University of Misan

Collage of Engineering
Chemical Engineering Department

Gas-Oil Separation TECHNOLOGY

Fundamental Principles, Mechanical Design, and Mass Transfer Operations

Students:
Ibrahim Ahmed Abdulla
Ahmed Kadhim Abdulla
Hassan Mohsen Jabbar
Hussien Ali Ramadan
Ali Qassim Mohammed

MARCH 11, 2026

Table of Contents
1. Abstract ................................................................................................................... 1
2. Fundamental Principles of Separation ..................................................................... 2
 2.1 Gravity Settling
 2.2 Momentum / Impingement
 2.3 Centrifugal Force
3. Inner Sections of Oil and Gas Separators .............................................................. 3
 3.1 Multi-stage Separation
 3.2 Control Systems
4. Classification of Separators by Orientation ........................................................... 4
 4.1 Vertical Separators
o 4.1.1 Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium (VLE)
o 4.1.2 Isenthalpic Flash Vaporization
o 4.1.3 Interfacial Area and Mass Transfer Rate
o 4.1.4 Residence Time (Retention Time)
o 4.1.5 Stripping and Re-entrainment
 4.2 Horizontal Separators
 4.3 Spherical Separators
5. Classification by Operating Phases ........................................................................ 7
6. Critical Internal Components ................................................................................... 8
7. Operational Challenges and Performance Limits ................................................... 9
 7.1 Foaming and Interface Measurement
 7.2 Emulsion Stability
 7.3 Gas Capacity Calculations
8. Environmental and Safety Integration ................................................................... 10
 8.1 Vapor Recovery Units (VRU)
 8.2 Separation Efficiency in Cyclones
9. References ............................................................................................................... 11

 Appendices
 Appendix A: Nomenclature and Symbols .......................................................... 12
 Appendix B: Sample Sizing Calculation ............................................................. 13
 Appendix C: Unit Conversions and Constants ........................................................ 13
 Appendix D: Process Flow Diagram (PFD) ......................................................... 14
 Appendix E: Hydrocarbon K-Value Chart ................................................... 14

1
1. Abstract
Oil and gas separation is a critical first step in petroleum production. When
reservoir fluids reach the surface, they typically consist of a complex mixture of crude
oil, natural gas, water, and impurities like sand and sediment. To process, measure,
transport, and sell these resources efficiently, the well stream must be separated into
its primary constituent phases. This report outlines the fundamental principles,
equipment classifications, internal components, and operational factors governing oil
and gas separation technology.

Separating gas from oil before export is mandatory for several operational and
economic reasons. Pipeline specifications enforce strict limits on the vapor pressure of
crude oil to prevent the formation of gas pockets, which can cause vapor-locking and
cavitation in liquid transfer pumps. Furthermore, separation maximizes the recovery of
valuable liquid hydrocarbons, prevents hydrate formation in flowlines, and ensures
safe, stable transport to storage facilities. (Abdel-Aal et al., 2016, p. 141).

The primary goal of a separator is to isolate these mixed phases into single-phase
streams that can be accurately measured, further processed, or safely exported to
pipelines or storage facilities (GPSA, 2012, Section 7, p. 7-1)
2. Fundamental Principles of Separation
Separation technology relies heavily on the physical differences between the phases,
primarily density, to achieve phase isolation (GPSA, 2012, Section 7, p. 7-1). The main
physical principles utilized in separators include:
● Gravity Settling: The most significant driving force. Because liquids (oil and water)
are heavier than gas, they naturally fall to the bottom of a vessel, while gas rises to
the top. Furthermore, water is heavier than oil, allowing them to separate into
distinct layers if given sufficient time. (GPSA, 2012, Section 7, p. 7-8)
● Momentum / Impingement: When a fluid stream strikes a surface, the fluid's
momentum is disrupted. Gas, having lower inertia, flows around the obstacle, while
heavier liquid droplets strike the surface, coalesce (merge), and drop into the liquid
section. (GPSA, 2012, Section 7, p. 7-8)
● Centrifugal Force: Cyclonic separation uses centrifugal force to spin the fluid
mixture. Heavier liquid particles are thrown against the vessel's outer wall and fall,
while the lighter gas migrates to the center of the vortex and travels upward.
(Arnold & Stewart, 2008, p. 143)

