BASIC SCIENCE URCG-5114

Life and its Characteristics

Properties of Life

Life is a wonderful natural process that occurs in highly organized dynamic structures that we call
living beings. It can be defines as the condition that distinguishes animals and plants
from inorganic matter, including the capacity for growth, reproduction, functional activity,
and continual change preceding death. All living organisms share several key characteristics or
functions. These characteristics together serve to define life.

1. Organization

Organisms are highly organized, coordinated structures that consist of one or more cells. Even
very simple, single-celled organisms are remarkably complex: inside each cell, atoms make up
molecules; these in turn make up cell organelles and other cellular inclusions. In multicellular
organisms similar cells form tissues. Tissues, in turn, collaborate to create organs (body structures
with a distinct function). Organs work together to form organ systems.

2. Sensitivity or Response to Stimuli

Organisms respond to diverse stimuli. For example, plants can bend toward a source of light, climb
on fences and walls, or respond to touch. Movement toward a stimulus is considered a positive
response, while movement away from a stimulus is considered a negative response.
The leaves of touch me not plant will instantly droop and fold when touched. After a few minutes,
the plant returns to normal

3. Reproduction

Single-celled organisms reproduce by first duplicating their DNA, and then dividing it equally as
the cell prepares to divide to form two new cells. Multicellular organisms often produce specialized
reproductive cells that will form new individuals. When reproduction occurs, genes containing
DNA are passed from one organism to its offspring. These genes ensure that the offspring will
belong to the same species and will have similar characteristics, such as size and shape.

4. Growth and Development

Organisms grow and develop following specific instructions coded for by their genes. These genes
provide instructions that will direct cellular growth and development, ensuring that a species’
young will grow up to exhibit many of the same characteristics as its parents.

5. Regulation

Even the smallest organisms are complex and require multiple regulatory mechanisms to
coordinate internal functions, respond to stimuli, and cope with environmental stresses. Organs
(groups of tissues working together) perform specific functions, such as carrying oxygen
throughout the body, removing wastes, delivering nutrients to every cell, and cooling the body.

6. Homeostasis

In order to function properly, cells need to have appropriate conditions such as proper temperature,
pH, and appropriate concentration of diverse chemicals. Organisms are able to maintain internal
conditions within a narrow range almost constantly, despite environmental changes,
through homeostasis (literally, “steady state”)—the ability of an organism to maintain constant
internal conditions. For example, an organism needs to regulate body temperature through a
process known as thermoregulation, such as polar bear (have body structures that help them
withstand low temperatures and conserve body heat. Structures that aid in this type of insulation
include fur, feathers, blubber, and fat. In hot climates, organisms have methods (such as
perspiration in humans or panting in dogs) that help them to shed excess body heat.

7. Energy Processing
All organisms use a source of energy for their metabolic activities. Some organisms capture energy
from the sun and convert it into chemical energy in food (photosynthesis); others use chemical
energy in molecules they take in as food (cellular respiration).

8. Evolution

Populations of living things evolve over time, with changes in characteristics passed down through
genes. Over time the advantageous traits (called adaptations) will become more common in the
population. This process, change over time, is called evolution.

Natural Science

Before heading towards natural, we must know about science and its divisions. Science is the
systematic study of the structure and behavior of natural world through observations and
experiments. Science can be typically divided into three divisions that include;

1. Social Sciences

Social sciences deals with the study of people and the society. These sciences seek to understand
humans and include sub disciplines such as psychology, sociology, economics and history etc.
 2. Formal Sciences

Formal sciences deals with the study of abstract concepts, such as mathematics, logic etc.
However, there is a disagreement on including formal sciences as a division of science because
that do not rely on empirical data.

