Chapter 6

Geologic Materials for Construction

 6.1 Definition of quarry and quarrying
What is Quarry?

A quarry is a type of open-pit mine in which dimension stone , rocks , construction

aggregates, ripraps , sands, gravels are excavated from the ground.

Quarrying is the process of removing rock, sand, gravel or other minerals from the ground
in order to use them. It used to produce materials for construction or other uses.

So, a quarry is any such working on the surface of the earth where minerals and rocks are
extracted.

The operation of quarries are regulated in some jurisdictions to reduce their environmental
impacts.
There are two types of quarries: Open and under ground quarries.

under ground quarries

3
Ø Many civil & hydraulic structures require various construction materials with good
quality and quantity.

Ø At present day the construction industry places a large demand upon rock & soil
Ø In general, geological materials such as rocks and soils can be used in/for:
ü Building or Dimension Stone
ü Roofing and Facing Materials
ü Armourstone(rip-rap),
ü Crushed Rock: Concrete Aggregate and Road Aggregate
ü Gravels and Sands
ü Lime, Cement and Plaster
Building or Dimension Stone
Ø Stone has been used as a construction material for thousands of years. One of the reasons
for this was its ready availability locally. Furthermore, stone requires little energy for
extraction and processing.
Ø Indeed, stone is used more or less as it is found except for the seasoning, shaping and
dressing that is necessary before it is used for building purposes.

Ø A number of factors determine whether a rock will be worked as a building stone. These
include:
ü The volume of material that can be quarried;
ü The ease with which it can be quarried;
ü The wastage consequent upon quarrying
ü The cost of transportation;
ü Its appearance and physical properties
Ø As far as volume is concerned, the life of the quarry should be at least
20 years. The amount of overburden that has to be removed also affects
the economics of quarrying.
Ø The ease with which a rock can be quarried depends to a large extent on
geological structures, notably the geometry of joints and bedding planes,
where present.

Ø Ideally, rock for building stone should be massive, certainly it must be

free from closely spaced joints or other discontinuities as these control
block size.

Ø The stone should be free of fractures and other flaws.

Ø A uniform appearance is generally desirable in building stone. The appearance of a
stone largely depends on its colour, which is determined by its mineral composition.

Ø Texture also affects the appearance of a stone, as does the way in which it weathers.
For example, the weathering of some minerals, such as pyrite, may produce ghastly
stains. Generally speaking, rocks of light colour are used as building stone.