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3. Inner sections of oil and gas separator (precise separation stages)
Whether the separator is horizontal or vertical, the fluid goes through four basic stages
within the separator vessel: (Arnold & Stewart, 2008, p. 94)
1. Primary Separation Section
The mixture (oil + gas) enters at high pressure and speed. The mixture hits powerful
inlet deflectors. This collision changes the direction and speed of the flow abruptly. Due
to the force of the momentum, a large amount of gas separates from the liquid
immediately. The gas goes up, and the liquid falls down.
2. Secondary or Gravity Settling Section
In this wide section of the buffer, the gas flow speed is greatly reduced. The goal of this
process to give enough time for the small oil droplets that are still stuck in the upward
gas stream to fall downward by gravity and join the liquid.
3. Mist Extraction Section
Before the gas exits the top hole of the buffer, it passes through the "mist extractor",
which is a fine wire mesh (wire mesh) or winding sheets (Vane Packs). The gas carries
with it very fine droplets (aerosols) that don't fall by gravity. As the gas passes through
these networks, the droplets hit the wires, collect to form larger droplets, and then fall
down. This ensures that the gas comes out as pure and dry as possible.
4. Liquid Collection Section
The oil (and water if available) collects at the bottom of the buffer. This section
provides what is called "retention time" – the time when the liquid remains inside the
buffer before exiting (usually 1 to 5 minutes). This time allows the gas bubbles trapped
inside the oil to float and be released.

Figure 1 PRIMARY OIL & GAS SEPARATION PROCESS (Arnold & Stewart, 2008, p. 94)

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3.1. Multi-stage Separation
In oil fields, gas is not separated from oil in a single step, but through several separators
that are gradually connected to each other to increase the amount of oil extracted and
prevent its evaporation:
1. High-Pressure Separator: Rapidly separates free gas under high pressure.
2. Medium-Pressure Separator: Oil moves into it, and due to the low pressure, medium-
weight dissolved gases are released.
3. Low-pressure separator: The pressure drops close to atmospheric pressure,
releasing the last of the dissolved gases.
Why the gradation? Because if we suddenly reduce the pressure from high well
pressure to atmospheric pressure, a large portion of the light oil will evaporate and be
lost with the gas (a phenomenon called flash vaporization). The gradient ensures the
stability of the liquid oil to the maximum.

Figure 2 MULTI-STAGE SEPARATION: A GRADUAL PROCESS TO MAXIMIZE OIL RECOVERY

3.2 Control Systems

In order for the buffer to work efficiently without overflowing or completely emptying,
it is provided with:
Level Control Valve: Monitors the oil level below. If it rises, the valve opens for oil
to escape.
Pressure Control Valve: Monitors the gas pressure at the top and opens to allow
the gas to escape to maintain a constant pressure inside the vessel.

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4. Classification of Separators by Orientation
Separators are primarily designed as pressure vessels and are classified by their
geometric shape and orientation to optimize the physical principles mentioned above
4.1 Vertical Separators
Vertical separators are upright cylindrical vessels. The well stream enters radially or
tangentially, with fluids flowing downward and gas flowing upward (Arnold &
Stewart, 2008, p. 127).
Advantages: Excellent at handling fluids with high gas-to-oil ratios (GOR) or large
slugs of liquid. They take up less floor space (footprint) and are easier to clean out if
the well stream contains significant sand or solid debris
(Arnold & Stewart, 2008, p. 127-129).
Disadvantages: More expensive to fabricate than horizontal separators of the
same capacity and require higher vertical clearance.
(Arnold & Stewart, 2008, p. 127-129)

Figure 3 VERTICAL SEPARATORS: TWO-PHASE AND THREE-PHASE SCHEMATICS(Arnold & Stewart,2008,p.96 & 128)

To understand how an oil-gas vertical separator works, it is important to distinguish

between two closely related phenomena: momentum transfer (the physical
separation of bulk fluids using gravity and impact) and mass transfer (the movement
of specific chemical components between the gas and liquid phases on a molecular
level) (Arnold & Stewart, 2008).
While vertical separators are primarily designed for physical separation, mass transfer
principles dictate the ultimate composition and volume of the gas and liquid that exit the
vessel (Campbell, 2014).

