ANIMAL REPRODUCTION II/133

The sex act also involves increased muscle 1. Ovaries. The ovaries are the primarysex
tension called myotonia. Both skeletal and smooth organs of the female.
muscles show sustained or rhythmic contractions. Size and Form. The ovaries are aboutthe size
Breathing quickens and heart rate rises. This is an and shapeof an [Link] ar e about3cm. long,
involuntary response to stimulation of autonomic 2cm. wide and 1 cm. thick.
nervous system, and notto physical activity.
Location. The ovaries lie in the lower part of
Movement of Spermatozoa to Site of Fer
the abdomen held to the broad ligament by double
tilization. In the female genital tract, alkalinity of folds of peritoneum, the mesovaria. Each ovary is
the semen helps neutrilize acidity in the vagina. connected by an ovarian ligament to the uterus,
This protects the sperms and increase their and by asuspensory ligamen to the lateral pelvic
motility, prostaglandins of the semen thin the wall.
mucus atthe opening of the uterus, and also stimu Role. The ovaries, like the testes, have both
late contractions of the uterine muscles. These con
an exocrine function (production and an
of ova)
tractions help the semen move up the uterus, When
endocrine role (secretion of female sexhormones :
ejaculated, the semen first coagulates, making it
estrogen and progesterone). After menupause, the
easier for uterine contractions to push it up ;and is
ovaries bcome small and lose follicles.
then liquified by the anticoagulating enzymes, ena
Structure. The ovaries are solid organs and
bling the sperms to start swimming in the uterus.
From here, they reach the oviduct. In the oviduct, are composed of connective tissue, the stroma,
the spermatozoaare capacitated (attainthe ability
wrapped by a layer of cuboidal cells, the germinal
epithelium, followed by .a layer of flattened cells,
to penetrate the ovum). Somewhere in the ampulla
of the oviduct, an ovum,if present, may be fertilized the visceral peritoneum (Fig. 18.15). The stroma
consistsof outer ovarian cortex and central ovarian
by asperm, and procreation of the species starts.
medulla. The ovarian medulla contains many
Disorders of Male Reproductive System.
rounded or oval bodies, called ovarian, or
Only a few are mentioned.
Graafian, follicles, at various stages of develop
) Prostatomegaly (Prostatic Hypertrophy). ment, Each follicle contains a large ovum sur
This is enlargement of prostate gland. It often oc roundedbymany layers of folicle cells. The follicle
curs in old age. The enlarged gland may block the cells of a maturing follicle secrete estrogens into
urethra, causing frequent night urination (n0c the blood. Once a month,the most mature ovum
turia) or difficult or painful micturition. Prostate from one ovary is released. The ovarian cortex
cancer is very common in men. It is treated surgi contains young and mature follicles. It may also
cally or with drugs. contain a large mass of yellow termed corpus
cells,

(ü) Impotence. This is inability of the male to luteum, formed in the antrum (cavity) of an empty
achieve and/or maintain erection of the penis long Graafian follicle after the release of its ovum. The
enough to engage in/or complete copulation. cells of the corpus luteum contain a yellow pigment

called lutein and secrete the hormone

(üi) Sterility. Inability sperm to
of the male's
fertilize the ovum,it may or may not be associated progesterone during pregnancy and the hormone
relaxin toward the end of pregnancy. The ovarian
with impotence.
cortex may have a white body or corpus albicans
II. Female Reproductive System representing a degenerating corpus luteum.
(Figs. 18.16 and 18.17)
2. Fallopian Tubes (Oviducts). fllopian A
The female reproductive system consistsofa tube is about10 to 12 cm. long muscular tube. It
pair of ovaries, a pair of fallopian tubes (oviducts),
conveys the egg from the ovary to the uterus, and
uterus, vagina, external genitalia or vulva and also provides the appropriate environment for its
breasts.
fertilization, It is supported by a double fold of

1. Reijnier de Graaf, a Dutch physiologist, 1641–1673.

2. Named after Gabriele Fallopius, an Italian anatomist, 1523-1562.
 W/134 Pradesp's A TEXT BOOK OF BIOLOGY E

FOLLICLE PERITONEUM
GROWING NEARING GERMINAL k
EGG FOLLICLES MATURITY EPITHELIUM
PRIMARY EGG NEST
TUBE
FOLLICES
BLOOD VESSELnie

MATURE
GRAAFIANe
FOLLICLE

DEGENERATING
FOLLICLE

REGRESSING
OVUM CAVITY OF
CORPUS STROMA GRAAFIAN
LUTEUM RUPTURED
FOLLICLE
FOLLICLEnob
CORPUS
LUTEUM RELEASÉD
OVUM
FIGURE 18.15. Median longitudinal section ofta mammalian ovary.

