Sugar Technology – Expanded Detailed Notes
These notes cover cane sugar manufacturing in depth, including process theory, equipment, control,
energy, and recovery calculations. Schematic, exam-friendly line diagrams are provided inline.
Figure 1: Master Flowchart of Sugar Manufacturing
1. Introduction
The sugar industry converts sucrose-bearing crops—primarily sugarcane and sugar beet—into
crystalline sugar. Cane-based factories are agro-industrial complexes that also cogenerate power and
produce by-products such as molasses, bagasse, and press mud.
Typical composition of raw sugarcane juice: 12–16% sucrose, 0.3–0.5% reducing sugars, 70–75%
water, and minor non-sugars (colloids, inorganic salts, waxes, colorants). Key quality indices include
Brix (total soluble solids), Pol (optical sucrose), and Purity = 100 × (Pol/Brix).
2. Cane Handling & Preparation
Objectives: minimize extraneous matter, reduce size, and maximize prepared surface area to improve
extraction. Preparation trains typically include levelers, cutters/knives, and fibrizers or shredders.
Preparedness Index correlates with extraction efficiency; excessive preparation increases fines and
wear. Metal tramp removal and accurate weighing are essential for accountability and process control.
3. Juice Extraction
Two dominant methods are used: (a) Milling tandems (mechanical squeezing through two- or
three-roller mills in series), and (b) Diffusers (countercurrent hot-water percolation through a moving
bed of prepared cane). Imbibition water increases residual sucrose leaching.
Key variables for milling include blanket thickness, mill speed, hydraulic pressure, and imbibition rate.
For diffusers, bed depth, residence time, temperature (≈70–80°C), and percolation uniformity govern
performance.
Figure 2: Juice Extraction (Milling Tandem and Diffuser)
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4. Juice Clarification
Purpose: remove suspended solids, coagulate colloids, reduce color precursors, and minimize scaling.
Primary chemistries include liming (pH adjustment), sulphitation (SO■), and carbonation (CO■ to
precipitate CaCO■).
Operational targets often keep clarified juice near pH 7.0–7.2. Clarifiers provide quiescent zones for
settling; mud is withdrawn and filtered, with filtrate recycled.
Figure 3: Juice Clarification Process
5. Evaporation
Clarified juice (≈15 °Brix) is concentrated to syrup (≈60–65 °Brix) in multiple-effect evaporator sets. Live
steam is admitted to the first effect; subsequent effects operate at progressively lower pressures and
temperatures to improve steam economy.
Design considerations include heat-transfer coefficients, boiling-point elevation, entrainment control,
and scale management. Vapor bleeding supports pan boiling and heaters.
Figure 4: Multiple Effect Evaporator (4-Effect Schematic)
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6. Crystallization (Pan Boiling), Massecuite Handling & Centrifugation
Crystallization proceeds by creating and controlling supersaturation. The metastable zone allows crystal
growth without spontaneous nucleation; the labile zone causes uncontrolled nucleation. Pan operation
alternates feeding and evaporation to remain within safe limits.
Massecuite from A, B, and C strikes differ in purity; mother liquor from each becomes feed to
lower-purity strikes, maximizing overall sucrose recovery. Centrifuges separate crystals from mother
liquor; wash water improves color and purity.
Figure 5: Crystallization Train (Vacuum Pan → Crystallizer → Centrifuge)
7. By-Products and Integrated Utilization
Molasses contains residual sugars and non-sugars; it is a key substrate for fermentation industries
(alcohol/ethanol, citric acid, yeast). Bagasse serves as primary boiler fuel and feedstock for paper and
boards; it also enables cogeneration. Press mud is used for soil conditioning and wax recovery, with
possibilities for biogas.
Figure 6: Molasses – Major Utilizations
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Figure 7: Bagasse – Energy & Materials Pathways
Figure 8: Press Mud – Handling & Uses
8. Key Equations
Purity = 100 × (Pol / Brix)
Recovery (% cane) = 100 × (Mass of sugar / Mass of cane)
Boiling House Recovery (BHR, %) = 100 × (Sucrose in sugar / Sucrose entering boiling house)
Steam Economy = kg of water evaporated per kg of live steam
9. Solved Numerical Examples
Example 1 – Juice Extraction in Milling
A factory crushes 1,000 tonnes of cane per day. The average juice extraction is 95% on cane. Estimate
the mass of juice obtained per day.
Solution: Juice extracted = 0.95 × 1,000 t = 950 tonnes/day.
Example 2 – Apparent Purity
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A clarified juice shows Brix = 15.2 and Pol = 13.7. Calculate purity.
Solution: Purity = 100 × (13.7 / 15.2) = 90.13% (approx.).
Example 3 – Boiling House Recovery (BHR)
Sucrose entering boiling house = 520 t/day. Sucrose in final sugar = 450 t/day. Find BHR.
Solution: BHR = 100 × (450 / 520) = 86.54%.
Example 4 – Steam Economy
A quadruple-effect evaporator evaporates 3,200 kg/h of water using 1,200 kg/h live steam. Calculate
steam economy.
Solution: Steam Economy = 3,200 / 1,200 = 2.67 kg water/kg steam.
Example 5 – Sugar Recovery from Cane
A mill processes 1,200 t cane/day and produces 120 t sugar/day. Compute recovery % cane.
Solution: Recovery = 100 × (120 / 1,200) = 10.0%.
10. Practical Operating Ranges (Quick Reference)
• Clarification pH (juice): ≈ 7.0–7.2.
• Evaporator outlet: ≈60–65 °Brix syrup.
• Operate pans within metastable zone to favor crystal growth.
• Diffuser temperature: ≈70–80°C; adequate imbibition is essential.
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