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4.1.1 Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium (VLE)
The foundational principle of mass transfer in any separator is Vapor-Liquid
Equilibrium. When the multiphase well stream enters the separator, it is held at a
specific operating pressure ( P) and temperature (T ) (Smith, Van Ness, & Abbott,
2005).
Mass transfer occurs continuously between the gas and liquid phases until
thermodynamic equilibrium is reached. At equilibrium, the rate of molecules
vaporizing equals the rate of molecules condensing (Whitson & Brule, 2000).
The distribution of any given component i (like methane, butane, or nonane) between
the phases is described by its equilibrium ratio, or K -value (Smith, Van Ness, & Abbott,
2005):
y i=K i x i

Where:
 y i = mole fraction of component i in the gas phase
 x i = mole fraction of component i in the liquid phase
 K i = equilibrium constant (dependent on P, T , and overall mixture composition)
(Whitson & Brule, 2000).
Lighter components (like methane) have high K -values and transfer predominantly
into the gas phase, while heavier components (like decane) have low K -values and
remain in the liquid phase (GPSA, 2012).

Figure 4 VLE Principle

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4.1.2 Isenthalpic Flash Vaporization
When high-pressure fluid from a wellhead or manifold enters a separator operating at a
lower pressure, it undergoes an isenthalpic (constant enthalpy) pressure drop. This
sudden drop drives rapid mass transfer known as a flash (Campbell, 2014).
Vaporization (Desorption): The lower pressure reduces the solubility of light
gases in the liquid oil. Molecules of lighter hydrocarbons transfer out of the liquid
phase and into the vapor phase (Arnold & Stewart, 2008).
Condensation: Simultaneously, if the fluid cools rapidly due to the Joule-
Thomson effect during the pressure drop, some heavier vapor components may
cross the phase boundary and condense into the liquid (GPSA, 2012).
Engineers use flash calculations (often utilizing the Rachford-Rice equation) to
predict exactly how much mass will transfer into the gas phase versus the liquid phase
at the separator’s specific operating conditions (Whitson & Brule, 2000).
4.1.3 Interfacial Area and Mass Transfer Rate
The rate at which mass transfers between the oil and gas is governed by the interfacial
area between the two phases. In a vertical separator, the internal components
manipulate this area (Treybal, 1980):
 Inlet Diverters: When the feed hits the inlet diverter (a baffle or centrifugal
plate), the fluid is shattered into smaller droplets and a thin film. This
exponentially increases the surface area between the liquid and gas, accelerating
mass transfer so the fluid reaches equilibrium much faster.
 Liquid Pool Surface: In the lower section of the vertical separator, the liquid
collects in a pool. Mass transfer (off-gassing) continues slowly across the flat
surface area of this pool.

4.1.4 Residence Time (Retention Time)

Because mass transfer takes time, separators must be sized to provide adequate
“residence time” for the fluids (API Specification 12J, 2008).
If the liquid is discharged too quickly, equilibrium isn’t fully reached, and “live”
oil (oil containing trapped, volatile gas) will be sent to downstream equipment,
which can cause vapor-locking in pumps or storage tank hazards.
Vertical separators typically have shorter liquid retention times (usually 1 to 3
minutes) compared to horizontal separators, making them ideal for high gas-to-
oil ratio (GOR) streams where the primary goal is getting a large volume of gas
away from a small volume of liquid (API Specification 12J, 2008).