3. Natural Science

Natural science deals with the events and phenomena which occur naturally. Natural science helps
human to understand the world around them and to seek explanations from the seemingly
unexplainable, for instance the weather patterns and how galaxies and starts are formed. This
science could be used to predict the future events and also explain why and how things happen in
the nature. These sciences use tools from the formal sciences and convert the information into laws
of nature. Natural science can further be divided into two branches;

i. Life sciences

Life sciences are study living organisms and include disciplines such as biology, zoology,
microbiology etc. Biology is the field which deals with the scientific study of living organisms
with respect to different aspects.

ii. Physical sciences

These sciences focus on the study of nonliving matter or the inorganic world. The sub disciplines
included are; Physics, which studies matter, energy and their interactions. It is concerned with
matter, energy, motion and laws of mechanics etc. Chemistry, is the study of matter, its properties,
compositions, and its chemical reactions and how energy is associated with these reactions. It
primarily focuses on atoms, ions and molecules which in turn make up elements and compounds.
Earth science, which is the study related to the planet earth which includes history of earth, how
colonization started, structure of earth etc. It encompasses the study of earth’s land and water as
well. Astronomy, is the study of celestial objects and phenomena. In other words, it is the study of
everything in the universe beyond the atmosphere of the earth for instance planets, stars, moons,
nebulas, galaxies and comets etc.
 Biology and its branches

Biology comes from the Greek word "bios" meaning life and "logos" meaning study. Biology is
the science that studies various living organisms. A living organism could be a one-celled bacteria
or a several-celled organism such as an animal or a plant. Biological science is classified into
various branches, depending upon the organisms to be studied, and is a vast field. It is composed
of many branches through which the scope of biology is broadened with the unifying concepts that
govern all study and research which is consolidated into a single and coherent field. Biology is not
limited to one or two different branches but there are several aspects through various Sub-
disciplines or branches. Here is the list of various branches of biology;

Botany

Botany is derived from the Greek word 'botane'. It is the branch of science or biology that deals
with the study of plants. The one who studies botany is known as 'botanist'. Botany also includes
the study of plant-like organisms such as algae, ferns, mosses along the actual plant.

Zoology

Zoology is the branch or division of biology that deals with the study of animal, their behavior,
and their interactions with other species in the environment. It is also known as animal biology.

Microbiology

Microorganisms are an essential part of the environment, human health, and economy.
Microbiology is the branch of biological sciences that deals with the study of living organisms that
are invisible to the naked eye like bacteria, fungi, and other microscopic organisms. These
microorganisms affect animals, the environment, the complete food supply, and health care as
well.

Anatomy

The word anatomy is derived from the Greek word 'anatome' which means 'up and cutting'. It is
the branch or division of biological science that deals with the study of the body structure of
various living organisms. Further division of anatomy are Human Anatomy, Plant anatomy (also
called as phytotomy) Animal anatomy (also called as zootomy).
Physiology

Physiology is the branch of biology that deals with the study of characteristics and mechanisms of
the human body such as endocrine System, the Nervous System, the Immune system, and the blood
cell of the human body.

Biotechnology

Biotechnology is the branch of science or is a biological science that is a wide discipline that
basically deals with the exploitation of living organisms involving the use of technology. It
generally involves the study of vaccines, enzymes, etc. Its purpose is to create new techniques for
sustainable development. The two major techniques that are used in this area of modern
biotechnology are - Genetic engineering, Bioprocess engineering

Ecology

Ecology is the branch of biological science that deals with the study of organism, environment,
and how these two interact with each other. This branch of science includes human science,
population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere. The only aim of this branch is to improve the
understanding of life processes, adaptation, and biodiversity of organisms. Further branches of
ecology are -Global ecology, Landscape ecology, Ecosystem ecology, Community ecology,
Population ecology, Molecular ecology

Immunology

Immunology is the branch that deals with the study of the immune system involving the cell-
mediated, humoral aspects of immunity, and immune response. In short, it involves the study of
the immune system, its components, its biological process, its physiology functioning, its types,
and its disordered. This branch is important to study because the immune system acts as the body's
defense system from invading infection.

Genetics

Genetics is the branch of biological sciences that deals with the study of heredity, it's a biological
process, the study of genes, genome, cell cycle, heredity, inherits genes, and a lot more. This
branch aims to deal with the inheritance, the process by which characteristics are handed down
from one generation to the other.
Anthropology

The science of man and mankind including his physical and mental constitution, cultural
development and social conditions of present and past is called anthropology.

Biochemistry

Study of chemicals constituting the body and chemical reactions.

Cytology

Study of the detailed structure of cells.

Cardiology

Study of heart and its functioning.

Endocrinology

Study of ductless glands and their hormones.

Entomology

Study of the life history of insects.

Enzymology

Study of enzymes.

Embryology

Study of development of embryo and its growth and repair.

Forensic Biology

Application of Biology to law enforcement.

Genetics

Study of heredity and variations.

