water is
wasted. Lots of water is wasted.

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Plural: a lot of computers are broken. Lots of computers

are broken.
Structure: Indefinite adjective + plural noun.
Ex: Do you have any pens? Many students were absent.
I have some friends.

b. Definite adjective: Definite adjectives show the exact

number of countable nouns. They are of two main kinds
such as:

I: Ordinal number:
It shows the exact sequence. They are; First, Second, Third,
Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth. She got
first position.

II: Cardinal number: It shows the exact number of nouns.

They are; one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine,
ten… Ex: I have four brothers.

9. Quantitative Adjective: Quantitative adjectives show the

quantity of non-countable nouns. They are; much, a little,
little, a lot of, lots of, some, any.
Structure: Quantitative adjective + non-count Nouns.1. I
have much experience. I drank a little water. Ali spent a lot
of money.

10. Exclamatory Adjective: Exclamatory adjectives are used to

show surprise or sudden feeling of sadness or joy.
Structures: What + a/an + Singular noun! 2: What + plural
noun! 3: What + non-countable noun! 1: What a car! 2:
What girls! 3: What coffee!

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11. Proper Adjective:

Proper adjectives are used to show nationality and are
derived from proper nouns. Ex: Ali is Afghan. He is Indian.
I am American.

12. Verbal/ING Adjective:

It’s the 1st form of verb + ING to show cause and have an
active meaning. It is used in attributive and predicative case.
Ex: The story is amazing. The earth quack is damaging.

13. Verbal/ED Adjective:

It is the 3st form verb to show the result and have passive
meaning. It is used in predicative and attributive case.
Ex: They bought a broken jug.

Degrees of Adjectives
There are three main degrees of Adjectives, positive, comparative
and superlative degree.

1 – Positive degree: ‫ساده درجه‬

The positive degree of an adjective has neither prefix nor suffix; it
is the simple form of an adjective used, when no comparison is
meant. Example: Nice, clever, smart, short, fat, skinny, slim, heavy,
big, bad, good, flat, thin, sad, wet, dry, hot, cold, far, young, little,
much, senior, junior, white, wise, brave, fine, wide, quite, safe,
hard, healthy, happy, pretty, silly, friendly, salty, ugly, noisy, tall,
old, new, strong, great, narrow, rich, dark, bright, sharp…etc. Adel
is a fat boy. Kabul is a big city.

2 – Comparative degree:‫پرتليزه درجه‬

Comparative degree is a degree through which we compare one
person or thing with another person or thing. EX: Nicer, Cleverer,
Smaller etc. Hina is cleverer than Adel. Khost is nicer than Kabul.
Waqas is more intelligent than Ahmad.

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Note: The preposition (than) is usually used to introduce the

second part of comparison.

3 – Superlative degree:‫عالي درجه‬

Superlative degree is a degree through which we compare one
person or thing with the group of persons or things. The superlative
degree of an adjective indicates the highest degree of quality. EX:
Nicest, cleverest, and smallest. Waqas is the cleverest of all. Khost
is the most beautiful province of all. Note: Article (the) is usually
placed before the superlative degree of an adjective.

Regular Adjectives: regular adjectives are those adjectives which

have specific rules to change them from positive degree to
comparative and superlative.

Irregular Adjectives: Irregular adjectives are those adjectives which

have no specific rules to change them from positive degree to
comparative and superlative.

Rules of forming positive degree of an adjective to comparative

and superlative degree.
Formation of comparative and superlative degrees
Comparative Degree Superlative Degree
R ST
ER EST
IER IEST
Than (comes after compare adjective) The ( comes before superlative adjective)
I: One syllable Adjective: Adjectives ending with “e” takes “r” to
change them to comparative degree, and “ST” to change them to
superlative degree.
Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree
Nice Nicer Nicest
Fine Finer Finest
Wise Wiser Wisest
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White Whiter Whitest

Cute Cuter Cutest
Wide Wider Widest
Large Larger Largest
Late Later Latest

II: Adjectives ending in Consonant + vowel + Consonant: Double

the last consonant to change them to comparative degree and add
“ER” do same to superlative degree and add “EST”.
Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree
Big Bigger Biggest
Hot Hotter Hottest
Fat Fatter Fattest
Flat Flatter Flattest
Dim Dimmer Dimmest
Thin Thinner Thinnest
Red Redder Reddest
Sad Sadder Saddest

IV: Adjective ending in consonant + “Y” change “Y” to “I” and add
“ER” to change them to comparative degree, and “EST” to change
them to superlative degree.
Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree
Cloudy Cloudier Cloudiest
Sunny Sunnier Sunniest
Funny Funnier Funniest
Friendly Friendlier Friendliest
Crazy Crazier Craziest
Silly Sillier Silliest
Windy Windier Windiest

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III: One syllables Adjective: Adjectives not ending with “e” takes
“ER” to change them to comparative degree, and “EST” to change
them to superlative degree.
Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree
Tall Taller Tallest
Cold Colder Coldest
High Higher Highest
Cool Cooler Coolest
Narrow Narrower Narrowest
Small Smaller Smallest
Fast Faster Fastest
Long Longer Longest
V: Adjectives of two or more than two syllables. Use “more /less” in
comparative degree, and “most/least” in superlative degree.
Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree
Expensive More expensive Most expensive
Beautiful More beautiful Most beautiful
Intelligent More intelligent Most intelligent
Difficult Less difficult Least difficult
Spectacular Less spectacular Least spectacular

Irregular Adjectives: As we learned that Irregular adjectives are

those adjectives which have no specific rules to change them from
positive degree to comparative and superlative. Below are some
irregular Adjectives.

Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree

Good Better Best
Bad Worse Worst
Little Less Least
Much More Most
Old Older/Elder Oldest/ Eldest
Far Farther/Further Farthest/ Furthest

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Article: An article is a word that modifies noun in order to show

whether you are talking about a noun in general or specifically.
There are three main adjectives A. An. The. “A” or “An” is
abbreviated form of the adjective “One” while “The” is an article
abbreviated form of “this”, “that”, “these”, “those.”

According to usage there are three main kinds of articles.

1: Definite article 2: Indefinite article 3: Zero article

1: Indefinite article: “A” and “An” are indefinite articles, because

they show an indefinite person, place or thing.
Ex: I saw a doctor. (Means any doctor). Bring me an umbrella.
(Means any umbrella)

I- The form (a) is placed before the nouns beginning with a

consonant sounds. Such as: A Chair. A table. A university. A union
of labors. A FIFA tournament.

II- The form (an) is placed before the nouns beginning with a vowel
sound.
Such as “a” sounds an apple. An umbrella. An honest. An hour. An
FBI agent. An MD. An MP. An MBBS. An x-ray. An NDS officer.

III: A/An is used with titles (Mr. Mrs. Ms. Miss) when someone is
strange to us.
Ex: A Mr. Khan. (A man called Khan, but strange)

2: Definite article: “The” is a definite article, because it points out

some particular person, place or thing. When the same thing is
mentioned for the second time “the” is used.

Ex: I saw a dog, the dog was very beautiful. I bought a car, the car
was very expensive.

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Usage of definite article “The”

1. It is used before singular/plural countable and uncountable
nouns.
Ex: It is the book. These are the books. The milk has 100%
vitamins.

2. Before thing or group of things which are unique. The sun,

the moon, the sky, the stars, the international market.

3. Before the common nouns. The student, the boy, the chair.

4. Before the ordinal numbers. The first class, the second

student

5. Before the superlative form of adjective. Ex: Ali is the

cleverest student of the class. Ali bought the most beautiful
car.

Article (The) cannot be placed in the following ways.

1: Before the days of the week. The Saturday.

2: Before the months of the year. The January.

3: Before the proper nouns. The Assad Khan.

Note: when article (the) is placed before words beginning

with a vowel, it is pronounced as (ði:) otherwise (ðë). The
orange. The boy. The apple.

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3: Zero article: The use of noun on their own without an article is

called zero article or not using an article is called zero article.
Usage of Zero article.

1. With uncountable and plural nouns when we talk generally

about people or things.
Ex: Tigers are dangerous animals. Teachers like high salary.
Cars are expensive to buy. Flowers are beautiful.

2. When an adverb, adjective or both are used before a

singular countable noun. Here we can also omit “a” or “an”
called zero article. Ex: Ali is a very smart boy. Ali is very
smart boy.

3. We do not use “the” before proper nouns.

Ex: Ali is a student of DEL. We love Afghanistan.

However, we use “the” when there are two people or places

with the same name and we want to specify which one we
are talking about. EX: I met the Zia who invited us last night.
She lives in the Punjab (Punjab of India not Pakistan)

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PREPOSITION:
Origin: The word preposition is derived from a Latin word
“PREAPOSITION” which means placing before.

Definition: Preposition is a word or a group of words that is placed

before its object (noun and pronoun) to show its relationship with
other words.

Such as in, on, at, to, since, for, by, with, about, above, below,
over, until, across, along, before, behind, under, underneath,
beneath, among, during, into, onto, in spite of, instead of, out of, due
to, according to, in front of.

Preposition + Noun. My Phone is made in China.

Preposition + Pronoun. Ali is talking to her.
Preposition + Gerund. We are tired of learning Math.
Note: when we use verbs after preposition, we use –Derivational
forms, not infinitives.
Preposition + infinitive. You have no choice but/except to study
Note: Two prepositions (but /except) is only used with infinitive.
Preposition + Noun She is tired of what you are saying.
clause.

Kinds of preposition: There are two main kinds of prepositions.

1. Simple preposition. 2. Compound preposition.

1. Simple preposition:
It is composed of one single word that can be one or two
syllable.
Such as about, on, above, below, over, across, along, at, in,
to, before, behind, under, since, underneath, beneath, among,
by, with, during, for, into, onto, until. We are in the class.
She went before us. She arrived before Ali.

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Simple preposition is of two kinds.

Mono-syllable preposition. Di-syllable preposition.

Mono syllable preposition:

It contains one syllable sound. Such as in, on, by, to, of,
at, for. The lion was killed by Ali. Who is Ali talking to?
Informal. To whom is Ali talking? Formal. Which class
are you in? Informal. In which class do you read?
Formal. I drew the picture which she is looking at.
Informal. I drew the picture at which she is looking.
Formal. Please, come in. We are in the class.