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4.1.5 Stripping and Re-entrainment
If the gas velocity flowing upward through the vertical vessel is too high, it can strip
lighter ends out of the falling liquid droplets (altering the mass transfer balance).
Conversely, high-velocity gas can physically re-entrain liquid droplets, which then hit
the mist extractor at the top. The mist extractor forces small droplets to coalesce into
larger ones, transferring liquid mass back down to the pool via gravity (Campbell,
2014).

4.2 Horizontal Separators

Horizontal separators are cylindrical vessels laid horizontally. The fluid enters one end,
and the gas and liquid travel longitudinally toward the other end (Arnold & Stewart,
2008).
Advantages: Provide a large gas-liquid interfacial area, making them highly
efficient for handling large volumes of dissolved gas, foaming crudes, and three-
phase (oil/water/gas) separation (SPE, 2007). They are generally more cost-
effective than vertical units (Arnold & Stewart, 2008).
Disadvantages: Require a larger horizontal footprint and are harder to clean if
solids/sand accumulate at the bottom (API Spec 12J, 2008).

Figure 5 Horizontal Separator (Arnold & Stewart, 2008, p. 124-127)

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4.3 Spherical Separators
Spherical separators are globe-shaped vessels designed for specialized, compact
applications (Arnold & Stewart, 2008).
Advantages: Very compact and highly efficient at containing pressure, which
allows for thinner vessel walls (SPE, 2007).
Disadvantages: Limited liquid surge capacity and difficult internal fabrication,
which means they are rarely used in modern, large-scale upstream operations
(Arnold & Stewart, 2008).

Figure 6 SPHIERICAL OIL-GAS SEPARATOR (Arnold & Stewart, 2008, p. 96)

5. Classification by Operating Phases

Beyond physical orientation, separators are also broadly classified by the number of
phases they are designed to isolate (API Spec 12J, 2008).
● Two-Phase Separators: Designed to separate the well stream into two distinct
streams: a combined liquid phase (oil and water) and a gas phase (Arnold &
Stewart, 2008).
● Three-Phase Separators: Specifically designed to separate the well stream into
three separate streams: natural gas, crude oil, and produced water (SPE, 2007).
These require longer residence times and specialized internal weirs (baffles) to
separate the oil from the water (GPSA, 2012).

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 A three-phase separator must be designed instead of a two-phase
separator when the well stream produces a significant ‘water cut’ (free
water). Removing this water immediately is critical to prevent the
formation of tight oil-water emulsions, prevent pipeline corrosion, and
reduce the hydraulic load on downstream processing equipment.
(Arnold & Stewart, 2008, p. 123-124)
6. Critical Internal Components
The efficiency of a separator is dramatically improved by its internal hardware, which
guides the flow and accelerates phase separation by maximizing momentum and
coalescence (Arnold & Stewart, 2008).

Component Function Common Types

Absorbs the initial

momentum of the well Baffle plates,
Inlet Diverter stream, causing the first major cyclonic/centrifugal inlet
separation of gross liquid heads, half-pipe diverters.
from the gas.

Breaks up crude oil foam (gas

bubbles trapped in liquid oil), Parallel inclined plates, wire
Defoaming Plates
which can otherwise reduce mesh.
vessel capacity.

Installed near the gas outlet to

Wire mesh pads (demisters),
capture microscopic liquid
Mist Extractor vane-type extractors,
droplets entrained in the
centrifugal extractors.
exiting gas stream.

Installed over the liquid

outlets at the bottom of the Cross-baffles, horizontal
Vortex Breaker
vessel to prevent gas carry- covers.
under.

In 3-phase separators, dams

or weirs are used to hold back Adjustable weirs, fixed
Weirs
water while allowing oil to overflow baffles.
spill over.

