Chapter 3: Toward a liberation Psychology

Psychology of the Filipino (Sikolohiyang Pilipino): A new consciousness in the

Philippines

From having a colonial background to the great cultural divide. This showcases
the emergence of the development of psychology in the Philippines.

This emphasize as Follows:

1. Identity and national conscious
2. Social awareness and involvement
3. National and ethnic, and Languages
4. Bases and Application of indigenous psychology in health practice, agriculture,
art, mass media, religion etc.

This has been considered as a positive approach by many Psychologists and social
scientist as a positive step towards the development of psychology in the country. Also,
to a less reliance with western models.

Show’s embodiment of Psychology of the Filipino (Sikolohiyang Pilipino) for and by the
Filipinos as their own as:

 Systematic and scientific study

 Appreciation
 Application

The following point focus of study that make up our own psychology make up are,
society, and culture, that rooted from historical past, ethnic diversity, and the dynamic
interaction of Filipinos that are within or outside their social physical boundaries.

The view of the Psychology of the Filipino showing inaccuracy as tracing back to the
time of Jacinto, Mabini, and del Pila which show a nationalistic Fervor as it focuses
mainly on the backward practice of indigenous cultural communities. On the other hand,
those people that are avid adherent of western social science models and approach as
a radical in orientation for challenging establishment psychology.

Clarifying Misconceptions
 Not nativistic nor radical:
o The proponents of Sikolohiyang Pilipino reject both extremes. It is neither
an over-romanticized attachment to tradition nor an anti-establishment
ideology.
 Instead, its goal is to correct the imbalance caused by the excessive reliance
on Western psychological models, which often fail to capture the unique
experiences and realities of Filipinos.
Culturally Appropriate Field Methods
Sikolohiyang Pilipino employs methods that are rooted in Filipino culture, ensuring that
researchers can genuinely connect with participants and gather accurate insights.
These include:
 Pagtatanong-tanong ("asking around")
o This method involves informal and conversational questioning, similar to
the natural way Filipinos engage in discussions.
o Instead of rigid, formal interviews, this approach reflects the Filipino
preference for casual, non-threatening interactions.
o It relies on trust and rapport, making participants more comfortable
sharing their thoughts and feelings.
 Pakikiramdam ("shared inner perception")
o This method emphasizes sensitivity and empathy, where the researcher
attunes themselves to the unspoken cues, emotions, and feelings of the
participants.
o Filipinos often communicate subtly, and this approach respects that
indirect, non-verbal communication is just as meaningful as spoken words.
o It allows researchers to grasp nuances that might otherwise be missed by
more direct methods.
 Panunuluyan ("staying with")
o Researchers immerse themselves in the community or setting of the
participants, staying for an extended period to observe and experience
their daily lives.
o This fosters a deeper understanding of the participants' context, values,
and challenges, ensuring that data is not just surface-level but rooted in
lived experience.
 Pakikipamuhay ("living with")
o Taking immersion a step further, this method involves living with
participants as part of their community, sharing in their routines and
activities.
o It is a participatory approach, building trust and mutual understanding,
while also allowing researchers to experience the world from the
perspective of the participants.
o This method is particularly valuable in understanding collective
practices, family dynamics, and communal relationships, which are
central to Filipino culture.

 Three Primary Areas of Protest

Sikolohiyang Pilipino challenges psychology that perpetuates colonialism, marginalization, and

elitism in the Filipino context. These protests target issues of mental
colonization, inappropriate psychological frameworks, and the exploitation of the masses:
 1. Sikolohiyang Malaya ("Liberated Psychology")

 What it protests:
o Sikolohiyang Pilipino stands against a psychology that sustains the colonial
mindset of Filipinos—a legacy of historical colonization that fosters dependency,
inferiority, and alienation from their own cultural identity.
o This colonial psychology manifests in Filipinos devaluing their own traditions,
internalizing feelings of inferiority, and favoring foreign standards.
 Keep in Mind
o Pagbabagong-isip ("Reawakening")
o Sikolohiyang Pilipino advocates for a decolonization of the Filipino psyche to
break free from mental subjugation.
o Pagbabagong-isip signifies a call for critical self-awareness and reclaiming
Filipino identity, enabling the development of national consciousness and a
mindset rooted in pride and self-determination.
 Main Goal
o To empower Filipinos to view themselves through their own cultural lens rather
than through the perspectives imposed by colonial powers or Western influences.

