BSDE 1 HVAC-E-01

HEATING, VENTILATION AND AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEM DESIGN

INTRODUCTION

1.0 REFRIGERATION

It is a science of producing and maintaining temperatures below that of the

surrounding atmosphere. In simple, refrigeration means cooling or removal of
heat from the system.

Refrigeration is produced in one of the following three ways:

1. By melting of solid.
2. Sublimation of solid.
3. Evaporation of liquid.

Most of the commercial refrigeration is produced by the evaporation of the liquid

called refrigerant, by mechanical means. The equipment required are compressor,
condenser, expansion valve and evaporator.

1.2 Application of Refrigeration:

1. Ice making.
2. Freezing food products.
3. Transportation of foods.
4. Chemical, Pharma & other industries
5. Processing industries for foods and beverages.
6. Manufacturing and treatment of metals.
7. Industrial air-conditioning.
8. Human comfort air-conditioning.

1.3 Different types of Refrigeration Systems:

1. Ice refrigeration.
2. Air refrigeration.( Works on reverse carnot cycle fig-01)
3. Vapor compression refrigeration system.
(Works on reverse Braton cycle fig.-02)
4. Vapor Absorption refrigeration system.
5. Binary cycle
6. Special refrigeration system.

a. Vortex Tube refrigeration system

b. Thermo-electric refrigeration system.
c. Steam jet refrigeration system.

1.4 Coefficient of Performance ( COP ) :

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The performance of the refrigeration system is expressed by the term known as

COP, which is defined as the ratio of heat absorbed by the refrigerant to work
input required by compression.

COP = heat extracted / work done.

1.5 Standard rating of the Refrigeration Machine:

The rating is obtained by the refrigerating effect or amount of heat extracted in a

given time from a body. The commercial unit is TONNE, which is defined as
refrigerating effect produced by melting of one ton of ice from and at 0oc in 24
hours.

1 TON = 12000 BTU = 3.5 KW = 14000 kj / hr.

1.6 Parts of simple vapor compression refrigeration system ( Fig.-03):

a. Compressor
b. Condenser
c. Expansion valve.
d. Evaporator.
e. Discharge line or hot gas line.
f. Receiver tank
g. Liquid line.
h. Suction line.

1.7 Vapor compression cycle on T-S Diagram and P-H Diagram (Fig.-04):

2.0 AIR-CONDITIOING

Air-conditioning is that branch of engineering science which deals with the study
of conditioning of air that is supplying and maintaining desirable internal
atmospheric conditions for human comfort, irrespective of external conditions.

This subject in broad sense also deals with the conditioning of air for industrial
purposes, food processing, storage of foods and other materials.

2.1 Atmospheric conditions for human comfort

a. Temperature of Air 21 – 22 o C
b. Relative Humidity of air 45 % - 55 %
c. Purity of air – Filtered, clean and odor less air.
d. Motion of air.

2.2 Equipment used in Air-conditioning system (Fig.-05) :

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a. Air handling units.

b. Fan coil units.
c. Circulation fans. (Ventilation)
d. Air-conditioning unit.
e. Supply air duct.
f. Return air duct.
g. Supply air outlets (diffusers, grills, etc.)
h. Return air Outlets.
i. Filters.
j. Heat Wheels.

2.3 Classification of Air-conditioning system.

a. According to purpose :
- Commercial air-conditioning
- Industrial air-conditioning.
b. According to season :
- Winter air-conditioning.
- Summer air-conditioning.
- Year round air-conditioning.
c. According to arrangement of equipment :
- Central air-conditioning system.
- Zone air-conditioning system.
- Unitary air-conditioning system.

Fig.-06 - Central air-conditioning system.

Fig.-07 - Zone air-conditioning system.
Fig.-08 - Unitary air-conditioning system.

2.4 Different air-conditioning units commercially available in market

a. Split units.
b. Ducted split units.
c. Packaged units.
d. Water cooled split units.
e. Air cooled chillers.
f. Water cooled chillers.

2.5. Applications of air-conditioning :

Industrial applications
- food industry
- photo industry
- textile industry
- printing industry
- machine tool industry

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Transport air-conditioning
- Aircraft air-conditioning
- Ship air-conditioning
- Train air-conditioning
- Automobile air-conditioning
Theatre air-conditioning
Hospital air-conditioning.
Television centre
Radio broadcast centre
Computer centre
Automated telephone exchange
Museum.
Departmental store.

1.0 Modes of heat transfer

There are three modes of heat transfer

a. Conduction: It is the transfer of heat from one part of a substance to

another in physical contact with it, without appreciable displacement of
molecules forming the substance.