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7. Factors Affecting Separation Efficiency
Optimizing a separator requires balancing several operational parameters to ensure
the fluids meet pipeline or secondary processing specifications.
Fluid Composition and Density: The greater the difference in density between the
gas, oil, and water, the faster and easier the separation (GPSA, 2012).
Operating Pressure and Temperature: Higher temperatures generally lower
fluid viscosity, improving liquid-liquid separation (Arnold & Stewart, 2008).
However, higher temperatures also cause more light hydrocarbons to vaporize into
the gas phase, which must be accounted for in the facility's overall mass balance
(SPE, 2007).
Retention Time (Residence Time): The amount of time the liquid spends inside
the vessel is paramount (API Spec 12J, 2008). Heavier crude oils and oil-water
emulsions require longer retention times (typically 3 to 10 minutes or more)
compared to light condensates (Arnold & Stewart, 2008).
8. References
 Abdel-Aal, H. K., Aggour, M., & Fahim, M. A. (2016). Petroleum and Gas Field
Processing. CRC Press.
 American Petroleum Institute (API). (2008). API Specification 12J:
Specification for Oil and Gas Separators (8th ed.). API Publishing Services.
 Arnold, K., & Stewart, M. (2008). Surface Production Operations, Volume 1:
Design of Oil Handling Systems and Facilities. Gulf Professional Publishing.
 Campbell, J. M. (2014). Gas Conditioning and Processing, Volume 1: The
Basic Principles (9th ed.). John M. Campbell & Company.
 Gas Processors Suppliers Association (GPSA). (2012). Engineering Data
Book (13th ed.). GPSA.
 Manning, F. S., & Thompson, R. E. (1995). Oilfield Processing of Petroleum,
Volume 2: Crude Oil. PennWell Books.
 Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE). (2007). Petroleum Engineering
Handbook, Volume III: Facilities and Construction Engineering. Society of
Petroleum Engineers.

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12
Appendix A: Nomenclature and Symbols
The following symbols and variables are used throughout this report to describe the
physical and chemical processes of separation:

Symbol Description Units (Field/SI)

Ki Equilibrium ratio for Dimensionless

component i

xi Mole fraction of component i Dimensionless

in liquid phase

yi Mole fraction of component i Dimensionless

in gas phase

V Gmax Maximum allowable gas ft /s or m/s

velocity

Ks Souders-Brown design factor ft /s or m/s

ρL Density of the liquid phase 3

lb/f t or kg /m
3

ρG Density of the gas phase 3

lb/f t or kg /m
3

Z Gas compressibility factor Dimensionless

P Operating pressure psia or bara

T Operating temperature ∘
❑ R or K

tr Retention (residence) time minutes

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Appendix B: Sample Sizing Calculation (Gas Capacity)
To determine the minimum vessel diameter for a vertical separator handling a gas flow
rate of 10 MMscfd, the Souders-Brown equation is applied.
1. Given Data:
 Gas Flow Rate (Q g): 10 MMscfd
 Operating Pressure ( P): 1000 psia
 Operating Temperature (T ): 100°F (560°R)
 Gas Compressibility ( Z ): 0.85
 Gas Density ( ρG ): 5.1 lb/f t 3
 Liquid Density ( ρ L): 45 lb/f t 3
 K s factor (for wire mesh mist extractor): 0.35 ft /s

2. Calculate Maximum Allowable Velocity (V Gmax ):

V Gmax =K s
√ ρ L −ρG
ρG

V Gmax =0.35
√ 45−5.1
5.1
=0.98 ft/s

3. Calculate Required Area ( A ): Using the actual gas flow rate at operating conditions:
Actual Flow Rate
A=
V Gmax

If Actual Flow Rate =1.15 ft 3 /s, then A=1.17 ft 2.

4. Result: The minimum internal diameter ( D ) required is approximately 15 inches.

Appendix C: Unit Conversions and Constants

These conversions are standard in petroleum processing and mass transfer operations:

To Convert From To Multiply By

3
MMscfd f t /hr 41,667
3
Barrels (bbl) ft 5.615
Barrels (bbl) Gallons (US) 42
psi kPa 6.895

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Appendix D: Cross-Sectional View of a Horizontal Three-Phase Separator
(Arnold & Stewart, 2008, p. 124-127)

Appendix E: Hydrocarbon K-Value Chart

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