shaped
)
peritoneum called mesosalpinx.
4 regions

finger-like
Infundibulum.
proximal part. Its
It is

processes called fimbriae. It opens

The oviduct shows

the broad, funnel

margin bears motile,

into
the development of the embryo. It is located
tween the urinary bladder and the
attached to the body wall
rectum. Itis
by a double fold of
peritoneum, the mesometrium (broad ligament).It
varies in size. In a nulliparous woman (whohas not
be

borne any child), it is about 8 cm. long, 5 cm. wide

the bodycavity by an aperture called ostium. The
latter lies close to the ovary to receive the egg and 2 cm. thick. It is somewhatlarger in a multi

released from the ovary. The fimbriae bear cilia

parous woman (who has borne two or more

which beat toward the ostium to direct the egg into children). It shows four regions :
the infundibulum. () upper wide, dome-shaped fundus that

()Ampulla. It is the long,wide, thin-walled, receives the fallopian tubes.

tortuous major part of the fallopian tube next to the (ü) cornua, the upper corners where the
infundibulum. oviducts enter the uterus.

(üü) Isthmus. It is the very short, narrow, (i) middle large body or corpus which is the
thick-walled, straight part that followsthe ampulla. main part;and

(iv) Uterine [Link] is also narrow and passes (iv) lower narrow cetvix into the
that projects

through the uterine wall, and communicates with vagina. The cervix above with the
communicates
the uterine cavity. bodyof the uterus by an aperture, the internal os,
and with thevagina below by an opening, the exter
The oviduct is ciliated usually in its ampullary
nalos. The cavity ofthe cervix between the internal
portion. Eggs are propelled along the oviduct by
Os and the external os is called cervical canal. The
peristaltic and ciliary action. The oviducts open
into the upper corners, the cornua", of the uterus.
latter is about 2.5 cm. long. The glands of the cer
to vical canalsecrete a protective mucousplug during
o 3. Uterus. The uterus (womb) is a large,
pregnancy.
pyriform,highly clastic median sac spacialized for

Singular in cornu.
1.
 ANIMAL REPRODUCTION II/135

Antiflexion. The normal position of the

The uterus plays a multiple role. It ())receives

uterus is anteflexed, that is, it is bent forward on the ovum from the fallopian tubes, (ii) forms
itself at the level of the internal os, so as to lie
placenta for the development of the foetus, and
almost horizontally over the bladder (Fig.18.16). (ii) expels the young one at birth.

The cervix is composed largely of thebiggest and [Link]. The vagina is a large, median,elas

the most powerful sphincter muscle in thebody. tic, muscular cm. long. It extends
tube about 7.5

It is strongenough tö hold [Link] foetus forward anddownward,and opens out at its lower
and fluid in the uterus against the pull of gravity end into the vestibule by vaginal orifice. Its lining
is thrown into transverse folds, the vaginal rugae,
during pregnancy.
but becomes smoother after first delivery. The
The line demarcating the body and the cervix space betwéen the vaginal wall and the cervix is
is called isthmus. It corresponds to the internalos. called fornix. The vagina is adapted for (i) receiv
The uterus has a thick, highly vascular wall ing the male's penis during copulation, (i) allowing

composed of three tissues :

outer peritoncal cover
menstrual flow, and (üi)serving as the birth canal

ing called perimetrium, middle smooth muscle during parturition.

layer termed myometrium, and inner mucous 5. External Genitalia (Vulva) There is a
depression, the vestibule,in front of the anus. It is
membrane known as endometrium. The en
flanked oy twopairs offleshyfolds of skin: the inner
dometrium consists of simple columnar epithelium
small, thin, moist, labia minora and outer larger,
of ciliated and nonciliated cells. It is rich in tubular
hair-covered labia majora. Al the labial folds
[Link] undergoes cyclic changes during different have numeroussebaceous and sweat glands on both
phases of menstrual cycle. sides. A small erectile organ, the clitoris, iesat the
anterior junction of the labia minora. It is

zi 33 t Capacity ofUterus. The cavity of the uterus

homologus to the penis in the male but is very small
to lcanexpand 500times during pregnancy, froLa 10
and solid,having no passage through it. It consists
tlOrcm to 5,000 cm. of a short shaft with erectile [Link] ends in a
rounded glans. The latter is

URETER covered bya small hood of

OVARY
.FALLOPAN skin,the prepuce. Rubbing of
S1018 FALLOPIN FUNNEL
TUBE clitoris during intercourse
COELOM.
UTERUS
produces apleasurable sensa
iaiiei tion. This seems to be its only

COELOM [Link] fold,

URINARY
called fourchette, connects
sds BLADDER
the posterior ends of the labia
minora. The area between the
3di fourchette and the anus
PUBIC BONE is

RECTUMtermed perineum. Urethra

URETHRA CERVIX and vagina open by separate
apertures, the upper urethral
VAGINA
and lower vaginal orifices,
CLITORIS into the vestibule. The vaginl

LABIUM MINUS ANUS orifice is normally covered in

LABIUM MAJUS HYMEN HAIR the virgin by a membrane,

the hymen". A slit in the
hymen allòws menstrual flow
FIGURE 18.16. Female reproductive system in medjum longitudinal section
to pass out. The hymen is rup
1. Singular is labium minus. 2. Singulat is labium majus.