2. Against Inappropriate Imposition of Western Psychology

 What it protests:
o Sikolohiyang Pilipino resists the imposition of psychological frameworks and
practices developed in industrialized nations (like the United States) onto
countries like the Philippines, where these models are often irrelevant or
inapplicable.
o Western psychology, shaped by values like individualism, materialism, and
urban-centric approaches, fails to resonate with the collective, relational, and
rural-oriented characteristics of Filipino society.
 Reconceptualization: Sikolohiyang Pang-industriya ("Industrial Psychology") vs.
Sikolohiyang Pangkabuhayan ("Livelihood/Economic Psychology")
o Instead of focusing narrowly on industrial settings (e.g., factories, offices),
Sikolohiyang Pilipino reimagines psychology to address livelihood-related
challenges faced by ordinary Filipinos, especially in rural areas.
o This shift emphasizes addressing economic and social inequalities, making
psychology more inclusive and directly beneficial to the marginalized and
underserved populations.
 Practical Outcome:
o Theoretical and research efforts pivot to understanding the realities of Filipinos in
rural areas and crafting solutions that uplift their livelihoods and communities,
rather than prioritizing the needs of urban elites or corporations.
o Psychologists are encouraged to return to grassroots work in rural villages,
bridging the gap between psychological practice and the daily struggles of
ordinary Filipinos.
 3. Sikolohiyang Mapagpalaya ("Liberating Psychology")

 What it protests:
o Sikolohiyang Pilipino denounces a psychology that serves the elite,
reinforcing structures that exploit and oppress the masses.
o Traditional psychology has often catered to the needs of the privileged
few, neglecting the majority who suffer from systemic poverty, inequality,
and injustice.
 Liberating Psychology:
o Sikolohiyang Mapagpalaya promotes a psychology that frees the Filipino
masses from the social, economic, and psychological structures that
perpetuate their oppression.
o It seeks to empower ordinary Filipinos, giving them tools for self-
determination and resistance against exploitation.
 Goal:
o To reorient psychology as a discipline that actively advocates for social
justice and works toward the upliftment of marginalized communities,
ensuring that psychological services and research benefit the broader
population.

Sikolohiyang Pilipino (Filipino Psychology) has showcase it unique aspect as it is

evident in culturally rooted, and socially conscious psychological framework.

 Sikolohiyang Pilipino draws heavily from traditional healing techniques used

by babaylans (indigenous priest-healers) or catalonans. These practices
emphasize a holistic understanding of well-being, integrating spirituality,
community, and psychological health.
 The approach also incorporates insights from local religio-political
movements, reflecting the socio-political realities of the Philippines and how
these shape the Filipino psyche.

Sikolohiyang Pangnayon (Community/Rural Psychology)

 Scholars are encouraged to return to rural communities, not only to learn from
the people but also to use this knowledge to serve them.
 This reflects a bottom-up approach, valuing the wisdom and practices of rural
Filipinos rather than imposing top-down, Western-derived models.
 Social action: Sikolohiyang Pilipino advocates for using psychology to promote
societal change and empowerment, especially for the marginalized.

Science and Humanism

 Sikolohiyang Pilipino does not see science (objective, data-driven) and
humanism (focused on meaning and values) as opposites. Instead, it integrates
both:
 o Uses scientific methods to study psychological phenomena.
o Goes beyond detached, "cold" methodologies by prioritizing human
welfare and cultural relevance.
This what made psychology as an Art and Science in the First place:
 Science: It values objective analysis and research.
 Art: Psychological findings must be creatively adapted to specific cultural and
situational contexts, ensuring relevance and resonance with Filipino realities.

Sikolohiyang Pilipino emphasizes that psychological concepts and methods must reflect
the distinct socio-cultural experiences of Filipinos.
 kamalayan (psyche or collective consciousness) is prioritized
over ulirat (individual consciousness), highlighting the Filipino value
of collectivism and shared history.
 The use of the Filipino language is crucial in developing indigenous
concepts and understanding psychological realities from a Filipino perspective.
 The Filipino language itself provides the basis for proposing sikolohiyang Pilipino
as the study of diwa (psyche)

The metaphor of “tao sa bahay” (person in the house) and “taong-bahay” (house
person) is used to explain the nature of Sikolohiyang Pilipino (Filipino
Psychology) by contrasting an outsider’s relationship to a space with that of someone
who truly belongs to and is integral to it. This distinction highlights how Sikolohiyang
Pilipino is deeply rooted in the Filipino cultural context rather than being an external or
foreign framework imposed on the Filipino experience.