At, is used for specific time on the clock: We have a class at 1

o’clock. Ali goes to bad at 9 o’clock. Assad comes home late at
night. At is generally used for Position at a point: Turn right at the
next corner. Large places: The plane stopped at Kabul airport. I am
at cinema. I am at sheikh Zayed University. I will see you at Pamir
University. At a party. At a meeting. At a concert.
At a lecture. At a match.

In, is used with month: my birth day is in October. Year: Assad post
graduated from university in 2016. Morning: he gets up early.
Afternoon: he teaches in the afternoon. Evening: I saw her in the
evening. In. is used for inside position the dimensional space. Such
as I think she is in her office. She is in the class. They are in the
living room.

On, is used for specific day of a week. Assad has a class on

Monday. Date: Assad has an interview on June 31st, 1991. On. Is
used for position on a line, Roads, Avenues, and Streets. (when they
have number than “at” is used) Pamir University is on park road.
There is a school on station road. My school is on university road.
There is a mosque on Maiwand’s avenue. I live on Church Street.
There is a museum on School Street. (They live at 5th Church
Street.) Position of surface: The book is on the table. There is a label
on the bottle. Set the dinner on the table. The picture would look
good on the other wall. He is writing on the white board. What’s on
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your finger? With days of week. They will go to Peshawar on

Saturday.

With: it is used before instruments or source. With also means

together: They serve tea with cookies. She writes with a pen. We see
with eyes. They play with Ahmad. (She writes with a pen. Right.
She writes on a pen. Wrong)

For: for + period of time is used to say how long something

continues. He plays cricket for three hours. We study for one hour at
Pamir University. For is used before a person(s) receiving a gift.
Raihan bought a gift for Maroof. I cooked eggs for Ali.

By: we use by + means of transportation (car, bus) to say how

someone come and go from one place to another. They go to school
by bus. She comes to Khost by plane. By shows Time, not later than.
I’ll be home by five o’ clock. By the time you get home I will be
dead. By means near. We live by the sea. By means himself. The
snake was killed by Ali.

Through: it is also preposition of time and is used to show the

continuation days of the week, months of the year. I will be in
Khost, June through December.

From: it is used to show the person’s dwelling or original residence.

Structure: from + name of place. EX: She is from Afghanistan. He
is from UAE. Ali sent a letter from UAE. From, it is also a
preposition, which indicates a point of departure.

Since: it is a preposition of time we use since for specific time to

show the starting point of an action. She has been singing a song
since 12:20 am.

i. Di-Syllable preposition.
It contains more than one sound. Such as under, above,
below, between, among, behind, beside, underneath,
about etc. The people whom you are talking about are
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greedy. Informal. The people about whom you are

talking are greedy. Formal. She left before we arrive. She
came before Ali.

About, is used to talk about ordinary communication. I am talking

about Ahmad. About followed by “to” means that something is
going to happen very soon or it means very near to. Ahmad is about
to get marry. He was about to eat without Ali. They are about to
start the match. They are on the verge of starting the match.

Before, it means earlier than (Time). It is used for order or

arrangement. January is before March. Saturday is before Monday.
A is before B. He must come before nine o’ clock. I was before you.
Her name comes before Ali.

After, It means later than. It is used for order or arrangement. Friday

is after Saturday. April comes after March. P is after o.

Above, Means higher or over. The clouds are above my head. The
fan is above us. Can you see the helicopter above/ over the palace?

Below, Lower than. Such as the pen is below the chair. The
temperature is below 30 Celsius.

Across/Over, It can both be used on or to the other side of a line,

river, road or bridge. Such as His village is just across / over the
border. Can you jump across / over the stream?

Along, It refer to things with a long shape, it is used with the nouns
like; road, river, corridor, line. I saw her running along the road. His
office is along the road.

Around (a) round, both are used for movement or position in a

circle or a curve. Such as she walked around the car and looked at
the wheel. I’d like to travel around the world.

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Under, under means beneath or lower than. Our teacher is standing

under the tree. The cat is sitting under the table. The pen is under the
chair. What are you wearing under your shirt? The whole village is
under water. (Not. Below the water). You cannot see this film if
you are under 18.

Between, (Two). Such as she was standing between Ali and Ahmad.
We need two meters distance between windows. There is less time
between each person’s birthdays.

Among, (More than two). Such as my house is among their house. I

am standing among them.

During, Means within a period a time. It is used to say that when

something is happened. it isn’t followed by specific day. Waqas was
reading a newspaper during the day. They play cricket during their
vacation. He looks pale during examination.

Through, through means up to and including. It is used with the

days of week and months of the year to show continuation. Pamir
University is open Saturday through Thursday. The park is open
May to November.

Until, it is used to talk about a situation that will continue up to a

certain moment. Means up to that time. Structure: Until + Time
expression. We play cricket until night. She works at coffee shop
until 11 o’ clock.

Into, into means inside, within or in some place or thing. It shows

motion. Into shows motion. She jumped into the river. I am putting
the pen into his pocket.