3. Who has had no sexual intercourse. 4.G. hymen =membrane, skin, in Greek mythology, the god of marriage.
/136 Pradeep'sA TEXT BOOK OF BIOLOGY XII
FALLOPIAN TUBE
FUNDUS OF FALLOPIAN TUBE
UTERINE UTERUS
AMPULLA
ISTHMUS PART

INFUNDIBULUM

MESOVARIUM

OVARIAN BODY OF MESOSALPINXE

FIMBRIAE LIGAMENT UTERUS OVARY

BROAD ENDOMETRIUM
LIGAMENT -ISTHMUS
g0t (MESOMETRIUM) -INTERNAL OS
UTERUS
CERVIX OF
UTERUS
FORNIX
VAGINA
EXTERNAL OS

ts het FIGURE 18.17. Female reproductive system in front yiew.

owwoww.w*o***swww*www2:
tured during first copulation,or due to some other
reason. The hymen presumably has a protective SKIN
FATTY
role, but is absent in many women. A fleshy eleva TISSUE
tion above the labia majora is known as mons 1ST
CONNECTIVE
RIB
veneris or mons pubis. It bears pubic hair. s TISSUE
GLANDULAR
iGlands.A pair of vestibular or Bartholin's TISSUE
glands occur oneoneach side ofthe vaginal orifice.

These glands correspond to the Cowper's glands of MUSCLES

NIPPLE
the male. They are small rounded bodies. Their
ducts open just outside the hymen into the ves

tibule. The Bartholin's

glands secretea clear, viscid
fluid under sexual excitement. This fluid serves as
a lubricant during copulation.

[Link] breasts are rounded eminen MILK DUCT

ces located over the pectoral muscles on the front 6TH

wall of the thorax. These enlarge considerably in RIB

the adult female. Each breast has near its middle a

FIGURE 18.18. Females breast in sagtttalsection
nipple surrounded by a circular, pigmented (deep
pink to brown) area called areola. The breasts
glands and aremodified sweat [Link]
contain fatty and connective tissues and mammary
(milk) glands. The latter are compound saccular
tive tissue supports the mammary glands and the
adipose tissue covers them. Theglands open on the

Hymen is not necessarily a sign of virginity. t is absent in

many women.
DO rOU
KNOW
1. Breasts occur in both sexes, but require estrogen for growth.
ANIMAL REPRODUCTION08 Txt II/137

.
pples by lactiferous ducts (Fig 18.18).Just under the subcutaneous fat, particularly in thighs,
the nipples, the lactiferous ducts widen to form shoulders, buttocks and face to give a typical
lactiferous sinuses, tostore milk during lactation. feminine contour, and (v) initiation of menstrua
Anursing mother produces 1 to 2litres of milk per tion and ovulation. Psychological and personality
day. Milk is a perfect food for the infants. Its com changes also occur. Pubertychanges a girl child
position is given in the next [Link] into a woman fit to bear [Link] guiis
aoibeIn anonpregnantwoman, the glandular tissue
Hormonal Control During Puberty (Fig.
is 'scanty. During pregnancy, the glands grow under
18.19). The follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
the influence of oestrogen and progesterone. On
from the anterior pituitary stimülatesthe growth
the infant's birth,the hormone prolactin stimulates
of Graafian follicle, maturation of ovum and
the production of milk and the hormone oxytocin
causes release of milk as the infant sucks the breast. secretion of estrogen by follicle cells. The
luteinising hormone (LH), also from the anterior
Aftermenopause, the glands atrophy.
pituitary, stimulates release of ovum (ovulation),
Rudimentarymilk glands are present in the
formation of corpus luteum inthe empty follicle
male also. Low level of estrogen in males checks the
and secretion of progesterone from the corpus
developmentof secretorytissue as wellas fat deposits.
luteum. Progesterone suspendsovulation during
Onset of Puberty in the Female. Woman at foetal connectionwith the
pregnancy, maintains
tains puberty about the age of 13. Its onset is trig
uterine wall and development of foetus
controls
gered by the production of the anterior pituitary's
in the uterus. Estrogen and progesteronestimu
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) which
late development of the mammary glandsduring
promotes growth of the ovarian follicles. The fol
pregnancy. At the end of pregnancy,the corpus
licles then secrete the hormone estrogen from the
albicans secretes relaxin which relaxes the cervix
follicle cells in the ovaries. This hormone brings

about the growthand maturation of the reproduc and the ligaments of pelvicgirdle for easy birth
of the young one.
tive tract and the development of accessory sex
characters. The latter include (i)growth of breasts Estrogens and progesterone also regulate
and external genitalia, (i) broadening of pelvis, (ii)
growth, maintenanceand functions of secondary

growth of pubic and axillary hair, (iv) increase in Sex organs in female.

