UNITED NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL

“Invisible Conflicts: The Hidden Crises of Africa and Latin America”

Bruno Henrique Nogueira

Maria Eduarda Ferreira Meneses
Sophia Oliveira Silva

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 TABLE OF CONTENT
1. LETTER FROM THE CHAIR​ 3
2. ABOUT THE SECURITY COUNCIL​ 4
3. DELEGATIONS LIST​ 5
3.1. PERMANENT MEMBERS​ 5
3.2. NON-PERMANENT MEMBERS (2025)​ 5
4. ABOUT THE THEME (INVISIBLE CONFLICTS: THE HIDDEN CRISES IN
AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA)​ 6
5. UNDERSTANDING THE WORK DYNAMIC (MUN)​ 7
6. SJONU SCHEDULE AND KEY EVENTS​ 8
6.1. DAY ONE (04/09)​ 8
6.2. DAY TWO (05/09)​ 8
7. Subtopics​ 9
7.1 CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF INVISIBLE CONFLICTS​ 9
7.2. GOVERNANCE, CORRUPTION AND FOREIGN INTERVENTION IN
CONFLICT ZONES​ 11
7.3 ROLE OF NON-STATE ACTORS​ 13
7.4. CLIMATE INVISIBLE CONFLICTS​ 18
7.5. RESOURCE EXPLOITATION AND ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES​ 20
8. BIBLIOGRAPHY​ 24

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 1.​ LETTER FROM THE CHAIR

Dear Delegates,

​ Welcome to the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), in which we are honored to
address one of the most pressing yet unspoken challenges facing the global community ‘The
Invisible Conflicts Around The World’. As Presidents, we are most thrilled to work with each
of you for this committee, where your insights, perspectives, and critical thinking will
undoubtedly shape our discussion and the resolutions we build together.
​ The world we live in has been facing numerous conflicts regarding territorial disputes,
political tensions, and economic issues. The subject of unseen crises is particularly significant
as it challenges the traditional boundaries in both international relations and ethics, requiring
us to consider not only the direct impacts but also the broader implications for global justice
and peace.
​ The UNSC mainly focuses on establishing an open and constructive dialogue among
all present delegations. By fostering joint solutions to these tensions and conflicts, the UNSC
aspires to enhance the well-being of the global population through effective collaboration
among countries and international organizations.
Our primary goal for this conference is to address the invisible conflicts that often
escape the global spotlight by raising awareness and fostering a deeper understanding of these
hidden crises, examining their roots and implications. Through comprehensive discussions
and collaborative efforts among all delegations, we aim to develop effective decision-making
proposals for conflict resolution, thereby ensuring a more just and peaceful world.
​ This guide was designed to encourage you to dive deeply into the historical context,
facing current challenges in diverse national perspectives in terms of hidden conflicts.
We look forward to a productive and respectful discussion with each of you. Best of
luck, delegates.

Cordially,
United Nations Security Council Presidents

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 2.​ ABOUT THE SECURITY COUNCIL

​ The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the most important
committees of the United Nations, tasked with the vital mission of upholding international
peace and security.
Established on October 24, 1945, in the aftermath of World War II, the UNSC was
created with the primary responsibility for the maintenance of global harmony and stability,
and over the decades, the council has evolved to address a wide range of global issues,
reflecting the changing dynamics of international relations.
The Security Council has fifteen Members, and each Member has one vote - five
permanent Members who hold veto power and ten non-permanent Members elected for
two-year terms by the General Assembly.
The consul conducts the effort to identify whether there is a threat to peace or an act of
aggression. It encourages the disputing parties to resolve their issues through peaceful means
and recommends methods of adjustment or settlement terms. Yet, in certain situations, the
Security Council can resort to imposing sanctions or authorize the use of force to maintain or
restore international peace and security.

