Chapter 5: Materials and Cycles on Earth

Study Notes

5.1 The Structure of the Atom

What is an Atom?
• Atoms are the smallest particles of matter that cannot be divided
• The word "atom" comes from Greek, meaning "cannot be split"
• All atoms of a particular element are the same; different elements have different atoms

Sub-atomic Particles
Particle Charge Mass
Proton Positive (+) Relative mass = 1
Neutron None (neutral) Relative mass = 1
Electron Negative (-) Almost no mass

Structure of the Atom

• Nucleus = centre of atom, contains protons + neutrons
• Electrons orbit/move around the nucleus
• There is a lot of empty space inside an atom
• Electrostatic attraction (between + protons and - electrons) holds atoms together

History of Atomic Models

Scientist Discovery Year
J.J. Thompson Discovered electron; proposed plum pudding model 1890s
(electrons scattered in positive matter)
Ernest Rutherford Gold foil experiment - showed atoms have a dense 1909-1911
central nucleus; discovered the proton
James Chadwick Proved neutrons exist 1932

Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment: Fired particles at thin gold foil. Most passed through; a few
were deflected - proved atoms are mostly empty space with a dense nucleus.
5.2 Purity
Pure Elements
• A pure element contains only one type of atom
• Purity formula: (parts of substance / total parts) x 100%

Gold Purity (Carats)

Carats Calculation Purity %
24 carat 24/24 x 100 100% (pure)
18 carat 18/24 x 100 75%
9 carat 9/24 x 100 37.5%

Silver Purity (Parts per 1000)

• Silver 925 = 925/1000 x 100 = 92.5% pure
• Silver 900 = lower purity than 925

Diamonds
Diamond Colour Impurity Element
Colourless (pure) None - only carbon
Yellow Nitrogen
Blue Boron
Green Nitrogen, nickel, or hydrogen

Seawater
• Seawater = 96.5% water + 3.5% salts
• Of the salts: 68% is sodium chloride (NaCl)
• Mass of NaCl in 1000 g seawater = 68/100 x 35 = 23.8 g

5.3 Weather and Climate

Key Definitions
Term Definition
Weather State of the atmosphere; changes minute to minute
Climate Average weather of a place over 30+ years
Meteorology Study of weather
Climatology Study of climate
Humidity Amount of water vapour in the air
Visibility How far you can see through the atmosphere

Climate Zones
Zone Climate Description
Polar Very cold and dry all year
Tundra / Mountains Very cold all year
Temperate Cold winters and mild summers
Mediterranean Mild winters and hot, dry summers
Arid Hot and dry all year
Tropical Hot and wet all year

5.4 Climate and Ice Ages

Key Definitions
• Glacial period - very cold period when ice spreads far from poles ("glacial" = frozen)
• Interglacial period - warmer period between glacial periods (like today); "inter" = between
• Ice age - long cold period containing cycles of glacials and interglacials

Earth's Climate History

• Earth's climate has cycled between cold and warm for 450,000+ years
• We are currently in an interglacial period
• The coldest ice age began ~850 million years ago (possibly a "Snowball Earth")
• Scientists think there have been 5 ice ages on Earth

Evidence for Past Ice Ages

Evidence Explanation
Boulders (erratics) Large rocks carried by glaciers and left in unexpected places
Rock scratches Glaciers dragging rocks across surfaces left scratch marks
Fossils Cold-climate animals/plants found in now-warm regions
Peat bog cores Pollen preserved in peat reveals past plant types and therefore past
climate

Glaciers
• Glaciers are rivers of ice that move slowly downhill
• Formed from snow that is compressed into thick masses of ice over many years
• They carry rocks with them; when the glacier melts, rocks are left behind
• Scientists can see scratches on rock surfaces where moving ice dragged rocks across
them

Pollen Evidence (Peat Bogs)

• When plants die without oxygen and in slightly acidic conditions, they form peat bogs
• Different layers of peat = different time periods (deeper = older)
• Scientists use an auger to extract core samples from peat bogs
• Pollen in the core identifies plants that lived there, revealing the past climate

5.5 Atmosphere and Climate

The Early Atmosphere
• The atmosphere is a layer of gas above the Earth's surface
• Earth formed about 4600 million years ago - it was very hot and molten for millions of
years
• As Earth cooled, a solid crust formed and volcanic activity produced the early
atmosphere
• Water vapour from volcanoes condensed into rain, forming the first lakes and oceans

Earth's Early Atmosphere Earth's Atmosphere Today

Main gas 95% carbon dioxide (CO2) 78% nitrogen

Second gas 4% water vapour 21% oxygen
Other gases Traces of nitrogen, ammonia, Traces of CO2, water vapour,
methane methane
Avg surface temp Above 400°C 20°C
Changes to the Atmosphere
• About 3500 million years ago, micro-organisms appeared in the oceans and used CO2
for photosynthesis
• Photosynthesis: carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen
• Plants then grew on land, continuing to produce oxygen and reduce CO2
• By 200 million years ago, very little CO2 was left - most carbon was locked up in living
things
• When organisms die and rot, carbon is released back (recycled) into the environment
• Some organisms became fossil fuels (oil, coal) - carbon is locked up until burned
• Shelled animals (made of calcium carbonate, CaCO3) formed limestone rocks, locking
up more carbon

Atmospheric Changes Today

• CO2 levels began rising again ~200 years ago due to human activity
• Burning fossil fuels: carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide
• Deforestation - cutting down forests reduces photosynthesis, so less CO2 is absorbed
• Reasons for deforestation: wood for building, mining minerals, palm oil crops, cattle
farming
• Processing limestone: calcium carbonate → calcium oxide + carbon dioxide

The Greenhouse Effect

• Greenhouse gases (CO2, methane, water vapour) act like a blanket around the Earth
• The greenhouse effect is natural - without it, the Earth would be much colder
• Increasing greenhouse gases = more heat trapped = global warming

How the Greenhouse Effect works:

• 1. Energy from the Sun falls on the Earth and warms it up
• 2. Some energy is reflected back into space by the atmosphere
• 3. Energy leaves Earth and passes into the atmosphere
• 4. Much of this energy is reflected back to Earth by greenhouse gases (CO2, methane,
water vapour)
• 5. Some energy escapes through the atmosphere into space

Renewable vs Non-Renewable Resources

Type Definition Examples
Renewable Does not run out / can be replenished within a Wind, solar, tidal
 human lifetime
Non-renewable Cannot be replaced after it is used Coal, petroleum, natural
gas

Renewable Energy Sources

Source How it works Problem
Wind Wind turbines grouped in wind farms generate Only works when wind blows
electricity
Tidal Water trapped behind a barrier released through Only generates at certain times;
turbines as tide goes out may disturb wildlife habitats
Solar Photovoltaic cells convert sunlight into electrical Only works when Sun is shining
energy

Bioplastics
• Conventional plastics are made from petroleum (non-renewable) and do not break down
easily
• Bioplastic is a biodegradable material made from renewable sources (biomass -
vegetable oils, sawdust, food waste)
• Benefits: reduces fossil fuel use and prevents environmental damage from single-use
plastics