2. Compound preposition: Compound prepositions are

composed of two or more than words. Such as according to,
up to, due to, owing to, out of, instead of

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Structure: Preposition + Noun + preposition: in front of, in spite

of, In the name of, in front of, By the grace of, at the corner of, in
light of, In the middle of, At/by the end of, In the memory of, in the
event of, from the core of, In case of, At the bottom of, in the
presence of. Ali is standing in front of Pamir University. The dog is
sitting in the middle of road.

According to. It shows opinion and it means if someone says is

true. Such as according to Ann her boyfriend is an idiot. If what Ann
says is true. In my opinion Ann’s boyfriend is idiot. (Not. According
to)

In front of (place). Such as He parked his car in front of the post

office.

Out of. Out of means outside. He is coming out of his car. She is
taking money out of her purse. Out of shows motion: He is going
out of his class.

From …..To. It is paired preposition of time used to show an

activity from specific time to specific time. Such as: we have a class
from 1 o’clock to 3 o’clock. I work at office from seven o’clock to
four o’ clock. Ali worked there from Monday to Friday. From April
to December.

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Conjunction
Origin: The word conjunction is derived from a Latin word
“Conjunct” which means to relate or to combine.

Definition: Conjunction is a word or a group of words that joins two

or more than two words, sentences, clauses or phrases. Ali and
Assad are good friends. (Here the word “and” is a conjunction and
joins two words.) He is very weak, but he works hard. (Here “but” is
a conjunction joins two sentences) I went to bed because I was
extremely tired. (“because” is conjunction which joins two clauses
together.)

Kinds of conjunctions: There are three main kinds of conjunction.

I: Coordinate Conjunction. II: Co relative conjunction.
III: Subordinate Conjunction

1. Co-ordinate Conjunction: Co-ordinate conjunctions are those

conjunctions which combine the same grammatical unites. They are
also called FANBOYS. It Stand for; F: For. A: and. N: Nor. B: But. O:
Or. Y: Yet. S: So.

For: It is used to link Result clause with Reason clause. I got first
position. I studied hard. I got first position, for I studied hard. I left
in haste, for I was already late for the appointment. I didn’t come to
university, for I was sick. I like her, for she's always so friendly.

So: It is used to link Reason clause with the Result clause. Ahmad
didn’t study. He failed the test. Ahmad didn’t study, so he failed the
test. She is sick, so she has to see a doctor. Let's go upstairs and
talk, so we can have a little privacy. Keep your password secret, so
that others cannot access your account.

And: It is used to link clauses of the same grammatical value. Dayan

recites the Holy Quran, and Maroof recites the Holy Quran. It is also
used to link words, phrases of the same grammatical value. Dayan
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and Maroof recite the Holy Quran. I have a book and a pen. Waqas
and Assad are classmates. He and I are brothers. Assad is modest
and polite student. Ali is clever and famous person. She sings and
sweeps. She cooks and chops.

Nor: it is used to introduce an alternative. It is used after negative

statements. Structure: Negative clause + nor + interrogative clause.
Ahmad didn’t come home nor did he call his father. Ali doesn’t play
cricket nor does he study. Ali is not teaching nor is he checking the
students’ homework.

But: It is used to link two opposite sentences. Waqas is rich, but Ali
is poor. Ahmad is a teacher, but Mohammad is not a teacher.
Raihan doesn’t like coffee, but Maroof likes it.

Or: It is a conjunction used to link two or more alternatives. He will

eat an apple, or he will eat a pomegranate. You must join Army or
you must get higher education.

Yet: It shows that something has not happened up to now, but it

may happen in the future. He didn’t come yet. You also use yet to
introduce a fact which seems rather surprising in relation to the
thing you have just mentioned.

Everything around him was blown to pieces ،yet the minister

escaped without a scratch. She didn’t study hard, yet she got first
position. She was sick, yet she came to class.

2. Subordinate Conjunctions: Subordinate conjunctions are

those conjunctions which are used to combine clauses of
unequal rank.

a. Subordinate conjunction + incomplete clause, + complete

clause. If I study hard, I will pass the test.

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b. Complete clause + subordinate conjunction + incomplete

clause. I will pass the test if I study hard.

There are six kinds of subordinating Conjunction.

a. Subordinate conjunction of time. They show time of an
action or situation in the present, past and future. Such as
after, before, while/as, since, until/till, once/as soon as etc.
After he graduates, he will get a job. Before he comes,
I will leave home. While I was walking home, it began
to rain. When Ali arrived, Assad was talking on the
phone. As I was going home, it began to rain. Since I
joined Pamir University, my English has improved
greatly. Until we finish our work, we will stay there. Till
we finish our work, we will stay there. Once it stops
raining, we will leave for university. As soon as it stops
raining, we will leave for university. By the time he
comes, we will have already left. As long as I live
there, I will never speak to him. Whenever I see him, I
will send your massage. Since I joined Pamir University,
my English has improved greatly.

b. Subordinate conjunction of place. They show the location

of an action or situation in the present, past and future.
Such as where, wherever. I can come wherever you invite
me for dinner. Wherever you invite me for dinner, I can
come. Where you go, I will come.

c. Subordinate conjunction of reason. They show the cause

and effect relationship. Such as because, as far as, as. She
cannot come to class because she is sick. Because she is too
sick, she cannot come to class. As far as I can tell (see,
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know), no one cares about constitution. As I went

there, the bomb exploded.

d. Purpose: show the purpose of an action. Such as so that,

in order that. We came to Pamir University so that we
can learn English.

e. Condition: show possible condition with an expected or

unexpected result.