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 3.​ DELEGATIONS LIST

3.1. PERMANENT MEMBERS

- China
- Franc
- Russian Federation
- United Kingdom
- United States of America

3.2. NON-PERMANENT MEMBERS (2025)

- Algeria
- Denmark
- Greece
- Guyana
- Pakistan
- Panama
- Republic of Korea
- Sierra Leone
- Slovenia
- Somalia

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 4.​ ABOUT THE THEME (INVISIBLE CONFLICTS: THE HIDDEN CRISES IN
AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA)

“Invisible conflicts" refers to issues and tensions that do not always make headlines
but significantly contribute to instability in a region. Conflicts like these are very common in
areas that were affected by decolonization, like Africa and Latin America, and yet they only
get a fraction of the attention they deserve from the global community.

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 5.​ UNDERSTANDING THE WORK DYNAMIC (MUN)

​ The SJONU UNSC is a Model United Nations (MUN) simulation, where students
play the role of delegates from different countries and attempt to solve real world issues from
the politics and perspectives of their assigned nations. For example, if you are assigned to
represent the United Kingdom, then you are expected to solve global topics using the policies
and viewpoints of the United Kingdom.
​ In this model, us three will not perform as the Chair moderating this conference.
Instead, we will represent the Council President country and actively participate in the debate
with you.
Each delegate is required to build a position paper from their country, following the
appropriate structure. Apart from that, we strongly recommend all of you read the papers
from other delegations to be aware of the contents. In the case of permanent Members, papers
must be read when the conference begins.
The simulation is divided into sections [you can find discussion topic
recommendations starting on page 8] where the delegations might craft resolutions for each
of them to be voted. The section is considered over if a resolution is approved for at least 2/3
of the Members. However, the discussion might keep on the table if the resolution is not
approved.
Along this guide, we have highlighted some case studies. While it is not mandatory to
discuss each one of them in the conference, it is still important to review them all - spoiler:
perhaps some of your crises might be about one of them.
​ Lastly, the debate shall happen based on some rules and instructions.

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 6.​ SJONU SCHEDULE AND KEY EVENTS

6.1. DAY ONE (04/09)

08:00 to 9:30 - Opening ceremony
09:30 to 10:00 - Rules review
10:00 to 10:30 - Coffee break
10:30 to 11:00 - Training Session
11:00 to 12:00 - DPOs reading and 1st Session
12:00 to 13:30 - Lunch Time
13:30 to 15:15 - 2nd Session
15:15 to 15:30 - Coffee break
15:30 to 17:00 - 3rd Session
17:00 - Closing of the First Day

6.2. DAY TWO (05/09)

07:40 to 09:05 - 4th Session
09:05 to 09:30 - Coffee break
09:30 to 11:30 - 5th Session
11:30 to 13:00 - Lunch Time
13:00 to 15:00 - Final resolution
15:00 to 17:00 - Closing of the Second Day

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 7. Subtopics

7.1 CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF INVISIBLE CONFLICTS

In the recent decades, the world has seen an increase of internal conflicts in different
areas of the globe. According to data from the Uppsala Conflict Data Program (UCDP), 2023
recorded the highest number of conflicts involving states since the systematic data collection
exercise started in 1946, with 59 active disputes. Despite this troubling reality, not all of these
conflicts receive the attention they require, the so-called Invisible Conflict. Many remain in
silence, raising questions about how global media chooses which crises to highlight and
whether they write about accurate and unbiased information.
This also highlights the disparity in terms of news coverage by the Russian-Ukrainian
war and the conflicts in Africa and Latin America, which are not covered at all. Even with
Africa becoming the epicenter of state conflicts and Latin America the stage for most
non-state disputes, these regions often remain absent from global headlines. Various factors
contribute to this selective coverage: lobbying by powerful actors, geographic and cultural
proximity to major global powers, restrictions imposed on journalists and NGOs in conflict
zones, and familiarity or lack of it among news consumers with such regions.
The invisibility of these crises has dire consequences. One of the most immediate is
the delayed or insufficient delivery of humanitarian aid, including food, water, and medical
supplies, to affected populations. Also, as specified by Paul B. Stares, Director of the Center
for Preventive Action from Council of Foreign Relations, "The parties involved in the
conflict, including external powers, may also feel that they can act with impunity when they
are not under the spotlight of the media, exacerbating the problem, as the international
community has, in a sense, signaled that 'it does not care.' As a result, the fighting and
atrocities will persist." Without media analysis, these conflicts are often prolonged, as
international pressure to resolve them is minimal or non-existent. Local populations bear the
brunt of these prolonged crises, face displacement, poverty, and a collapse of essential
services such as healthcare and education.