Ø The texture and porosity of a rock affect its ease of dressing, and the amount of
expansion, freezing and dissolution it may undergo. For example, fine-grained rocks
are more easily dressed than coarse varieties. The retention of water in a rock with
small pores is greater than in one with large pores and so they are more prone to frost
attack.
Ø The durability of a stone is a measure of its ability to resist weathering and so to retain
its original size, shape, strength and appearance over an extensive period of time. It is
one of the most important factors that determines whether or not a rock will be worked
for building stone.
Ø For usual building purposes, a compressive strength of 35 MPa is satisfactory, and the
strength of most rocks used for building stone is well in excess of this figure. In certain
instances, tensile strength is important, for example, tensile stresses may be generated in
a stone subjected to ground movements.
Ø However, the tensile strength of a rock, or more particularly its resistance to bending, is
a fraction of its compressive strength.
Ø As far as building stone is concerned, hardness is a factor of small consequence, except
where a stone is subjected to continual wear, such as in steps or pavings.
Ø Exposure of a stone to intense heating causes expansion of its component minerals with
subsequent exfoliation at its surface. The most suspect rocks in this respect appear to be
those that contain high proportions of quartz and alkali feldspars, such as granites and
sandstones.
Ø Indeed, quartz is one of the most expansive minerals, expanding by 3.76% between
normal temperatures and 570oC. When limestones and marbles are heated to 900oC or
dolostones to 800oC, superficial calcination begins to produce surface scars.
Ø Generally speaking, finely textured rocks offer a higher degree of heat resistance than
do coarse-grained varieties
Roofing and Facing Materials
Ø Rocks used for roofing purposes must possess a sufficient degree of fissility to allow
them to split into thin slabs, in addition to being durable and impermeable.
Consequently, slate is one of the best roofing materials available and has been used
extensively. Today, however, more and more tiles are being used for roofing, these being
cheaper than stone, which has to be quarried and cut to size
Ø When fissile stones are used as facing stone and are given a riven or honed finish, they
are extremely attractive. Facing stones usually have a polished finish, then they are even
more attractive, the polished finish enhancing the textural features of the stone. Polishing
is accomplished by carborundum-impregnated discs that rotate over the surface of the
stone, successively finer discs being used to produce the final finish
Ø Rocks used for facing stones should have a high tensile strength in order to resist
cracking. The high tensile strength also means that thermal expansion is not a great
problem when slabs are spread over large faces.
Armourstone
Ø Armourstone refers to large blocks of rock that are used to protect civil engineering structures. Large
blocks of rock, which may be single-size or, more frequently, widely graded (rip-rap), are used to protect
the upstream face of dams against wave action. They are also used in the construction of river training
schemes, in river bank and bed protection and stabilization, as well as in the prevention of scour around
bridge piers.
Ø Armourstone is used in coastal engineering for the construction of rubble mound breakwaters, for
revetment covering embankments, for the protection of sea walls, and for rubble rock groynes. Indeed,
breakwaters and sea defences represent a major use of armourstone.
Ø As the marine environment is one of the most aggressive in which construction occurs, armourstone must
afford stability against wave action, accordingly block size and density are all important
Ø Shape is also important since this affects how blocks interlock together. In addition, armourstone must be
able to withstand rapid and severe changes in hydraulic pressure, alternate wetting and drying, thermal
changes, wave and sand/gravel impact and abrasion, as well as salt and solution damage.
Ø Consequently, the size, grading, shape, density, water absorption, abrasion resistance, impact resistance,
strength and dura_x0002_bility of the rock material used for armourstone must be considered during the
design stage of a particular project.
Crushed Rock: Concrete Aggregate and Road Aggregate
Ø Crushed rock is produced for a number of purposes, the chief of which are for concrete and road aggregate.
Approximately 75% of the volume of concrete consists of aggregate,therefore its properties have a
significant influence on the engineering behaviour of concrete.
Ø Aggregate is divided into coarse and fine types, the former usually consisting of rock mate_x0002_rial that
is less than 40 mm and larger than 4 mm in size. The latter is obviously less than 4 mm. Fine types less
than 75 mm should not exceed 10% by weight of the aggregate.
Road Aggregate
Ø Aggregate constitutes the basic material for road construction and is quarried in the same way as aggregate
for concrete. Because it forms the greater part of a road surface, aggregate has to bear the main stresses
imposed by traffic, such as slow-crushing loads and rapid-impact loads, and has to resist wear. Therefore,
the rock material used should be fresh and have high strength. In addition, the aggregate used in the