(Intricate details)

Tao sa Bahay (Person in the House)

 A “person in the house” is a temporary presence, such as a visitor or someone
merely passing through.
 They do not necessarily understand or contribute to the inner workings of the
household.
 This represents psychological theories and practices that come from outside the
Philippines—particularly Western psychology. These foreign frameworks often
fail to address the realities of Filipino culture and values. They may provide
surface-level observations but lack a deep connection to Filipino experiences.

Taong-Bahay (House Person)

 A “house person” is someone who belongs to the household and plays an
active and meaningful role in its functioning.
 This person is part of the household’s identity and participates in its everyday life.
 Sikolohiyang Pilipino is like a “house person” because it is
developed within Filipino culture, reflecting the Filipino’s character, values, and
principles (paninindigan). It is not an outsider’s perspective but one
that emerges from the Filipino context itself.
By this it mean that we do not advocate the theories of behavior we get from
westerners?

No we do not. However, we should always take consideration about limitations, or

emptiness, and we need to be critique enough to avoid this metodong angat-patong.
Incorporating things that are not even applicable in our culture by that uncritical rejection
is just as dangerous as uncritical acceptance of western theories. By that Sikolohiyang
Pilipino is about exercising of care in the adoption of foreign theories.

Sociopolitical Problems, Ethnic Diversity, and Neocolonialism

Early Debates on Language:

 A major question in Sikolohiyang Pilipino was which language should be used in
psychology research, teaching, and publication. Should it be Pilipino/Filipino or
another language?
 This debate included discussions about:
o The Tagalog-based abakada (20-letter alphabet) versus a multi-language-
based Filipino alphabet (28 letters).
o Choosing between colonial languages (English) and indigenous
languages to express Filipino realities. P and F becomes trivial once
language issues is being brought up
o The issue of language ignited nationalistic fervor during the 1971
Constitutional Convention and culminated in the declaration of Filipino as
the national language in the 1987 Constitution.
o However, despite this, English remained dominant in education,
especially in psychology, due to the colonial and American-oriented
system in the Philippines.
o For the Filipinos it is not really the use of P and F language is the main
issue but, Sikolohiyang Pilipino advocates for the use of the
"language of the man-on-the-street, (lingua Franca)" which reflects the
lived experiences of ordinary Filipinos. This "living language" is not just
symbolic but practical for understanding Filipino psychology and fostering
inclusivity.
o
Cultural and Ethnic Diversity in Filipino Identity
 Who is the Filipino?:
o The term "Filipino" has been debated in the context of psychology:
Does it refer only to the urbanized, educated Manileño or include
the "unsophisticated" provinciano (rural dweller)?
Does it represent majority ethnic groups like Tagalogs or equally
include minority groups like Lumads and Igorots?
 Psychologies of Filipinos:

o Samson (1965) suggested that the Philippines, being culturally and

ethnically diverse, has multiple psychologies, not a singular one.
 o This diversity, rather than fragmenting Filipino identity, serves as a rich
resource for psychological research and theory, contributing to the
development of a truly national culture.
 Ethnic Consciousness and Unity:

o Events like the Pambansang Samahan sa Sikolohiyang Pilipino

convention emphasized the value of ethnic diversity in shaping a collective
Filipino consciousness.
o Sikolohiyang Pilipino leverages shared history and collective experiences
to unite Filipinos despite cultural differences.

Colonial Psychology and the Call for Decolonization

 Psychology in the Philippines has been shaped by Western, particularly

American, traditions, emphasizing universal findings, generalizability, and
external validity.
 This framework often fails to address local Filipino realities, particularly the
socio-economic and political challenges rooted in colonization.

Licuanan's Perspective:

 Dr. Patricia Licuanan urged Filipino psychologists to engage with the social and
political issues of the Philippines, highlighting the discipline’s potential role in
national development.
 However, Licuanan critiqued the movement, arguing that a focus on
decolonization might not directly address the economic struggles of Filipinos. In
essence, inspiration and cultural pride are insufficient solutions for poverty.