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 Picture 1: ACLED Conflict Index Results: July 2024

Able in: [Link] - Accessed in: 01/12/2024.

Moreover, the manipulation of local media exacerbates the problem, as unchecked

narratives sustain misinformation and expand divisions. The social links of affected
communities disintegrate, resulting in the dissolution of their collective identity and cultural
heritage. The psychological impact on these individuals is huge, with generations growing up
in environments marked by trauma, instability and a lack of hope.
In conclusion, the lack of media coverage and international attention to many of the
world's conflicts perpetuates cycles of suffering, impunity, and instability in affected regions.
The disparities in reporting not only delay critical humanitarian aid but also allow perpetrators
to act without accountability, leaving local populations to endure unimaginable hardship. It is
imperative to promote equitable media coverage, ensure humanitarian responses, and hold

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conflict agents accountable. The Security Council must lead efforts to discuss this topic and
promote the principles of justice and humanity in these areas.

7.2. GOVERNANCE, CORRUPTION AND FOREIGN INTERVENTION IN

CONFLICT ZONES

​ In many areas of Africa and Latin America, crises often emerge by the influence of
poor governance and corruption. Gael Raballand, practice manager from the Governance
Global Practice in West Africa, and Francesca Recanatini, lead economist in the World Bank,
state that “Corruption is a driver of fragility that undermines sustainable peace and stability”.
From this perspective, discussing the impact of this weakness is essential, as it corrodes the
trust and confidence that citizens have for their governments, fostering social friction and, in
some contexts, increasing the risk of fragility, conflicts, and violence. To address these issues,
this discussion will highlight key cases from Africa and Latin America, providing context for
debates on how the international community can effectively respond to these serious issues.

7.2.1 STUDY CASE: SOMALIA

​ Somalia, located in the Horn of Africa, has experienced several years of instability
following the collapse of its central government in 1991. At this time, a very long civil war
began, based on clan-based conflicts and the rise of extremist groups, like al-Shabbab. The
nonexistence of an appropriate authority left a loophole that allowed corruption to increase at
all levels of society. According to the Corruption Perception Index of 2023, Somalia is the
most corrupt country out of the 180 analyzed.
​ The country has a Provisional Constitution that criminalizes various forms of
corruption, such as bribery and embezzlement. However, there is no effort to implement this
document effectively. This lack of liability has ruined public trust in governmental institutions
and has significant implications for national security.
​ Despite some progress in setting up anti-corruptions frameworks, such as the African
Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM), implementation remains weak. Foreign efforts to
intervene in the country are often hampered by the deeply entrenched corruption within local
governance structures.

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​ This raises critical queries about the issue, being important to address corruption as a
systemic problem. Efforts should focus on solutions that can break this cycle of instability,
fostering long-term development, and build a brighter future for Somalis.

7.2.2 STUDY CASE: VENEZUELA

​ Venezuela is a country in South America that has been going through an agitated
period, since July 28, 2024, when the nation held presidential elections. After that, the
government-controlled National Electoral Council (CNE) declared incumbent President
Nicolás Maduro the winner, while a large number of the available tally copies from polling
centers documented an estimated 67% of votes for the leading opposition candidate,
Edmundo González Urrutia. This discrepancy has led to widespread protests. Some
international observers, including the United Nations, expressed serious concerns about the
lack of transparency and credibility in the results announced by the CNE. Conversely,
important analysts view the foreign recognition of González's victory, such as by the United
States, as indicative of a desire to intervene in Venezuela.
​ However, it is important to note that the population of the country demonstrated a
strong demand for electoral authorities to publish the election tally sheets. From the
announcement of Maduro's victory on 28 July until 23 August 2024, the Armed Conflict
Location & Event Data (ACLED) recorded 280 anti-government demonstration events. The
government’s response was marked by brutal counter-mobilization and repression,
spearheaded by pro-government militias. Furthermore, the state is heavily influenced by
pro-government military forces, leading to the military’s deep entrenchment in both political
and economic spheres. Consequently, this influence extends far beyond traditional defence
roles, impacting governance decision-making processes.
​ According to a 2021 report by Transparencia Venezuela, the Bolivarian National
Armed Forces (FANB) hold significant positions in key sectors of the nation, with a growing
number of military personnel on public company boards from 2020 to 2021. This increased
presence has not led to improved transparency or accountability, though. Many military-run
enterprises operate with little public oversight, raising serious concerns about corruption and
mismanagement.