Conduction takes place in solids, liquids and gases.

b. Convection: It is the transfer of heat within a fluid by mixing of one

portion of fluid with another, there is an appreciable movement of the
molecules of the fluid.
Natural convection takes place due to density difference.
Forced convection takes place by doing work (blowers, pumps, etc.)

Convection takes place in gases and liquids.

c. Radiation: It is the transfer of heat in space in form of electro-magnetic

waves or quanta. Radiation does not need medium it can pass thru
vacuum.

1.2 Fourier’s law of conduction

Q = - K A dt/dx

Q = A ( t1 – t4 )/ [ x1/k1 + x2/k2 + x3/k3]

1.3 Heat Transfer by Convection ( Newtonian law of cooling )

Q = h A (t1 – t2)

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Q = Quantity of convective heat transferred.

H = coefficient of convective heat transfer.
A = Area of surface.
(t1 – t2) = Temperature difference between fluid and surface.

1.4 Heat Transfer by Radiation

Wein’s law of radiation: It states that the wavelength λ m corresponding to max

energy is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature T of the hot body.

Λ m . T = Constant

Kirchhoff’s Law: It states that emissivity of a hot body at a particular temperature

is numerically equals to its absorptivity for radiant energy from hot body at the
same temperature.

Stefan-boltzmann law: It states that the emissive power of a black body is directly
proportional to fourth power of its absolute temperature.

QαT4

1.5 Heat Exchangers

It may be defined as an equipment which transfers the energy from a hot fluid to a
cold fluid.

Ex: Inter coolers, Pre heaters , Evaporators, radiators , recuperators, regenerator.

Note:- Recuperator is the most important type of heat exchanger in which

the flowing fluids exchanging heat are on either side of dividing wall.

1.5.1 Parallel flow, Counter flow & Transverse flow heat exchangers.

When the fluid flows in the same direction along the pipe is called parallel
flow heat exchanger as shown in figure.

When the fluid flows in opposite direction along the pipe is known as
counter flow heat exchanger as shown in figure.

When the fluid flows past thru each other at right angles is known as
transverse heat exchanger as shown in figure.

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PSYCHROMETRIC CHART AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE IN HVAC.

1.0 Psychrometry : The area of measuring the moisture content of air is termed as
Psychrometry.

Psychrometrics : The science which investigates the thermal properties of moist

air , considers the measurement and control of moisture content of air, and studies
the effect of atmospheric moisture on material and human comfort may properly
be termed as Psychrometrics.

1.1 Psychrometer : A device which is used for measuring wet bulb and dry
bulb temperatures simultaneously.

2.0 Psychrometric chart :

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2.1 Dry Bulb Temperature: It is the temperature of air as registered by an

ordinary thermometer. (T bd)

2.2 Wet Bulb Temperature: It is the temperature registered by a thermometer

when the bulb is covered by a wetted wick and exposed to a current of
rapidly moving air. ( T wb )

2.3 Adiabatic saturation temperature: It is the temperature at which the water

or ice can saturate air by evaporating adiabatically into it. ( T ab )

2.4 Wet bulb depression: It is the difference between wet bulb and dry bulb
temperatures. ( T db – T wb)

2.5 Dew point temperature: It is to which air must be cooled at constant

pressure in order to cause condensation of any of its water vapour. ( T dp)

2.6 Dew point depression: It is the difference between dry bulb and dew point
temperature.

2.7 Specific humidity: It is the ratio of mass of water vapor per unit mass of
dry air in a mixture of vapor and air.

2.8 Relative humidity: It is ratio of partial pressure of water vapor in the

mixture to the saturated partial pressure at the dry bulb temperature,
expressed as percentage.

2.9 Sensible heat: It is the heat that changes the temperature of a substance
when added to or subtracted from it.

2.10 Latent heat: It is the heat that does not affect the temperature but changes
the state of the substance when added to or subtracted from it.

2.11 Enthalpy: It is the combination energy which represent the sum of internal
and flow energy in a steady flow process.

Note: - When the air is saturated dry bulb temperature, wet bulb temperature and
dew point temperature are equal.

3.0 Psychrometric process :

3.1 Mixing of air streams

3.2 Sensible heating
3.3 Sensible cooling
3.4 Cooling and de-humidification
3.5 Cooling and humidification
3.6 Heating and de-humidification

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3.7 Heating and humidification

1.0 Load Estimation

Estimation of cooling / heating load involves the following variables

a. Magnitude and direction of wind velocity.

b. Out side humidity and temperature.
c. Nature and material of construction.
d. Orientation of openings, Windows and doors.
e. Periods of occupancy and number of persons in the room & their
activities.