(Although there’s a need to have this universality)

Universality vs. Local Context:

 While psychology as a science strives for universality, Sikolohiyang Pilipino
questions this universality, emphasizing the need for culturally relevant
theories.

(However according to Licuana as in a local context)

 Sikolohiyang Pilipino urges Filipino psychologists to confront real-world social

problems and national issues, making the discipline relevant to Filipino lives.

Cultural Revalidation and Theoretical Reorientation

As people started to get emersed in Filipino cultural context in adapting psychology a

long with this emergence is the evident challenges and progress of the Sikolohiyang
Pilipino. It underscores the need for cultural validation, critiques blind adoption of
Western theories, and explores efforts to indigenize psychology.
Uncritical Adoption of Western Theories:
 Filipino psychologists often imported Western psychological theories and
methods from countries like the U.S. (e.g., Freud, Piaget, Skinner) without
considering their cultural relevance.
 Show’s cultural mismatch
o While Western psychological theories may be scientifically rigorous, their
assumptions often ignore the unique cultural and societal context of
Filipinos.
o Skinner's behaviorism relies heavily on controlled experimental data, yet
this may not directly translate to understanding Filipino behavior in its
natural environment.
o Western therapies may not address challenges faced by developing
nations, such as poverty or the need for community-based mental health
solutions.

Call for Cultural Relevance:

 Filipino psychologists are urged to develop culturally appropriate methods and
tools, such as:
o Learning strategies tailored to Filipino students.
o Therapies suited for outpatient clinics like the Philippine General Hospital.

Introduction of Sikolohiyang Pilipino as a Subject:

 First offered at the University of the Philippines in 1978, Sikolohiyang Pilipino
aimed to introduce psychology students to concepts grounded in Filipino culture
and experiences.
 However, students initially misunderstood the course, expecting ready-made
answers about Filipino psychology. Instead, they were challenged to explore
the limits and scope of creating a culturally grounded psychology.

The Process of Decolonizing Psychology

 Weaning Sikolohiyang Pilipino from Colonial Influence:

 Decolonizing psychology involves moving away from colonial
"mooring"—the dominance of Western paradigms—and developing
indigenous methods rooted in Filipino culture.
 This does not mean rejecting all Western theories but critically testing their
universality and adapting them as needed for the Filipino context.

 Rediscovery and Validation of Indigenous Concepts:

 Sikolohiyang Pilipino prioritizes identifying culturally relevant psychological
concepts, such as:
o Kapwa (shared identity) – The Filipino value of interconnectedness
and collective self.
o Pakiramdam (shared inner perception) – A sensitivity to others’
feelings and unspoken cues.
  These concepts must meet the same standards of scientific validity as
Western theories to ensure their credibility and applicability.

 Indigenous Research Methods:

 Methods like pagtatanong-tanong (informal, iterative questioning) are

culturally aligned with Filipino ways of gathering information and building
rapport, contrasting with rigid Western survey methods.

The Role of Sikolohiyang Pilipino

 Bridging Local and Global Perspectives:

o Sikolohiyang Pilipino acknowledges the universality of scientific methods
but emphasizes that these must be applied to address local, cultural-
specific questions relevant to Filipinos.
o It seeks to strike a balance between cultural pride and scientific rigor,
ensuring that indigenous methods and concepts meet international
standards.
 Relevance to Nation-Building:
o By focusing on Filipino values, behaviors, and cultural dynamics,
Sikolohiyang Pilipino plays a role in addressing national issues, such as
poverty and mental health, in ways that resonate with Filipino experiences.

Alternative Psychology Literature in Filipino

Building on the Foundations:

 Rogelia Pe-Pua advanced the work of earlier pioneers like Bartolome by focusing
on articulating the concepts and methods of Sikolohiyang Pilipino. Her
book, Sikolohiyang Pilipino: Teorya, Metodo at Gamit (1982), provided a
structured and comprehensive introduction to Filipino psychology.
 This compilation was notable as the first book to consolidate previously scattered
writings on the subject, making it accessible to students and scholars.
 The book’s bilingual format (English and Filipino) reflected the linguistic reality of
Philippine academia, where English dominated but Filipino was gaining traction
as a scholarly language.
 This bilingual approach bridged the gap between tradition and modernity,
enabling wider participation in the discourse while asserting the importance of
Filipino in academic and professional settings.