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 According to the Government Integrity Index, Venezuela faces critical corruption risks
across its defence sector. Civilian democratic control of the military is extremely weak, and
defense institutions are largely unaccountable to the public. Corruption is endemic across the
sector, exacerbated by the lack of oversight. These issues ruin democratic governance and
erode public trust, further deepening the country's institutional and political crises.
In conclusion, it is crucial to debate about militarization, systemic corruption and its
impacts on civil proceedings, like electoral disputes. That way, the delegates must balance
sovereignty with addressing human rights violations, promoting transparency, and fostering
institutional reforms to restore stability and defend democratic principles.

7.3 ROLE OF NON-STATE ACTORS

​ The phenomenon of non-state actors is a complex and growing reality in the global
landscape. These groups, such as criminal factions, militias, terrorist organizations, and drug
cartels, have been playing increasingly significant roles in matters that go beyond organized
crime, reaching areas like commerce, arms dealing, and even political influence. Their actions
often occur covertly, making it difficult to identify their operational networks and strategies.
Globally, there is a wave of insurgency by these actors against legitimate governments, driven
by state vulnerabilities uncovered through internal operations. They become illegal
representatives of these nations, acting in ways that, even when dismantled by international
agents, they quickly reorganize with new alliances and leadership.​
In 1952, in Geneva, the first committee of the United Nations (UN) was established,
named the Disarmament and International Security Committee (DISEC). It was created in
response to the tensions arising from World War II, with the objective of jointly combating
Nazi and fascist groups and, later, being utilized for maintaining peace and containing the rise
of criminal organizations. DISEC currently works in cooperation with the United Nations
Security Council (UNSC), Disarmament and International Security Committee (DISEC) and
United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) to resolve conflicts, operating and legislating
based on Rule 58 (a) of the Rules of Procedure of the General Assembly. ​
The responsibility for combating non-state actors primarily lies with the UNSC, which
holds the final authority over international interference actions against such groups, as this
committee has a mandatory character.

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 7.3.1 STUDY CASE: TALIBAN

Diffused since 1994, the Taliban, officially recognized as a fundamentalist religious

group, operates primarily in Afghanistan and Pakistan, making it one of the most influential
groups in the Middle East. The Taliban follows Sharia, Islamic law, in a radical manner as the
core of its actions, alongside the popular sentiment of resisting interventionism in the Middle
Eastern territory. Initially, it was composed of student groups seeking to establish peace and
implement their interpretation of Sharia, gradually extending their influence until they
overthrew President Burhanuddin Rabbani's regime and controlled 90% of Afghanistan.
However, once in power, their initial popularity marked by intentions to eradicate corruption
and crime gave way to notoriety for public executions, severe laws, and punishments. The
group faced accusations of numerous human rights and cultural abuses. A notable example
occurred in 2001, when the Taliban destroyed the famous Bamiyan Buddha statues in central
Afghanistan, sparking international outrage.
Despite being overthrown by the United States in 2001 following the September 11
attacks, the Taliban managed to regroup and reestablish itself in a more strategic and heavily
armed manner than before. This resurgence prompted multiple actions by European and North
American countries to counter the group. However, the Taliban has shown no signs of retreat;
instead, it continues to experience imminent and exponential growth.
Today, the Taliban maintains alliances with various groups across the region,
including Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan, active in Pakistan, and al-Qaeda.