Genetic engineering

Manipulation of gene in order to improve the organism.

Hepatology

Study of liver

Odontology

Study of teeth

Oncology

Study of tumors

Parasitology

Study of parasites

Taxonomy

Study of classification, nomenclature and identification of the organism.

Virology

Study of viruses

Importance of flora and fauna in biodiversity

Biodiversity or biological diversity, refers to the variety of different species of plants, animals,
and microorganisms that live in an ecosystem or on Earth as a whole. It also includes the genetic
diversity within each species, the variety of ecosystems, and the interactions between different
species and their environment.
Flora refers to the plant life of a particular region or time period. It includes various types of plants,
such as trees, shrubs, flowers, grasses, and mosses. Flora plays a crucial role in supporting life on
Earth by providing oxygen, food, shelter, and habitat for various organisms.

Fig. Flora and fauna

Importance of Flora in Biodiversity

Oxygen Production: Flora produces oxygen through photosynthesis, supporting life on Earth.

Food Source: Flora provides food for various organisms, from herbivores to omnivores.

Source of useful products: There are various species of plants which offer valuable products. For
example;

Sugar is produced from sugarcane and also sugar beet has various uses,

The cotton fabrics, which are in daily use, are produced from cotton plant.

Spices such as pepper, ginger, cardamom, turmeric, cloves and cinnamon etc are obtained from
plants.
Latex is extracted from the rubber plant and can be used for manufacturing of various rubber
products.

Plants are also the source of oils such as groundnut, sunflower, mustard and coconut.

Some beverages can be obtained from plants such as coffee from coffee beans and tea from tea
leaves.

Few plant species can also provide dyes, such as indigo, henna and turmeric.

Some plants also yield raw materials such as jute, hump and flax etc which can widely be used in
textile industries.

Shelter and Habitat: Flora offers shelter and habitat for various organisms, protecting them from
harsh environmental conditions.

Soil Erosion Prevention: Flora helps prevent soil erosion by holding soil particles together with
their roots.

Climate Regulation: Flora plays a role in regulating the climate by absorbing carbon dioxide and
releasing oxygen.

Fauna refers to the animal life of a particular region or time period. It includes various types of
animals, such as mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, insects, and microorganisms. Fauna
plays a vital role in maintaining the balance of ecosystems and supporting the food chain.

Importance of Fauna in Biodiversity

Food Chain Support: Fauna supports the food chain by serving as a food source for other
organisms.

Useful products: Domestic animals provide milk, meat and eggs. Fish liver oil is obtained from
the shark and cod, which is rich source of Vitamin A and Vitamin D. Silk is produced by the
secretion of the larva of silkworm. Beeswax is produced from honeybee which has commercial
value.

Microorganisms are the source of antibiotics and some important chemicals. Cultures of bacteria
and yeast are used to produce Vitamin B.
Ecosystem Balance: Fauna helps maintain ecosystem balance by controlling population sizes and
maintaining nutrient cycles.

Pollination and Seed Dispersal: Fauna, such as bees and butterflies, facilitate pollination, while
others, like birds and bats, disperse seeds.

Decomposition and Nutrient Cycling: Fauna, such as insects and microorganisms, decompose
organic matter, recycling nutrients.

Ecological Engineering: Fauna, like beavers and coral reefs, modify their environments, creating
new habitats for other organisms.

Importance of natural compounds in daily life, medicine and health

Natural compounds are chemical substances produced by living organisms, such as plants,
animals, fungi, and microorganisms.

These compounds can be found in various forms, including:

1. Primary metabolites: Essential compounds necessary for the organism's survival, such as
carbohydrates, amino acids, and nucleotides.

2. Secondary metabolites: Compounds produced by the organism for specific functions, such as
defense, communication, or attracting pollinators. Examples include alkaloids, glycosides, and
terpenes.

Sources of Natural Compounds

Plants: Leaves, roots, bark, seeds, and flowers of plants are rich sources of natural compounds.

Microorganisms: Bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms produce a wide range of natural
compounds.

Animals: Some animals, like insects and reptiles, produce natural compounds for defense or
communication.

Importance of Natural Compounds

Medicinal Applications
1. Pharmaceuticals: Many natural compounds are used as medicines or as leads for drug
development. For example, penicillin (antibiotic), quinine (antimalarial), and taxol (anticancer)
are all derived from natural sources.