Balancing Linguistic Borrowing and Authenticity:

 Scholars like Ernesto Constantino opposed excessive linguistic purism,

advocating a pragmatic approach that allowed for borrowing from English
 (e.g., reimpors for "reinforce") when necessary. This adaptability enabled Filipino
psychology to develop without being stifled by rigid linguistic boundaries.

Transition from Mimeographed Articles to Published Books: (Form over Substance)

 Before Pe-Pua's anthology, much of the writing on Sikolohiyang Pilipino was

disseminated through informal, mimeographed (stenciled) articles or other less formal
formats. These were not easily accessible or considered as credible academic publications
in the more established intellectual circles, especially by scholars oriented toward
Western academic standards.
 The publication of Pe-Pua’s anthology in book form represented a significant milestone,
making the concepts and methods of Filipino psychology more formally recognized in
academic circles. This book became an official, printed source that could be referenced,
studied, and critiqued, which gave Sikolohiyang Pilipino a sense of legitimacy that
mimeographed articles could not.
 Scholars in the Philippines, particularly those who were more aligned with Western
intellectual traditions, placed high value on printed books as markers of academic
legitimacy and scholarly authority. In their mindset, if a concept or movement is
presented in a printed book, especially one written in English (a globally recognized
academic language), it holds more credibility and respect.
 By publishing the anthology in book form, Pe-Pua was able to address this academic
preference, giving Sikolohiyang Pilipino the appearance of a formal, serious field of
study that could stand alongside other established psychological theories.

After Pe-Pua another book published by Fr. Allen Aganon and Sr. Ma. Assumpta David,
RVM

 Published a book named "Sikolohiyang Pilipino: Isyu, Pananaw, at

Kaalaman" (translated as Filipino Psychology: Issues, Perspectives, and
Knowledge).
 Rogelia Pe-Pua had previously published a foundational work on Filipino
psychology, and Aganon and David's anthology builds on her efforts. While Pe-Pua’s
book introduced the concepts, theories, and methodology of Sikolohiyang
Pilipino, the Aganon and David anthology deepened these ideas by addressing
new issues, perspectives, and research, reflecting the evolution of the field.
Traditionally, Filipino, based largely on the Tagalog language, had been considered by many as
the language of the Tagalog ethnic group, the largest group in the country. This often led to the
mistaken belief that the language should only be used by Tagalogs in academic and cultural
discussions. However, during the development of Sikolohiyang Pilipino, Filipino scholars
from various regions of the Philippines began writing their academic theses and contributions
in Filipino, demonstrating that the language was not exclusive to the Tagalog people. This was a
direct challenge to the notion that the Filipino language could only be the domain of Tagalogs.

 Mario San Buenaventura, a native speaker of Bikolnon (from Oas, Albay), wrote
his thesis in 1983 on the "Philosophical Basis of Sikolohiyang Pilipino" ("Mga
Batayang Pilosopikal ng Sikolohiyang Pilipino"). His work was groundbreaking not
 only for its academic content but also because it was written in Filipino, thus
contributing to the legitimization of Filipino as a language for serious academic
work.
 Patricia de Peralta, originally from Laoag, Ilocos Norte, also contributed
to Sikolohiyang Pilipino by researching Ilocano folk stories. Her research added to
the diversity of perspectives in Filipino psychology, reflecting the culture and
psychology of the Ilocano people—another non-Tagalog ethnic group in the
Philippines.
 Ma. Angeles Guanzon, a Bikolana (from the Bicol region), wrote her thesis on
the "Panukat ng Ugali at Pagkatao"(which translates to "Measure of Character
and Personality"), again in Filipino. Her work enriched the discipline with insights
into the Filipino concepts of character and personality as understood in Bikolano
culture.
 Edilberto Tiempo’s idea of the "fourth colonization" ties into a broader discussion
on the colonial history of the Philippines. Colonization here refers to the
psychological and cultural domination by foreign powers, and the fourth
colonization refers to the internalized oppression by Filipinos themselves, even
after gaining independence from foreign colonizers. The idea of the "fourth
colonization" suggests that Filipinos, in their pursuit of progress, sometimes still cling
to the values and practices imposed by Western colonizers (in this case, referring to
the continued use of Western concepts, including language and academic traditions).