7.3.2 STUDY CASE: Capital's First Command (PCC)

​
Capital's First Command, or Primeiro Comando da Capital (PCC), is a Brazilian
criminal faction that operates as a crime syndicate. According to a 2023 report by The
Economist, the PCC is Latin America's largest drug gang, comprising 40,000 lifetime
members and an additional 60,000 "contractors." Its name references São Paulo 's state
capital, the city of São Paulo.

Picture 2: Taijitu, PCC emblem

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 Able in: [Link] - Accessed on 05/12/2024.

The group is based in the state of São Paulo and is active throughout Brazil, South
America, West Africa and Europe. An international expansion fueled by the cocaine trade
made the PCC establish a profitable partnership with the Italian 'Ndrangheta and, as of 2023,
run over 50% of Brazil's drug exports to Europe. Through the cocaine trade routes to Europe,
the PCC also established itself as a central player in the West African cocaine trade, with its
members being able to exert control over neighbourhoods in cities such as Lagos and Abuja.
According to a leaked Portuguese intelligence report, the group also has around 1,000
associates in Lisbon.
Historically, the PCC has been responsible for several criminal activities such as
murders, prison riots, drug trafficking, bank and highway robberies, protection rackets,
pimping, kidnappings-for-ransom, money laundering, bribery, loan sharking, and obstruction
of justice, with an expansion focused on drug trafficking since the 2010s. As of 2023, the
PCC is currently transitioning into a global mafia, being able to influence politics and
penetrate the legal economy. According to São Paulo state authorities, the group has had a
yearly revenue of at least US$ 1 billion since 2020.

Picture 3: PCC members at Portugal

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 Able in: [Link] - Accessed
on 06/12/2024.

The PCC is often mentioned to have a different doctrine to other Brazilian cartels,
with a business model that favors the quiet expansion of markets over violent and expensive
turf wars and confrontations with the state that would draw unwanted attention. The Global
Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime noted that the PCC's ability to negotiate
with rivals rather than expelling them has permitted the group to make use of pre established
criminal networks and preexisting logistics know-how along the cocaine value chain,
encouraging peaceful cooperation between different groups and producing greater economic
efficiency by reducing operating costs. However, the group has been responsible for waves of
extreme violence, including targeted political violence and terrorism, upon having their
interests threatened.

7.3.3 STUDY CASE: AL-SHABAAB

​ Harakat al-Shabaab al-Mujahideen, commonly known as Al-Shabaab, is an Islamist

terrorist and fundamentalist group operating primarily in southern Somalia. It is affiliated
with the Al-Qaeda network.

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 Picture 4: Al-Shabaab soldiers at Somalia

Able in: [Link] - Accessed on 06/12/2024.

The group was founded in 2004, following the defeat of the Union of Islamic Courts
(UIC) by the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) and its allies, particularly Ethiopian
armed forces, during the Somali War (2006–2009). It is estimated that over 3,000 UIC
members went underground to form an insurgency, establishing armed cells in Mogadishu
and across the country to conduct attacks against the government and Ethiopian forces. The
term Shabaab ("youth") is common among various groups in the Islamic world, and this
movement should not be confused with other organizations bearing similar names.
Since 2015, Al-Shabaab has retreated from all major Somali cities due to offensives
by the Somali government and neighboring African nations, supported by Western allies.
However, the group still controls significant portions of Somalia's rural areas. Despite recent
losses, Al-Shabaab remains a potent force in the Horn of Africa, increasing the scale and
lethality of its attacks, often using truck bombs that result in hundreds of casualties​

7.3.4 STUDY CASE: SINALOA CARTEL

​ The Sinaloa Cartel, also known as C.D.S., the Guzmán-Zambada Organization,

Pacific Cartel, The Federation, and The Blood Alliance, is a major international organized
crime syndicate specializing in drug trafficking and money laundering. It was established in