2.0 Cooling Load estimate ( refer E-20 )

Room sensible heat (RSH)

- Solar and transmission heat gain thru walls and roof.

- Solar and transmission heat gain thru glasses.
- Transmission heat gain thru partition wall , ceiling, floor , etc.,
- Infiltration.
- Internal heat gain from people, power, lights, appliances,, etc.,
- Supply duct heat gain, supply duct leakage loss and fan power.
- Additional heat gain not accounted above, safety factor.

Room latent heat (RLH)

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- Infiltration
- Vapor transmission
- Internal heat from people, steam, Appliances, etc.,
- Supply duct leakage loss.
- Additional heat gain not accounted above, safety factor.

 It may be noted that if we add by pass air load to the RSH we shall get
effective room sensible heat ERSH. Similarly adding by-pass air load to
RLH we shall get effective room latent heat ERLH.

Grand Total load (GTH) (on air-conditioning apparatus)

a. sensible heat

1. Effective room sensible heat

2. Sensible heat of the outside air that is not by-passed.

3. Return duct heat gain, return duct leakage gain, de-humidifier

pump power and de-humidifier piping losses.

Total sensible heat (TSH) is obtained by adding items 1 + 2 + 3.

b. Latent heat

1. Effective room latent heat.

2. Latent heat of outside air which is not by-passed.
3. Return duct leakage gain

Total latent heat (TLH) is obtained by adding above 1 + 2 + 3.

Grand Total heat (GTH) = TSH + TLH

5.0 Heat and water Vapor flow thru Structures :

There is a high chance of flow of water vapor thru structures due to the
temperature and humidity difference produced in the conditioned space and the
outside air.

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This process can be controlled by

- Applying plastic type of paints on the interior and exterior of the walls
to close the porocity of the walls.
- In composite wall structures a poly-ethelene sheet is used on both the
sides of the insulating material present inside the composite walls so as
to prevent the transmission of moisture into the air-conditioned space.

6.0 Ventilation and Infiltration :

Ventilation: It is the supply of outside air into conditioned space in order to

minimize odor, concentration of smoke, carbon dioxide and other undesirable
gases so that freshness of air could be maintained in the conditioned space.

Infiltration: It is that unwanted entering of outside air into the conditioned space
thru window cracks and door openings etc.

7.0 Building survey

Physical site inspection of the building is a must before starting the HVAC design
for that building. The orientation of the building with respect to the four directions
N/S/E/W – NE / SE / SW / NW by a compass or by the visual judgment with
respect to the sun position.

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WEEK-03

AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

DAY ONE:

The function of ducts is to convey air between two points, such as between the air
handling units or air-washer and the room to be conditioned. It also carries the room air
back to air-conditioning apparatus.

There are two types of air transmission system

1. Low velocity system: air velocity in the main supply-air duct is within 760 m/min.
2. High velocity system: air velocities above 760 m/min.

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Note:-

1. Return air ducts, where ever used normally have low velocities whether for low
velocity or high velocity systems.
2. The duct cost in air-conditioning system is about 20 – 30 % of the total cost of the
equipment required.

2.0 Duct size and shape:

The duct has to be so sized that it is accommodated within the available space.

Air while passing thru a duct suffers a pressure drop due to friction. Larger the
quantity of air passing thru a given cross sectional area of the duct, greater will be
the frictional loss and pressure drop.

The fan selected has to deliver the required quantity of air overcoming the
resistance offered by various components like cooling coil, air-washer, filters
supply and return air outlets and dampers etc., in the air distribution system. This
means the fan has to work against this head.

As this head increases the fan will need higher power and furthermore as velocity
increases noise level due to air motion also increases.

Thus on these two counts the velocity of the air in the duct has to be kept at a
reasonable low level.

With lower air velocities the size of the duct and the material content of the duct
increases.

The duct system should be balanced between the initial cost (material fabrication
and erection cost) and operating cost (fan power consumption) for a given rate of
flow of air.

The initial cost depends on the size of the duct. A smaller sized duct will cost less
but with a smaller duct the air velocities will increase and so pressure loss due to
friction also increases.

The fan will then have to use more power to overcome the head, thereby
increasing the operating cost.

In ducts, pressure of the air falls due to two main factors

1. Frictional losses: primarily due to surface friction (static loss )
2. Dynamic losses: Due to sudden changes in the direction of the sir flow, in
velocity and eddy sources

The pressure loss increases with the duct length.