2. Traditional Medicine: Natural compounds have been used for centuries in traditional medicine,
such as Ayurveda, Unani, and Chinese medicine.

Food and Nutrition

1. Nutraceuticals: Natural compounds like vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants are essential for
maintaining good health and preventing diseases.

2. Food Additives: Natural compounds like spices, flavorings, and colorants are used in food
processing and preservation.

Cosmetics and Personal Care

1. Skincare: Natural compounds like aloe vera, green tea, and chamomile are used in skincare
products for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

2. Haircare: Natural compounds like coconut oil, argan oil, and shea butter are used in haircare
products for their moisturizing and nourishing properties.

Agriculture and Environment

1. Pest Control: Natural compounds like neem oil and diatomaceous earth are used as eco-friendly
pest control agents.

2. Fertilizers: Natural compounds like compost, manure, and green manure are used as organic
fertilizers.

Industrial Applications

1. Dyes and Pigments: Natural compounds like indigo, madder, and turmeric are used as natural
dyes and pigments.

2. Adhesives: Natural compounds like starch, cellulose, and natural rubber are used as adhesives.
 Biotechnology

Biotechnology is the use of biology to develop new products, methods and organisms intended to
improve human health and society. Biotechnology, often referred to as biotech, has existed since
the beginning of civilization with the domestication of plants, animals and the discovery of
fermentation. The modern practice of biotechnology draws from various disciplines of science and
technology, including the following:

Molecular biology

Chemistry

Bionics

Genetic engineering

Genomics

Nanotechnology

Informatics

History of biotechnology

Biotechnology began at least 6,000 years ago with the agricultural revolution. This early era was
characterized by exploiting living organisms in their natural forms or modifying their genetic
makeup through selective breeding. Around the same time, humans learned to harness the
biological process of fermentation to produce bread, alcohol and cheese. People also began
changing the genetic makeup of domesticated plants and animals through selective breeding.
 Fig. Genetic engineering

Selective breeding works by breeding parents with desirable characteristics to express or eliminate
certain genetic characteristics in their offspring. However, selective breeding can take a long time
to show changes in species. Biotechnology remained limited to these slow, agricultural methods
until the 19th century when biologist Gregor Mendel discovered the basic principles of heredity
and genetics. Also, during that era, scientists Louis Pasteur and Joseph Lister discovered the
microbial processes of fermentation. This laid the foundation for biotechnology industries where
scientists interact more directly with the molecular and genetic processes of organisms. Based on
the work of these scientists, genetic engineering was developed in 1973.

Over the last 100 hundred years or so, biotechnology emerged with the following discoveries and
advancements:

1919. Hungarian scientist Karl Ereky coins the term biotechnology.

1928. Alexander Fleming discovers penicillin, the first true antibiotic.

1943. Oswald Avery proves DNA carries genetic information.

1953. James Watson and Francis Crick discover the double helix structure of DNA.

1960s. Insulin is synthesized to fight diabetes, and vaccines for measles, mumps and rubella are
developed.

1969. The first synthesis of an enzyme in vitro, or outside the body, is conducted.

1973. Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen develop genetic engineering with the first insertion of
DNA from one bacteria into another.

1980s. The first biotech drugs to treat cancer are developed.

1982. A biotech-developed form of insulin becomes the first genetically engineered product
approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

1983. The first genetically modified plant is introduced.

1990. The United States Supreme Court rules that a "live human-made microorganism is
patentable subject matter," meaning GMOs can be intellectual property.

1993. GMOs are introduced into agriculture with the FDA approval of growth hormones that
produce more milk in cows.

1997. The first mammal is cloned.

1998. The first draft of the Human Genome Project is created, giving scientists access to over
30,000 human genes and facilitating research on treatment of diseases such as cancer and
Alzheimer's.

2010. The first synthetic cell is created.

2013. The first bionic eye is created.

2020. MRNA vaccine and monoclonal antibody technology is used to treat the SARS-CoV-2
virus.
 Fig. How GMOs work

Types of Biotechnology

The science of biotechnology is broken down into subdisciplines that are color-coded based on
common uses and applications.