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Mexico in the late 1980s as one of several subordinate "plazas" operating under a predecessor
organization known as the Guadalajara Cartel.
Currently led by Ismael Zambada García, also known as El Mayo, the cartel is
headquartered in the city of Culiacán, Sinaloa, with operations in numerous regions
worldwide. Its primary areas of influence include the Mexican states of Sinaloa, Baja
California, Durango, Sonora, and Chihuahua, as well as other regions of Latin America and
cities across the United States.
The United States Intelligence Community (IC) typically regards the Sinaloa Cartel as
the world's largest and most powerful drug trafficking organization, possibly even more
influential and capable than Colombia's infamous Medellín Cartel under Pablo Escobar at its
height. According to the National Drug Intelligence Center and other U.S. sources, the
Sinaloa Cartel primarily distributes cocaine, heroin, methamphetamine, fentanyl, cannabis,
and MDMA.​
As of 2023, the Sinaloa Cartel remains the second most dominant drug cartel in
Mexico. Following the arrests of Joaquín "El Chapo" Guzmán and his son Ovidio Guzmán
López, the cartel is now led by its old-guard figure Ismael Zambada García (El Mayo) and
Guzmán other sons, Jesús Alfredo Guzmán and Iván Archivaldo Guzmán Salazar.

7.4. CLIMATE INVISIBLE CONFLICTS

Climate change affects us all, no matter where we live, but it is particularly

devastating for fragile countries and communities already grappling with conflict or
humanitarian crises. Today, according to the UN News, out of the 15 countries most
susceptible to climate change, 13 are struggling with violent conflicts.
While climate change does not directly ignite conflict, it acts as a threat multiplier,
exacerbating existing vulnerabilities and tensions. It makes the most vulnerable even more
vulnerable by damaging economies, lower farming and livestock production, increasing
hunger and competition for lands, and intensifying inequality among social groups. These
factors, when combined with other drivers of conflict, may significantly raise the risks of
violence.

7.4.1. CASE STUDY: SAHEL

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 Sahel is a semiarid region of western and north-central Africa extending from Senegal
to Sudan. It forms a transitional zone between the arid Sahara (desert) to the north and the
humid savannas to the south. This region also geographically separates groups with different
cultures and religions, the Muslims to the north and the Cristians and Traditional African to
the South.

Picture 5: Sahel region map

Able in: [Link] - Accessed on 05/12/2024.

The Sahel region has a long history of vulnerability resulting in different conflicts
among the populations situated there, with roots tracing back to colonization. During this
period, European powers arbitrarily divided the continent between them, leading to an
absence of established borders, high levels of irregular movement of people and a general
weakness in state institutions after becoming independent nations. These instabilities have
been exacerbated by the lack of resources caused by the increasing of desertification and the
consequences of climate change.
In this unstable and fragile context, violent extremist organizations have extended
their influence. The principal groups operating in the Sahel are Al-Qaeda, Al-Qaeda in the
Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), and Boko Haram. These organizations not only impact local
security but also significantly contribute to humanitarian crises, forcing entire populations to
relocate and intensifying economic and social struggles.

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 Latest efforts to mitigate the situation:

-​ 2002: The UN Security Council established the first mandate of the

Secretary-General's Special Representative and head of the United Nations Office for
West Africa and the Sahel (UNOWA)

-​ 2013: United Nations Integrated Strategy for the Sahel (UNISS)

-​ 2017: UNHCR Humanitarian Assistance

-​ 2022: High-Level Independent Panel on Security and Development in the Sahel

-​ 2023: UN Secretary-General's Special Representative for the Sahel: Leonardo Santos

Simão was assigned was the head of the UNOWA

-​ 2024: UN Security Council Presidential Statement

7.5. RESOURCE EXPLOITATION AND ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES

​ The exploitation of natural resources is a significant issue affecting many

underdeveloped countries. This activity is predominantly carried out illegally and in ways that
severely harm the environment. The extraction of raw materials for the economic benefit of
developed nations aligns with corruption and the stability or downfall of governments. These
influential nations involved in extractivism in underdeveloped territories often use covert
actions to finance policies that enable their continued presence in these regions. This can be
achieved either through criminal groups or through corrupt members within local
governments.
This issue receives less media attention, as it benefits powerful nations by
strengthening their markets and expanding their global influence. Through such control, they
implement policies favorable to their interests, sometimes escalating to the imposition of
dictatorships and resulting in the deaths of countless innocent people.