If you study hard, you will pass the test. Even if you
study hard, you will not pass the test. Unless you study
hard, you will not pass the test. If you study hard, you
can pass the test. Even if you study hard, you cannot
pass the test. Unless you study hard, you cannot pass
the test.

f. Subordinate conjunction of contract. They are used to

show either a direct or indirect contract. Such as although,
even though, though, while, whereas. Although I studied
hard, they failed me . Even though I studied hard, they
failed me. Though I studied hard, they failed me.
Whereas I studied hard, they failed me. Although I
studied hard, they failed me.

3. Correlative Conjunctions: Correlative or paired conjunctions

are those conjunctions that are used in pairs to combine the
same/equal grammatical units.
Note: before and after paired conjunction only one parallel
structure can come.

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Structure Equal Structure Structure Equal Structure

Both Noun/Pronoun And Noun/Pronoun
Neither Verb Nor Verb
Either Adjective Or Adjective
Not only Gerund But also Gerund
Infinitive Infinitive
Phrase Phrase
Independent clause Independent
clause
Dependent clause Dependent
clause

Ali saw the gust. Ahmad saw the gust. Both Ali and Ahmad saw the
gust. I need to know both where she goes and whom she meets
every day. Some students both are chewing gum and are reading a
book. Both the teachers are willing to teach and the students are
willing to learn. Both Ali and Ahmad come to Airport. I want both to
join Pamir and study there. Neither he nor she learns math. Neither
did I ask her nor did she did she tell me about it. He should great his
friends not only properly but also politely. Sometimes, she is
neither friendly not cooperative. They enjoying either listening to
music or going fishing in their free time.

Structure: Both – and (Both ………And + Noun + plural Verb)

Both Ali and Assad come of noble families. The teacher punished
both ASSAD and Ali. My father talked both angrily and aggressively
to my friends. Both Ahmad and Assad are talented. Both Ali and
Ahmad are crazy.
Structure: Neither – Nor (Neither…Noun + nor + Noun + plural
verb) there is no love in Afghanistan. There is no peace in
Afghanistan. There is neither love nor peace in Afghanistan. You
aren’t a bad boy. You aren’t a good boy. You are neither a good
nor a bad boy. Neither Ali nor Ahmad is crazy. Ali can neither recite
nor study. She can neither cook nor dance.

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Structure: Either - or (Either ……Or + singular Noun + singular Verb)

Ali enjoys either going out with friends or watching movies all the
day. Either the students or teacher is coming. Either the teacher or
students are coming.

Structure: Not only - but also (Not only…but also + plural Noun +
plural verb) Not only Assad but also Ali is coming from UK. Not only
UK but also Russia was defeated by Afghans. Not only New Delhi
but also Mashhad was conquered by Emperor Ahmad Shah. Ali not
only teaches at Pamir University but also at SZU.

Note. Only one word is used before and after conjunction, no more
than one.

Interjections or Exclamations: An interjection is a word or word

phrase that shows sudden feeling of joy, sadness, happiness,
sorrow, pain, or surprise it’s followed by an exclamatory mark or a
comma.

Ex: Ouch, You are standing on my foot! Oh, my goodness! I am not

sure! What a surprise! Hurrah! We are going on picnic next week!
Hum, let me work on it! Well. Ouch! Oh! Hurrah! Alas! Oops! Burr!
Wow! Shshshsh! Hum!

Exclamation Exclamation
Oh! – Oho! Oh-no! Wow!
Oh, well! Oh-oh! Brrrr!
Ah! Oh, my Gosh!
Whew! Good Heavens!
Ow! Ouch! Ugh! Yuck!
Whoops! Oops! Watch out!

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Exclamation with How:

How + Adjective
How pretty! How beautiful! How lovely! How strange! How ugly!
How nasty!

How + adjective + subject + verb.

How cold it is! How stupid she is! How cold it is! How happy she is!

How + adverb + subject + verb.

How beautifully he plays! How carelessly he drives! How bravely he
fights!

How + subject + verb.

How you have grown! How you arrived here! How you passed the
test!

Exclamation with What.

What (an/a) + adjective + Noun.
What a kind teacher! What a useful book! What an idiot fellow.
What an upset face! What beautiful flowers! What stupid boys!
What intelligent students!

Exclamations in the form of Interrogation.

Negative interrogative are often used as exclamation. The meaning
is affirmative. Wasn’t it an interesting class! Isn’t it a great match!

Non-negative interrogative can also be used as an exclamation,

especially in American English. Am I ugly! Does he look sad! Is it
amazing! Are they insane!

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Adverb:
Origin: the word Adverb is derived from a Latin word
“ADVERBIUM” which means to add something to the meaning of a
verb.

Definition: Adverb is a word that modifies verb, an adjective, or

another adverb in a sentence. Adverbs answer the following
questions.