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Pressure losses increases when the direction of the sir flow is changed because of
the change in the direction of the duct route.

Pressure loss occurs when air is made abruptly to pass from a large duct to a
smaller duct. Eddies will be formed at the abrupt point of concentration leading to
pressure drop.

Likewise when there is abrupt expansion in the duct there will be much higher
pressure loss then in the case of abrupt contraction, as more of eddies are created.

The pressure losses can be reduced by making the change gradual instead of being
abrupt.

Aspect Ratio: It is the ratio of the long side to short side of the duct.

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As the aspect ratio increases, more metal surface is required for the duct, for the
same cross sectional area.

Higher aspect ratio increase not only the initial cost but also the operating cost, by
way of increases heat gain or losses.

Thus aspect ratio is an important factor to be considered in the design of the duct.

For same cross sectional area a circular duct requires less surface area. (i.e.,
saving in material, fabrication and erection cost) than a rectangular duct.
Circular ducts also offers less resistance to flow due to absence of corners.
However it usually becomes difficult to accommodate the round duct in the
available space. Hence rectangular ducts are generally adopted.

Rectangular duct selected should be as nearly square as possible, because square

duct requires less surface area then a rectangular one for the same cross sectional
area.

The rectangular section should be so sized as to have; low aspect ratio – the
aspect ratio in any case should not exceed 4:1.

Duct material:

Ducts are usually made of the following material

- Galvanized iron sheet metal
- Aluminum sheet metal
- Black steel
- Stainless steel
- Resin bounded glass fiber
- Cement asbestos
- Wooden

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Duct Construction:

Figures to be scanned and pasted******

Static Pressure (P S):

- It is the stationary pressure and is so called since it does not depend upon
air movement. It always exist in the duct system.
- It pushes against the walls of the duct and tends to burst it when it is
greater than the atmospheric pressure and tends to collapse the confining
envelope when it is less than that of the atmosphere.
- It overcomes the friction and shock losses as the air flows from the
delivery of the fan to the outlet of the duct.
- It may be positive or negative.

Dynamic or Velocity Pressures (P V):

- The pressure is equal to the drop in the static pressure necessary ot

produce a given velocity of flow. Conversely, it is equal to increase of
static pressure possible when the velocity is reached to zero it is always
positive.

PT=PS+PV

Friction chart for circular duct is given in nest page.

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Duct Design:

The following methods are used for duct design

1. Velocity reduction method

2. Equal friction method.
3. Static regain method.

Velocity Reduction Method:

- This is usually adopted for very simple systems
- This method is the easiest in sizing the ducts.
- Balancing is obtained by using dampers.
- Velocity decreases as the flow proceeds along the duct.
- Considerable experience and judgement is required in selecting velocities.

Equal Friction Method:

- In this method the frictional pressure drop per unit length of the duct is
maintained constant throughout the system.
- This is superior to velocity reduction method since it prevents one section
of the duct having an excessive resistance compared with another in a
system having symmetrical branch and outlet runs.
- It is difficult to balance.

Static Regain Method:

- For achieving perfect balancing, the pressure losses in various branches

should be made equal, so that the pressure at all outlets is the same.
- The gain in pressure is taken as static pressure regain.
- For complete regain it may not be possible to design economically very
long branches very near to the fan, in such cases it may be sufficient to
design the main duct for complete regain and provide same pressure at all
outlets from the main duct from the branches.
- Partial regain may be considered a good practice for a first few outlets
from the main duct so that same pressure loss is allowed in the beginning.
- this method is inferior to equal friction method

Air Distribution Systems

Variable Air Volume (VAV):

This system is used in buildings which requires cooling throughout but where individual
space need different amount of cooling. The system shown in figure achieves room by
room control of temperature by varying the amount of chilled air allowed to enter the
room. If the room is too warm more chilled air will e allowed to enter, if the room
becomes too cool the amount of chilled air entering the room will be reduced.

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The central air handling unit supplies air sufficiently chilled to satisfy the maximum
cooling load of the building. This delivered to the rooms thru units called variable air
volume terminals VAV terminals. VAV as shown in figure controls the amount of chilled
air entering the room using a motorized damper. The position of this damper is
determined in response to the temperature measured by room thermostat. Depending on
the room temperature the VAV terminal can vary air flow rates between 0 to full flow.

An example of controlled strategy begins with chilled air entering the room, this will mix
with existing room air and cause the room temperature to drop. The fall in room
temperature will e detected y room thermostat. This information is noted by the BMS or a
dedicated VAV controller which in turn will send a signal to the actuator controlling the
damper position in the VAV terminal. The damper will close reducing the volume of
chilled air being allowed into the room.