7.5.1. STUDY CASE: BLOOD MINERALS

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 Blood Minerals is the term used to describe minerals extracted illegally through
practices that involve slave labor and illegal mining, often leading to injuries and deaths
during the process. This practice is prevalent in South America and African regions,
particularly in Sierra Leone, where diamonds are extracted from conflict zones.
Approximately two-thirds of the world's diamonds are sourced from these areas. The sale of
these valuable minerals is used to fund and sustain insurgent groups and warlords.​
Currently, the Kimberley Process exists to verify the origin of diamonds, but it does
not completely prevent the illegal trade of these products. Such items are often purchased
through a black market that feeds into industries like high fashion.​
This market is not limited to fine jewelry but is also deeply tied to the unequal
globalization present in the world. The technological industry's evolution has created a high
demand for materials such as coltan (a blend of columbite and tantalite) and cobalt, often
referred to as "blue gold." The inhumane conditions surrounding their extraction were
highlighted in the book "Rosso Cobalto. Come il sangue del Congo dà energia alle nostre
vite" ("Cobalt Red. How the Blood of Congo Powers Our Lives").

Picture 6: Labourers work at an open shaft of coltan mine at the eastern DRC

Able in[Link]
- Accessed on 05/12/2024.

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 This excessive exploitation has reinforced the term "globalization of indifference", as
blood-stained materials like coltan, diamonds, and cobalt serve as foundational resources for
the growth of numerous major companies. Brands such as Apple, Samsung, Google,
Microsoft, Dell, LTC, Huawei, Tesla, Ford, General Motors, BMW, and Daimler-Chrysler are
just a few of the corporations purchasing significant amounts of blood minerals from regions
like Congo and Rwanda.

7.5.2. STUDY CASE: NEOCOLONIALISM

​
​ Neocolonialism refers to a modern form of domination in which developed countries
maintain economic, political, and cultural control over underdeveloped or developing
countries without exercising formal or direct rule, as occurred in traditional colonialism. This
influence is primarily exerted through economic practices, resource exploitation, foreign
investments, financial dependency policies, and manipulation of international institutions.
In neocolonialism, power resides with large corporations, international organizations,
and influential countries that promote dependency in poorer nations in areas such as
technology, trade, and financing, often perpetuating global inequalities. This dynamic
frequently prevents underdeveloped nations from achieving true sovereignty or independent
economic progress while benefiting the global powers that dominate these relationships.​
​ China is currently being accused by some European nations of practicing
neocolonialism in African regions, freely exploiting resources from countries such as Uganda,
Algeria, and Angola. In Angola, specifically, China has been accused of violating the
principles of the Angolan Mining Law.​ China is also involved in the Belt and Road
Initiative (BRI), commonly known as the New Silk Road, which is one of the primary reasons
for accusations of neocolonialism. This initiative, combined with its extractivist activities, has
raised concerns about China's influence and practices in underdeveloped nations.
The United States and the United Kingdom are also majorly accused of
neocolonialism due to their actions aimed at gaining control over the Horn of Africa. These
efforts align with their spheres of interest by fostering economic interactions and asserting
geographic control in the region.

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 7.5.3. STUDY CASE: PETROLEUM

​ Crude and refined oil are among the most globally coveted commodities, serving as
key regulators of international markets, currency values, and the cost of living. Oil is
abundantly found in regions such as the Middle East, South America, and Africa. Due to its
immense importance, numerous conflicts have arisen over the years, with the aim of seizing
territories and regions rich in crude oil to secure resources for refining and economic gain.
Wars in Africa and the Middle East related to oil reflect the strategic importance of
this resource in the global landscape. In the Middle East, conflicts such as the Gulf War
(1990-1991) and international interventions in countries like Iraq were largely driven by the
control of vast oil reserves, crucial to the global economy. These regions often become targets
for foreign powers seeking to secure access to energy resources and maintain stability in
international markets.
In Africa, countries like Sudan and Nigeria have faced internal conflicts and external
interventions tied to disputes over oil-rich areas. Moreover, exploitation by foreign
corporations often fuels corruption and political instability, while local communities suffer
from displacement and environmental impacts.
These conflicts highlight how oil can be both a source of wealth and instability,
perpetuating inequalities and regional tensions.