I: When, Where, Why, How, What for, how, how well, How often,
How much, to what extent, to what degree, How many times,
under what condition.
Examples.
Ali drives fast. Ali is fast.
Ali performs hard work. Ali is late.
Action Verb + adverb. To Be + Adjective.
Ali works hard. Ahmad came late.
Action Verb + Adverb. Action Verb + Adverb.
The Bold words are Adverbs Because of no noun or Linking
Verb.

Note: She sings beautiful. (Incorrect)

Action Verb + Adjective.
This sentence is wrong because of action verb; adjectives
cannot be used with Action verbs. Ali drives carelessly. He
drives carelessly. She is working hard. Our class finishes at
six o’clock. Ali plays cricket in the ground. She sings
beautifully. (Correct)
Action verb + Adverb.

1: Adverb modifying “verb”. Answers the questions “How”. Our

teacher teaches well. She sings carefully. He studies hard. He
behaves insanely. He drives stupidly. Ahmad talks loudly.

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2: Adverbs modifying “Adjectives”. She is a beautiful lady. She is a

very beautiful lady. I am tired. I’m too tired. Assad is happy. Assad
is so happy. Ali is a good boy. Ali is a really good boy.
Note: It also answers the questions of (How often or to what
extend).

3: Adverbs modifying another “Adverb”. She dances beautifully.

She dances really beautifully. He comes late. He comes too late. He
drives recklessly. He drives very recklessly. Note. It also answers
the questions of (How often).

Kinds of Adverbs: There are thirteen different kinds of Adverb.

1. Interrogative Adverb. 8. Relative adverb.
2. Adverb of place. 9. Adverb of time.
3. Adverb of manner. 10. Adverb of Frequency.
4. Adverb of degree. 11. Adverb of Certainty.
5. Focusing Adverb. 12. Emphatic Adverb.
6. Sentence Adverb. 13. Adverb of Negation.
7. Conjunctive Adverb.

1: Interrogative Adverb: Interrogative Adverbs are used to ask

questions that need a complete answer. They are; Where, when,
why, how. EX: Why are you late? How is your health?

2: Adverbs of place: Adverbs of place are used to ask question

“where” and shows the location of an action or situation. EX: We
went there. Come here. The clash happened on the main road.
They are playing in the ground. Pamir University is located in Khost
Province.

3: Adverb of manner: Adverbs of Manner are used to answer the

question “How” and show how something is done. Structure:
Adjective + Ly, ILy, AILy = Adverb of manner.

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Note: Noun + Ly = Adverb of manner. EX: He talks brotherly. She

teaches motherly. He advised you fatherly. She helps him sisterly.
Ly Rules
Adjective Adverb Adjective Adverb
Bad Badly Smart Smartly
Beautiful Beautifully Clever Cleverly
Sad Sadly Quick Quickly
Slow Slowly Careless Carelessly

ILy Rules:
Adjective Adverb Adjective Adverb
Happy Happily pretty prettily
Greedy Greedily Healthy Healthily
Wealthy Wealthily funny Funnily
Crazy Crazily Busy Busily
Noisy Noisily Heavy Heavily
She is pretty. She talks prettily. He is successful. He did his job
successfully.
AILy Rules:
Adjective Adverb Adjective Adverb
Academic Academically Economic Economically
Energetic Energetically Fantastic Fantastically
Basic Basically Romantic Romantically
Systematic Systemically Dramatic Dramatically

Note: The following Adverbs do not take anything. Fast, hard, late,
well. Ex: He works hard. He comes late. She behaves well.
Ways of changing Adjectives end with “Ly” to Adverb.

Adjective Adjective
Lovely Friendly
Lonely Lively
Ugly Silly

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Subject + to be + Adjective + Ly = Adjective.

Adjective: She is friendly. She is ugly. She is lonely.

Subject + Action Verb + Adjective + Ly = Adverb of Manner.
Adverb: She speaks friendly. She behaves ugly. She talks silly.

4: Adverb of degree: Adverbs of Degree are used to answer the

question “to what extent” and emphasize on the meaning of an
adjective and adverb. They are; too, so, very, rather, fairly, quite,
pretty.
Structure: Adverb of degree + Adjective/Adverb.
She is very beautiful. She dances very beautifully.
Adverb + adjective. Adverb + Adverb.

5: Focusing Adverb: Focusing Adverbs are used to show direct

attention towards a particular word or phrase in a sentence. They
are; Just, Barely, Scarcely, Hardly, Mainly, Specially, Only etc. He
can barely read. They hardly saved their life.
6: Sentence Adverb: Sentence Adverbs are used to modify the
whole sentence and can be placed at the beginning or at the end of
a sentence.
1. He saved his life, fortunately.
2. Luckily, we won the match.
3. May be, she will come soon.

7: Conjunctive Adverb: Conjunctive Adverb is a word or group of

words that shows how two ideas are connected with each other;
they are also called Connective Adverb, Logical Connector, and
Transition.
1. First sentence (;) + Transition, + Subject + Verb +
Complement.
2. First Sentence (.) + Subject, Transition, + Verb +
Complement.

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3. First Sentence (;) + Subject + Verb + Complement +,

Transition.
1. Our parents help us all our life; for example, they
provide us food, clothing and education.
2. Our parents help us all our life. They, for example,
provide us food, clothing and education.
3. Our parents help us all our life; they provide us food,
clothing and education, for example.