wearing course should be able to resist the polishing action of traffic. The aggregate in blacktop should
possess good adhesion properties with bituminous binders.
Ø Aggregate used as road metal must, in addition to having high strength, have high resistance to impact and
abrasion, polishing and skidding, and frost action. It must also be impermeable, chemically inert and
possess a low coefficient of expansion.
Ø The principal tests carried out in order to assess the value of a roadstone are the aggregate crushing test, the
aggregate impact test, the aggregate abrasion test and the test for the assessment of the polished stone
value. Other tests of consequence are those for water absorption, specific gravity anddensity, and the
aggregate shape tests.
Lime, Cement and Plaster
Ø Lime is made by heating limestone, including chalk, to a temperature between 1100∞C and 1200∞C in a current of air,
at which point carbon dioxide is driven off to produce quicklime (CaO). Approximately 56 kg of lime can be obtained
from 100 kg of pure limestone. Slaking and hydration of quicklime take place when water is added, giving calcium
hydroxide.
Ø Carbonate rocks vary from place to place both in chemical composition and physical properties so that the lime
produced in different districts varies somewhat in its behaviour. Dolostones also produce lime; however, the resultant
product slakes more slowly than does that derived from limestones.
Ø Portland cement is manufactured by burning pure limestone or chalk with suitable argillaceous material (clay, mud or
shale) in the proportion 3:1. The raw materials are crushed and ground to a powder, and then blended. They are then fed
into a rotary kiln and heated to a temperature of over 1800∞C. Carbon dioxide and water vapour are driven off, and the
lime fuses with the aluminium silicate in the clay to form a clinker. This is ground to a fine powder, and less than 3%
gypsum is added to retard setting.
Ø Lime is the principal constituent of Portland cement, but too much lime produces a weak cement. Silica constitutes
approximately 20% and alumina 5%, both are responsible for the strength of the cement. A high con_x0002_tent of the
former, however, produces a slow setting, whereas a high content of the latter gives a quick-setting cement. The
percentage of iron oxides is low and, in white Portland cement, it is kept to a minimum. The proportion of magnesia
(MgO) should not exceed 4%, otherwise the cement is unsound. Similarly, sulphate (SO4) must not exceed 2.75%.
Sulphate-resisting cement is made by the addition of a very small quantity of tricalcium aluminate to normal Portland
cement.
Ø When gypsum (CaSO4.nH2O) is heated to a temperature of 170∞C, it loses three quarters of its water of crystallization,
becoming calcium sulphate hemi-hydrate, or plaster of Paris. Anhydrous calcium sulphate forms at higher temperatures.
These two substances are the chief materials used in plasters. Gypsum plasters have now more or less replaced lime
plasters
 6.4 The controlling factor for selection of quarry site
Ø The quarry site selection criteria was formulated and applied in GIS environment by
incorporating the controlling factors such as;
ü Slope of the quarry rock face,
ü Distance of the quarry site ,
ü Land use/land cover, accessibility,
ü Overburden thickness, ,
ü The lithology,
ü Geologic structures such as jointing or fracturing,
ü Engineering properties of the aggregates,
ü Operational difficulties such as benching,
ü Blasting and rock slope stability,
ü Rock type,
ü Degree of weathering and environmental considerations,
Ø In other way, the search of rock material for building stone, crushed rock, or riprap is
controlled by following factors:
♣ quality and supply of the material (quantity)
♣ economics of production and delivery. 13
 6.4 Quarrying methods
Ø The process of removal of stones from their natural bed by using different operations is
called quarrying.
Ø Quarrying is done by one of the following methods of quarrying after investigation of
its quality, quantity and economic benefit.
a) Digging –This method is used when the quarry consists of small & soft pieces of
stones.
b) Heating – This method is used when the natural rock bed is horizontal and small in
thickness.
c) Wedging –This method is used when the hard rock consists of natural fissure. When
natural fissures are absent then artificial fissures are prepared by drilling holes.
d) Blasting – It is the process of removal of stones with the help of controlled explosives
that filled in the holes of the stones. Line of least resistance plays very important role in
the blasting process.
14
Ø Following steps are used in the blasting
process;
1) Drilling holes – Blast holes are drilled by
using drilling machines.
2) Charging – Explosive powders are fed into
the cleaned & dried blast holes.
3) Tamping – The remaining portion of the
blast holes are filled by clay, ash, fuse &
wirings.
4) Firing –The fuses of blasting holes are fired
by using electrical power supply or match
sticks.
Ø The explosion generates a stress wave and significant gas pressure, resulting in complex
reflections and refractions of stress waves at discontinuities within therock mass
Ø There are several properties of stones that are controlling their types and qualities. Being
cheap, hard, durable and naturally good looking stones are often used in construction.