 Red biotechnology involves medical processes, such as using organisms to produce new
drugs and stem cells to regenerate damaged human tissues and grow and regrow entire
organs.
 White or gray refers to industrial processes, such as the development of new chemicals or
new biofuels for vehicles.
 Green covers agricultural processes, such as producing pest-resistant crops, disease-
resistant animals and environmentally friendly agricultural practices.
 Gold, also known as bioinformatics, is a cross between biological processes and
informatics. It refers to the methods healthcare workers use to gather, store and analyze
biological data to treat patients.
 Blue encompasses processes in marine and aquatic environments, such as converting
aquatic biomass into fuels and pharmaceuticals.
 Yellow refers to processes that aid food production, the most popular application being the
fermentation of alcohol and cheese.
  Violet ensures the practice of biotechnology is in compliance with laws and ethical
standards governing each field.
 Dark is the use of biotechnology for weapons or warfare.

Uses and applications of biotechnology

The use and commercialization of modern biotechnology often fall into four main fields:
environment, medicine, industry and agriculture.

Environment

The aim of environmental biotechnology is to develop sustainable environmental practices that

reduce pollution and waste. The following are examples of environmental biotech:

 Phytoremediation uses genetically engineered microorganisms to purify soils of heavy

metals and other pollutants.
 Bioremediation introduces microorganisms into waste sites in order to organically break
down nonrecyclable waste.
 Plastic-eating bacteria breaks down waste such as plastic in soils and water.
 GMO foods stay fresher longer and reduce food waste.
 Genetic restoration attempts to restore endangered species such as the American chestnut
tree.
 Cover-crops such as corn are used as biofuels, replacing traditional fuel sources that
produce greenhouse gas emissions when extracted and used.

Medicine

Medical biotechnology, also known as biopharma, aims to fight and prevent disease and improve
healthcare. Biotechnology and biomedical research are the basis of the modern pharmaceutical
industry. Uses include the following:

 stem cell research that helps replace or repair dead or defective cells;
 antibiotics development;
 gene therapies for diseases such as leukemia;
 research into dangerous pathogens and the antibodies that fight them;
 3D printing or growing of organs and bones in labs; and
  vaccines treatments and research for COVID-19.

Fig. Gene Therapy

Industry

Industrial biotechnology involves using microorganisms to produce industrial goods. Examples

include the following:

 fermentation and the use of enzymes and microbes to streamline chemical manufacturing
and reduce operational costs and chemical emissions;
 biofuels that use renewable crops such as corn to produce combustible fuel instead of
natural, nonrenewable fossil fuel resources, such as petroleum and oil; and
 biodegradable garments and textiles made from the proteins of living organisms, such as
the silk proteins of spiders.

Agriculture

Agricultural biotechnology genetically engineers plants and animals to produce more efficient
agriculture, increase nutritional value and reduce food insecurity. Some examples of agricultural
biotechnology are the following:
  biologically produced pesticides and herbicides that are less harmful to humans than
chemical ones;
 drought-resistant crops;
 gluten-free grains friendly to sufferers of celiac;
 selective breeding that produces healthier, bigger livestock and crops; and
 nutrient supplementation that infuses food with added nutrients to improve diets and
medical treatments.

Advantages and disadvantages of Biotechnology

Biotechnology production offers a variety of advantages and solutions to critical problems. The
main ones are the following:

 reducing pollution and waste to reverse catastrophic climate change and environmental
damage;
 creating healthier, stronger and more-sustainable food products that boost nutrition and
combat food insecurity;
 treating diseases in children before they are born by altering their genomes;
 designing medicine to boost the health and longevity of people, animals and plants.

Biotechnology also comes with disadvantages and misuse. The main disadvantages include the
following:

 Biological warfare. The potential exists for the development of pathogens and epidemics
that could be used in a conflict zone to infect populations.
 Decrease in biodiversity. farming of only a small number of genetically engineered crops
could shrink the natural gene pool of species and make them less resilient and adaptable to
sudden changes in environment.
 Loss of soil fertility. Bio-enhanced plants require more nutrients from soil and yield more
crops. This can drain soil of fertile nutrients, devastate farmland and require the use of
environmentally harmful fertilizers to make up for the nutrient shortfall.
 High costs. Biotechnology products often cost more than traditional products and have the
potential to raise pricing structures in various industries.
 Ethical considerations. Gene manipulation raises a range of ethical issues, such as the
genetic engineering of humans.
 Safety questions. Various groups have raised safety concerns about the health risks of
GMOs.