Also in the Filipino Psychology they were able to see the asset of what had been seen as a
weakness, which is the regionalism and language diversity. The country's ethnic diversity
contributes to a richer national culture and a more fine distinction of Filipino identity. The
following people like Rogelia Pe-Pua, Marylou Onglatco, and Zeus Salazar, are non-
Tagalogs, which highlights the inclusive nature of the movement. Despite their ethnic
backgrounds, they all embrace the Filipino language in their academic work and teaching. This
reflects a broader commitment to Filipino identity and culture, transcending linguistic or regional
differences. The involvement of foreign scholars further underscores that ethnic psychology is a
global, inclusive discipline. The focus is on understanding Filipino culture through its diverse
regional lenses.

Historian Teodor Agoncillo in his book History of the Filipino People depicting
limitations are as follows:

 Agoncillo's Limited View: Historian Teodoro Agoncillo focuses only on

Filipinos within the Philippines and neglects the experiences of Filipinos
abroad and indigenous ethnic groups like the T’bolis, Bagobos, and
Tagbanuas.
 Exclusion of Minority Voices: This oversight highlights a broader issue where
marginalized Filipino groups whether ethnic minorities in the Philippines or
overseas workers are not represented in mainstream historical and
psychological discussions.
  Role of Sikolohiyang Pilipino: Sikolohiyang Pilipino seeks to address this by
advocating for the inclusion of indigenous perspectives and the experiences
of all Filipinos, both in the Philippines and abroad.
 Establishment of IAFP: The International Association for Filipino Psychology
(IAFP) was created in 1990 to build global networks and promote a more
inclusive and authentic understanding of Filipino identity.
 Authenticity from Within: Sikolohiyang Pilipino emphasizes that the true
Filipino identity must come from within, rooted in indigenous culture and
values, rather than solely relying on external validation.

Training Third World Psychologists

As it has been highlighted that there are issues and developments in sikolohiyang
Pilipino (Filipino psychology) are shown to different areas like gender, the prestige of
foreign-earned degrees, and the movement towards local empowerment in the field of
psychology.

1. Gender and Gender Issues:

o The field of Filipino psychology has been sensitive to issues like gender
inequality and sexism, addressing these concerns through research, such
as Estrada’s (1981) investigation into Tagalog as a nonsexist language.
o The dissatisfaction with the traditional colonial order, which favored
Caucasian male scholars, prompted efforts to assert the validity and
importance of Filipino perspectives and contributions in the field of
psychology.
o Notably, in the early 1980s, many psychology departments in the
Philippines were led by women, demonstrating both the rise of locally
trained professionals and a challenge to male dominance in the discipline.

2. Opposition to Foreign-Dominated Education:

o The passage stresses the importance of moving away from an

overreliance on American-trained psychologists and the recognition of
local talent. The leadership of female Filipino psychologists in the 1980s,
such as Elizabeth Ventura and Evangeline Ortega, represented this shift.
o The first non-American-trained Filipino psychologist, Ma. Trinidad
Crisanto, who earned a PhD in France, symbolizes this new direction of
international but non-American academic training for Filipinos.

3. Training and Developing Filipino Scholars:

o To train teachers to teach the social sciences in the Filipino and with
Filipino and Asian Orientation.
o Sikolohiyang Pilipino supports the idea of training Filipino scholars both
locally and internationally. While international education is valuable, the
 movement encourages locally focused training at the PhD level to meet
the specific needs of the Filipino context.
o It critiques the extremes of isolationism and excessive dependence on
Western education, and promotes a balanced approach, as seen in
Moghaddam and Taylor's (1987) recommendations for training developing
world psychologists.
o Filipino psychology programs focus on preparing teachers to teach social
sciences and psychology in Filipino, with a cultural and regional emphasis.

4. Development of Local Psychology Materials:

o The translation of psychological texts from English to Filipino (e.g., the

autobiography of a schizophrenic girl in 1971), led to the creation of a
Filipino psychology sourcebook Diwa: Mga Babasahin sa Sikolohiya,
which became essential for classroom use and the development of formal
training programs for Filipino psychology teachers.
o Training workshops focused on indigenous psychological testing, Filipino
values, and Philippine-oriented research methods were created to serve
the industrial sector and community organizers.