Ø The criteria of selection is based normally on the following general parameters:

1. Chemical composition of stone
2. Strength and hardness
3. Degree of Weathering:
4. Porosity and Water Absorption:
5. Texture
6. Sturucture
7. Weight and Density:
8. Appearance
9. Durability
10. Resistance to fire
11. Susceptibility to being quarried in large sizes(Cost)
Chemical composition of stones:
Ø Using/selecting a stone for construction, its chemical properties and composition must be
tested and verified because different elements and compounds in stones have different
properties.
Ø For instance, Magnesium in Limestone causes it to be more stronger and is called
Dolomite. Feldspar, in large quantities in stone is a source of weakness because CO2
dissolves Potassium, Sodium, and even Calcium in the Feldspar leaving pure white clay
behind.
Ø Presence of Mica, even less than 2-3% makes stone unsuitable for building purposes.
Stones with silicates as cementing materials are resistant to weathering.
Texture:
Ø Fine grained stones with homogeneous distribution look attractive and hence they are
used for carving. Such stones are usually strong and durable.
Structure:
Ø The structure of the stone may be stratified (layered) or unstratified. Structured stones
should be easily dressed and suitable for super structure. Unstratified stones are hard and
difficult to dress. They are preferred for the foundation works.
Strength:
Ø Strength is an important property to be looked into before selecting stone as building
block. Indian standard code recommends, a minimum crushing strength of 3.5 N/mm2
for any building block.
Ø Due to non-uniformity of the material, usually a factor of safety of 10 is used to find the
permissible stress in a stone. Hence, even laterite can be used safely for a single storey
building, because in such structures expected load can hardly give a stress of 0.15
N/mm2.
Hardness:
Ø It is an important property to be considered when stone is used for flooring and
pavement.
Ø Coefficient of hardness is to be found by conducting test on standard specimen in Dory’s
testing machine.
Ø For road works coefficient of hardness should be at least 17. For building works stones
with coefficient of hardness less than 14 should not be used.
Ø The stone used in floors and pavements should be able to resist abrasive forces caused by
movement of men and materials over them.
Degree of Weathering:
Ø Weathering is a complex interaction of physical, chemical and biological processes that
can alter the stone in some general or specific way. The physical properties of stone
differs widely between stone groups and even within the same stone type.
Ø The mineral composition, textural differences, varying degrees of hardness and
pore/capillary structure are the main reasons why stone or all the surface of the same
stone shows signs of alteration the same and evenly.
Ø These minerals can be broken down, dissolved or converted to new minerals by a variety
of processes which are grouped as Mechanical and Chemical.
Ø Intensity and duration are two key elements that govern to what extent weathering
reactions will have on stone.
Ø Rain and wind cause loss of good appearance of stones. Hence stones with good weather
resistance should be used for face works.
Porosity and Absorption:
Ø All stones have pores and hence absorb water. The reaction of water with material of
stone causes disintegration. Absorption test is specified as percentage of water absorbed
by the stone when it is immersed under water for 24 hours.
Ø For a good stone it should be as small as possible and in no case more than 5. Building
stone should not be porous. If it is porous rain water enters into the pour and reacts with
stone and crumbles it.
Ø In higher altitudes, the freezing of water in pores takes place and it results into the
disintegration of the stone.
Weight and Density:
Ø Building stones must be heavy. Denser stones are stronger. Light weight stones are weak.
Ø Hence stones with specific gravity less than 2.4 are considered unsuitable for buildings.
Appearance:
Ø Appearance is a primary requirement for all stones. The colour and ability to receive
polish are important factors. A stone with uniform and attractive colour is durable, if
grains are compact.
Ø Stones with much iron should be discouraged as the formation of iron oxides disfigures
them and brings about disintegration. Marble and granite get very good appearance, when
polished.
Ø Certain trees and creepers thrust their roots into the joints of stones and have both
mechanical and chemical effects. Special microbes can grow on the surface and in minute
fissures, their by-products cause flaking and discoloration.
Ø A uniform appearance is generally desirable in building stone. The appearance of a stone
largely depends on its colour, which is determined by its mineral composition.
Ø Texture also affects the appearance of a stone, as does the way in which it weathers. For
example, the weathering of some minerals, such as pyrite, may produce ghastly stains.
Generally speaking, rocks of light colour are used as building stone.
Durability:
Ø The durability of a stone is a measure of its ability to resist weathering and so to retain
its original size, shape, strength and appearance over an extensive period of time. It is
one of the most important factors that determines whether or not a rock will be worked
for building stone.
Ø Stones selected for building should be capable of resisting adverse effects of natural
forces like wind, rain and heat.
Toughness:
Ø Building stones should be tough enough to sustain stresses developed due to vibrations.
The vibrations may be due to the machinery mounted over them or due to the loads
moving over them.
Ø The stone aggregates used in the road constructions should be tough. The resistance to
impact is called toughness. It is determined by impact test.
Ø Stones with toughness index more than 19 are preferred for road works. Toughness
indexes 13 to 19 are considered as medium tough and stones with toughness index less
than 13 are poor stones.
Resistance to heat or Fire:
Ø Resistance to heat means that the stone must have a very low amount of expansion
due to large increase in temperature.
Ø Exposure of a stone to intense heating causes expansion of its component minerals
with subsequent exfoliation at its surface. The most suspect rocks in this respect
appear to be those that contain high proportions of quartz and alkali feldspars, such
as granites and sandstones.
Ø Indeed, quartz is one of the most expansive minerals, expanding by 3.76% between
normal temperatures and 570oC. When limestones and marbles are heated to 900oC
or dolostones to 800oC, superficial calcination begins to produce surface scars.
Ø Generally speaking, finely textured rocks offer a higher degree of heat resistance
than do coarse-grained varieties
Ø Silicious materials are good at areas where resistance to fire is required. Sand stones
resist fire better. Argillaceous materials, though poor in strength, are good in
resisting fire.
Cost:
Ø Cost is an important consideration in selecting a building material. Proximity of the
quarry to building site brings down the cost of transportation and hence the cost of stones
comes down.
Ø However it may be noted that not a single stone can satisfy all the requirements of a good
building stones, since one requirement may contradict another. For example, strength and
durability requirement contradicts ease of dressing requirement.
Ø Hence it is necessary that site engineer looks into the properties required for the intended
work and selects the stone.
Dressing:
Ø Giving required shape to the stone is called dressing. It should be easy to dress so that the
cost of dressing is reduced. However the care should be taken so that, this is not be at the
cost of the required strength and the durability.
Ø Cost of dressing contributes to cost of stone masonry to a great extent. Dressing is easy in
stones with lesser strength. Hence an engineer should look into sufficient strength rather
than high strength while selecting stones for building works.
Ø Granites : suitable for construction works.
Ø Gneiss: suitable for construction works.
Ø Basalts and Dolerites: suitable for construction
works except as building stone because of their
color.
Ø Sandstones: siliceous sandstone is suitable for
construction works.
Ø Quartzite: suitable for construction works except
as building stone because of its workability.
Ø Limestone and marble :Since they easily
dissolve with acids not suitable except
Limestone used as cement raw material and
Marble for ornamental works.
Ø Slates: Not suitable for construction works.
Quality Tests conducted on Stones:
Ø To ascertain the required properties of stones, the following tests can be conducted:
i. crushing strength test.
ii. water absorption test.
iii. abrasion test.
iv. impact test.
v. acid test.
27