I: To give examples: For instance, for example.

II: To give extra information: Moreover, furthermore, In

addition, besides.

III: To show Contrast: However, on the other hand, In

contrary, Nevertheless, Nonetheless.

IV: To give Facts: In fact, indeed, As a matter of fact.

V: To Show cause and effect: Therefore, as a result of, thus,

Hence, Thence, Consequently.

VI: To show similarity: Similarly, Likewise.

VII: To show Conclusion: Eventually, Finally, Therefore,

Consequently.

8: Relative Adverbs: Relative Adverbs are used to combine two

clauses and make one Compound sentence. Relative adverbs are;
Where, When.
Ex: The school is popular. My father taught in this school. The
school where my father taught is popular.

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9: Adverb of time: Adverbs of time are used to ask the question

“When” and show the time of an action or situation in present, past
or future. There are two main kinds of “Adverbs of time.”

I: Adverbs of definite time: Adverbs of definite time show

the exact time of an action in present, past and future. EX:
Today, tomorrow, day after tomorrow, yesterday, day
before yesterday, tonight, last night, next week, next
month, last week last year etc.

II: Adverbs of indefinite time: Adverbs of indefinite time

does not show the exact time action in present, past, and
future. EX: Already, yet, still, anymore, since, so far, lately,
recently, just etc.

10: Adverb of Frequency: Adverbs of Frequency are used to show

the repetition of an action, it answers the question “How often”.
There are two main kinds of “Adverbs of Frequency” such as
I: Definite Adverbs of Frequency. II: Indefinite Adverbs of
Frequency.

I: Definite Adverbs of Frequency: Definite adverbs of

frequency show the exact repetition of an action. They are;
once, twice, three times, four times.

II: Indefinite Adverbs of Frequency: Indefinite adverbs of

frequency do not show the exact repetition of an action.
They are; Always, usually, sometimes, often, rarely, seldom,
Hardly ever, Never. Several times, many times, a couple of
times.

11: Adverb of Certainty: Adverb of certainty show how much we

are sure about something. They are; certainly, definitely,
unreservedly, indisputably, surely, exactly.

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12: Emphatic Adverb: Emphatic adverbs are used to emphasize a

particular word or a phrase. They are; right, extremely, really.

I: Education Directorate is located right behind P.I.H.E.

II: I am really very sorry.

III: I am extremely tired today.

13: Adverb of Negation: Adverbs of negation are used to change

the sentence into negative form. They are; not, no, etc.
I: I have no cars. II: I do not have cars.

Gerund and infinitive

1. Gerund: The word gerund is derived from a Latin word “Gerere”
which means to do or perform.

Definition: verb 1st form+ing which functions as a noun is called

gerund.
Ex. I like playing cricket. I like teaching English. I like grazing goats.

2. Infinitive: the word infinitive is derived from a Latin word

“infinitus” which means unlimited.

Definition: to+simple form of verb which functions as a noun is called

infinitive.
Ex. I like to play cricket. I like to teach English. I like to graze goats.

Note: (to) is not a preposition and it is infinitive marker.

Some common usages of gerund and infinitive

1. Some common verbs (plan, want, need, begin, continue, decide,

expect, forget, hope, love, prefer, promise, start, try, want, wish)
if gerund is used incorrect.

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2. We often use an infinitive with sentences beginning with

impersonal it. It is important to save your receipt. It is (good, nice,
necessary, expensive, dangerous, hard, possible, impossible,
difficult, easy, fun) to meet you. I am (pleased, glade, happy, sad,
ready, prepared, afraid, proud, and lucky) to meet you.

3. Some common verbs (avoid, mind, enjoy, appreciate etc…) are

followed by gerund if infinitive is used incorrect.

4. Some common verbs (love, like, start, etc.) are followed either
infinitive or gerund with the same meaning. I like to swim. I like
swimming. I love to work in an office. I love working in an office.

5. Some common verbs (stop, regret, remember, try, forget) are

followed either infinitive or gerund with different in meaning.

a. I stopped to teach. I stopped teaching.

b. I stopped to talk with her friend. I stopped talking with her friend.
c. She forgets to wash the dishes. She forgets washing the dishes.
d. She remembers to clean the dishes. She remembers cleaning the
dishes.
e. I remember to go on a trip. I remember going on a trip.
f. I regret to tell him the truth. I regret telling him the truth.
g. I try to arrange the class. I try arranging the class.

Cases of infinitive
Subjective case: in this case infinitive is used before the main verb to
function as the subject of a sentence. Ex: to earn is hard. To spend is easy.

Objective case: in this case infinitive is used before the main verb to
function as the object of a sentence. Ex: I like to play cricket. I decided to
play football.

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Oblique case: in this case infinitive is preceded with the preposition. Here
we use (but, except, about) etc… I have no choice but to help him. He is
about to get fist position. We are about to finish basic grammar. I have no
choice except to help you.

Complement of object case: in this case infinitive completes the meaning

of object.
Ex: I told Ali to write me a letter. I wish Ali to have successful career.

Types of infinitive: in English grammar infinitive has the following types.