nOr iiosleyitevio HYPOTHALAMUS

GnRH

so sisANTERIOR PITUITARY
NEGATIVE sa
POSITIVE e LHIFSH FEED BACKt
FEED BACK
OVARY

Av PROGESTERONE

03obnatUTERUS FIGURE 18.19. Hlormonal control female reproductive system

of
II/138 Pradeep's A TEXT BOOK OF BIOLOGY (XI
Sexual Arousal. The clitoris, labia minora Types and Phases of [Link]
andvaginacontain erectile tissue andbecome swol the gametesare usually of two types, gametogenesis
len in sexually aroused female due to increased is also of two types :spermatogenesis which is the
blood supply (vasocongestion). The vaginal walls formation of sperms and oogenesis which is the
secrete fluid. Bartholin's glands produce mucus for formation of ova. Both the processes are basically
lubricating the vestibule to facilitate intercourse. In
similar, though minor differences exist. Both in
women, orgasm is characterised by rhythmic volve three important phases : ) multiplication
spasms of the muscles surrounding the vagina. phase, in which the germ cells of the gonads multi
Menopause ply by mitosis ;(ü) growthphase, in which the germ
cells grow in size ;and (ii) maturation phase, in
Man. Man continues to produce sperms
which meiosis takes place to producethe gametes.
throughout life from puberty [Link],his
sexual activity declines with advancing age, perhaps 1. Spermatogenesis (Figs. 18.20)
due to gradual change in hormonal levels. Site, of Occurrence. Spermatogenesis takes
Woman. Woman stops producing mature place in seminiferous tubules of the testes. The semi
eggs and ceases her menstrual cycle in her late 40s niferous tubules are lined by germinal epithelium.
or early 50s. This change occurS gradually over a The latter consists largelyof cuboidal primary germ
period of 1-5 years. Some women experience ir cells but contains certain tall somatic cells called
regular menstrual cycles for months toyears before Sertoli, or nurse, cells here and there (Fig. 18.11).
menopause,others just stop menstruating abruptly.
Procedure. Spermatogenesis is a continuous
Decline in the estrogen level is responsible for the into
process but,for convenience, is often divided
[Link] loses ability to reproduce after
two stages :formation of spermatids from the un
menopause.
differentiated germ cells, and formationof sper
Disorders of Female Reproductive System. matozoafrom the spermatids.
Only a few aregiven.
) Sterility. Inability of the female to con
()Formation of Spermatids, This process has
three phases: multiplication, growth and maturation.
ceive, due to inadequacy in structure or function of
the genital organs. (a) Multiplication Phase. The undifferentiated
germ cells present in the seminiferous tubules of the
Menstrual
(ü) Irregularity. This may be
amenorrhea (absence of menstruation), excessive
testes are called the spermatogonia, or spernm mother
or prolonged bleeding of uterus (hypermenor cells. They are proliferatedby mitotic divisions from the
primary germ cells of the germinal epithelium lining
rhoea), or dysmenorrhea (painful menstrutation).
the seminiferous The spermatogonia have
tubules.
(iüi) Breast cancer. It generally occurs in
prominent nuclei that contain 2n or diploid number of
women after 30years of age. Its incidence increases chromosomes, 46 in humans. The spermatogonia in
after women attain [Link] detected, the
creasetheir population byrepeated mitoticdivisions so
standard treatment involves removal of breast
that each newly-formedspermatogonium possesses the
(mastectonmy).
same number of chromosomes, ie, 46. Addition of
(iv) Ovarian cysts. These are fluid filled
spermatogonia provides for growth ofthe testes during
tumours of the ovary. Sometimes,during pregnan
early life of the animal.
cy, such cysts rupture and regress. In old women,
ovarian cysts are surgicallyremoved.
(b) Growth Phase. On sexual maturity of the
(v)Cervical cancer. It is relativelyslow grow animal, some spermatogonia stop dividing and
ing cancer. On detection, it can be treated by radia grow in ize by accumulating cytoplasm and
tion or surgery. replicatingDNA, and are then termed the primary

spermatocytes. The growth phase is also called

GAMETOGENESIS as gives rise to the sper
spermatocytogenesis it

Definition of Gametogenesis. The process of matocytes. The latter are abouttwice the size of the
the formation of haploid gametesfrom the undif spermatogonia. Other spermatogoniacontinue to

ferentiated, diploid germ cells in the gonads for divide mitotically and produce more sper
sexual reproduction is called [Link] forlater spermatogenesis.