Picture 7: Maps of Africa showing the evolution of oil production in Africa

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 Able in:[Link] - Accessed on 05/12/2024.

Picture 8: Map of Middle East showing Oil fields and production

Able in:[Link] - Accessed

on
05/12/2024.

8. BIBLIOGRAPHY

“Homepage Security Council”. United Nations. Able in:

[Link] Accessed in: December 03, 2024.

Iverson, Noah, “The world’s unseen conflicts”. Tribal Tribune, March 26, 2024. Able in:
[Link] Accessed in: December 05, 2024.
[Link]

8.1. CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF INVISIBLE CONFLICTS

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Senra, Ricardo, “Quais são as grandes guerras em curso no mundo - e por que algumas
chamam menos atenção?”. BBC News Brasil, November 13, 2023. Able in:
[Link] Accessed in: December 01, 2024.

“Scroll and share: The role of social media and conflicts”. ReliefWeb, March 09, 2022. Able
in: [Link]
Accessed in: December 01, 2024.

8.2. GOVERNANCE, CORRUPTION AND FOREIGN INTERVENTION IN

CONFLICT ZONES

Raballand, Gael & Recanatini, Francesca, “Corruption in Fragile, Conflict and Violet
Settings: False dilemmas and inadequate toolbox?”. World Bank Blogs, July 11, 2023. Able
in:
[Link]
se-dilemmas-and-inadequate-toolbox. Accessed in: December 02, 2024.

Somalia:

“Índice de percepção da corrupção 2023”. Transparência Internacional Brasil, 2023. Able

in: [Link] Accessed in: December 05, 2024.

“Somalia risk report”. GAN Integrity, September 30, 2020. Able in:
[Link] Accessed in: December 05, 2024.

Venezuela:

“Ongoing state-led repression in Venezuela may amount to crimes against humanity”. Global
Centre for the Responsibility to Protect, December 01, 2024. Able in:
[Link] Accessed in: December 06, 2024.

Naval, Ara, “Militarisation, corruption and democracy in Venezuela”. Transparency

International Defence & Security, August 01, 2024. Able in:

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[Link] Accessed in:
December 06, 2024.

Breda, Tiziano, “2024 Venezuela election protests: harsher repression at home and more
global reach than in 2019”. Armed Conflict Location & Event Data, August 29, 2024. Able
in:
[Link]
-more-global-reach-than-in-2019/. Accessed in: December 06, 2024.

Leo´n, Lucas, “Venezuela não é ditadura nem democracia liberal, diz pesquisadora”. Agência
Brasil, August 03, 2024. Able in:
[Link]
democracia-liberal-diz-pesquisadora. Accessed in: December 06, 2024.

8.3. CLIMATE CHANGE INVISIBLE CONFLICTS

Ryan, Devon, “Stanford-led study investigates how much climate change affects the risk of
armed conflict”. Stanford Report, June 12, 2019. Able in:
%20change%2Ddriven%20extreme%20weather,may%20increase%20risks%20of%20violenc
e.. Accessed in: December 05, 2024

“Conflict and Climate”. United Nations Climate Change Conference, July 12, 2022. Able
in: [Link] Accessed in: December 05, 2024

“Five ways the climate crisis impacts human security”. United Nations Climate Action.
Able in: [Link]
Accessed in: December 05, 2024

Tesfaye, Beza, “Climate Change and Conflict in the Sahel”. Council on Foreign Relations,
November, 2022. Able in: [Link]
Accessed in: December 06, 2024

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Santos, Jéssica; Aquino, Caroline; Cesar, Felipe; Patano, Maria; Santos, Rafaella, “O
CONFLITUOSO CINTURÃO DO SAHEL”. OCI, June, 2018. Able in:
[Link]
jun.-[Link]. Accessed in: February, 03, 2025

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