1. Absolute infinitive: it is an infinitive that comes in full form.
Ex: I want to drive a car.

2. Bare infinitive: it is an infinitive which is used without (to) mostly

after auxiliary verb and some causative verbs (make, have, let).
Ex: the teacher makes the student study hard. I will study hard. I
let my brother go home.

3. Abridging infinitive: it is an infinitive which is used to give short

answer to some questions. Ex: what would you like to drink? I
would like to drink coke. I would like to. Do you like to swim? Yes,
I like to.

4. Compound infinitive: it is an infinitive which is formed of two

infinitives in which the second (to) is optional. Ex: Ali hates to
study and (to) answer any questions in the class.

5. Split infinitive: it is an infinitive in which (to) be split by adverb of

manner. Ex: Assad wants to systematically run DEL class. Ali
wants to carefully drive a car.

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Some common adjectives followed by infinitives

Glad to Sorry to Ready to Careful to

Surprised to Happy to Sad to Prepared to
Hesitant to Amazed to Pleased to Upset to
Anxious to Reluctant to Astonished to Delighted to
Disappointed to Eager to Afraid to Shocked to
Content to Willing to Stunned to Relieved to
Proud to Motivated to Lucky to Ashamed to
Determined to Fortunate to

Origin: The word gerund is derived from a Latin word “Gerere” which
means to do or perform.

Definition: verb 1st form+ing which functions as a noun is called gerund.

Ex. I like playing cricket. I like teaching English. I like grazing goats.

Cases of Gerund
In general gerund has three main cases.
Subjective case: in this case gerund is used before the main verb to
function as the subject of a sentence. Ex: smoking is harmful for
health. Respecting elders is our prime duty.

Objective case: in this case gerund is used after the main verb to
function as the object of a sentence. Ex: I like teaching. I love eating.

Oblique case: in this case gerund is preceded with preposition to

complete the meaning of preposition. Ex: she is happy about going
abroad.

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Reference list of verbs followed by gerunds

1. Admit, devise, anticipate, appreciate, avoid, complete, consider,
delay, discuss, deny, dislike, enjoy, finish, forget, can’t help, hope,
mention, mind, miss, postpone, practice, quit, recall, recollect,
recommend, regret, remember, resent, resist, risk, stop, suggest,
tolerate, and understand. Ex: I admitted stealing the money.

Reference list of verbs followed by infinitives

1. Afford, agree, appear, arrange, ask, beg, care, claim, consent,
decide, demand, deserve, expect, fail, forget, hesitate, hope,
learn, manage, mean, need, offer, plan, prepare, pretend,
promise, refuse, regret, remember, seem, struggle, swear,
threaten, volunteer, wait, want, wish. Ex: I can’t afford to buy a
new car.

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Conclusion
As the grammar is the basic building block of language,
therefore it is necessary for every student to learn it. For the solution
of the student’s problems, I have written this booklet about, Basic
grammar, and I hope it would be more beneficial for the grammar
lovers as well as it will fulfill the needs of the all students. The
booklet is a collection of new and updates materials and there are
many new additives in it because the booklet is written based on the
strong needs of the students.
In the preparation of this booklet, I have tried my best hard
to provide reliable, update, and well-accepted materials and I have
done this with the help of Allah. The language of the book is the
way that everyone can understand because I have kept in mind that
simplicity, clarity, of the text as well as the capabilities of the
readers. I hope this booklet will be helpful for the knowledge
seekers.
As the result of this broad issue, the topic Basic Grammar
mainly focuses on the most important parts, revolutions, failures and
their reasons around the world. In this booklet I have tried to collect
the best information from various sources and it has a great effect on
our life and social changes. Here I shortly discussed the important
parts of different Basic Grammar such as the old English grammar
and its golden parts, middle age of grammar and the parts of it and
the literature after the middle age around the world. The works of
each period and also the literary written sources of different authors.
However, I tried to discuss the grammar of several aspects.
Finally this booklet has the best information of the aforementioned
countries and also their tribes. I concluded this booklet with the
some specific and significant periods of English Grammar.
Therefore, studying the grammar subject is very productive
to be studied. I decided because to prepare a good source of different
situation of people around the world especially, for Afghan pupils. I
hope that it will clearly help them to get the better profit.

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References
1. Ahmadzai, N. M. (2015). World Literature. Kabul : Nawisa
Publication .
2. Bennett, J. A. (1996). Middle English writing. Oxford:
Clarendon Press .
3. Chambers, E. ,. (1999). English writing at the closeof the
Middle Ages. New York: Oxford University Press.
4. Drabble, M. (1995). The Oxford Compaion to English
writing (5th ed.). Oxford, New York : Oxford University
Press.
5. Dylan, T. (1996). Old English writing. Oxford: Oxford
University.
6. Kahdistani, A. J. (2015). British writing. Kabul : Nawisa
Publication .
7. Rosa , A. F. (1976). Contemporary fiction in Amerca and
England. Detroit, MI: Gale Research Co .
8. Stephen, G. (1989). William Wordsworth: A life. Oxford:
OXford University Press.
9. Venn, J., & Venn, J. A. (1992). Wordsworth, William
Biographies. Alumni Cantabrigienses: Combridge University
Press.
10. Ward Ed, A. W., & Waller, A. R. (1907). The Cambridge
History of English writing. New York : London Putnam .

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