As the VAV damper closes the air flow from the air handling unit will be restricted which
will increase the pressure in the duct. This is sensed by a supply duct pressure sensor
which reduces the speed of the supply fan to maintain a constant pressure. In this way the
fan matches the supply of air to demand.

If there is a need of some more heating of the room or spaces alongside the cooling
system then VAV unit fitted with electric heaters are used to heat up the chilled air as it
leaves the unit.

WEEK – 04

1.0 Introduction - Air handling apparatus – FCU – AHU – Refrigeration machines –

DX system – Chilled water system – Selection of economic and efficient system –

2.0 Compressor:
- A compressor is the heart of the vapor compression system. It rises the
pressure of the refrigerant so that it can be condensed to liquid, throttled and
evaporated into vapor to produce refrigeration effect.

- It also provides the motive force to circulate the refrigerant thru condenser,
expansion valve and evaporator.

1.1 Types of Compressor:

Positive Displacement Type

This type of compressor increases the pressure of the refrigerant by
reducing the internal volume of compression chamber.
Ex: Reciprocating, Rotary, scroll, screw compressor.

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Non-positive Displacement Type.

Ex: Centrifugal compressor is the only non-positive displacement

type widely used in refrigeration system today.

Chillers of capacities exceeding 750 TR usually have centrifugal

compressors.

Hermatically Sealed Type:

- In these compressor the motor and the compressor are inside a welded
steel dome which cannot be easily removed for servicing.
- It has min. chances of leakage of refrigerant and cools the motor
winding by using suction vapor.

Semi-Hermatic Compressor (Semi Sealed Type):

- In this motor and compressor are enclosed in the same housing but are
accessible from the cylinder head for repair and maintenance.

2.0 Capacity Control of Reciprocating Compressor:

1. Using multi speed motor

- The capacity of the compressor is proportional to the speed of the driving
motor.
- Motor speed or compressor capacity increases as the suction pressure of the
refrigerant increases.

2. On / Off control.
- It is used in small unitary equipment ex: refrigerators, air-conditioners, water
cooler, etc.,
- Simple On / Off control in conjunction with thermostat is used.

3. Holding the valves open.

- Discharge valve here will be kept open by thermostat / suction pressure for
intermittent unloading that requires idling for short period only.

4. Hot gas by-pass.

- In this method part of the hot compressed gas is by passed back to suction
line, thru a constant pressure throttle valve.
- The valve admits hot gas in the suction line as the evaporator pressure tends to
drop.

5. Using multiple units.

- Multiple units of the same capacity can be used to provide capacity control.
- Operation of all units will provide max capacity.

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- Operation of combination of units will permit capacity reduction as desired.

2.1 Centrifugal Compressor:

- Dr. Willis H Carrier in 1922 developed centrifugal compressor for

refrigeration system.
- Centrifugal force changes low pressure vapor to high pressure vapor.
- These compressors are used for large capacities.
- At very low temperature they have the ability to carry varying loads.

Advantages:
- Absence of unbalanced masses hence no vibration.
- Can handle large volume of vapor refrigerant.
- Working life is high.
- Operation is quite. – Low noise.
- These compressors can directly connected to the electric motors, turbines as
they are at high speed 3000 rpm and above.
- High efficiency.
- Require less floor area.
- Can be adopted for a range of 50 TR to 5000 TR.

Adopted for temperature range between -90 oC to 10 oC

Dis-advantages:
- Surging (the reversal of flow of refrigerant from compressor to evaporator)
when refrigeration load decreases.
- It occurs when the load decreases to about 35% of the rated capacity.

3.0 Condenser

A condenser is a heat exchanger in which high temperature vapor changes the

phase from vapor to liquid.

Types

- Air- cooled condenser

- Water cooled condenser
- Evaporative condenser

3.1 Air cooled condenser:

 Natural convention
 Forced air circulation

3.2 Water cooled condenser

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- Shell and tube condenser

- Shell and coil

3.3 Fouling Factor:

It is the resistance offered by the scale formed over the tubes of the water
cooled condenser, to the heat flow from the refrigerant to water.

4.0 Cooling Tower and Spray Pond

4.1 Natural draft

4.2 Mechanical draft towers
- Forced draft
- Induced draft

5.0 Evaporator

Volatile liquid is vaporized for the purpose of removing heat from a refrigerated
space or product and also cooling its own coils.

5.1 Evaporator type

Folded tube
Dry or direct expansion type

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