Variation, Inheritance and Evolution

Variation is defined as the difference in characteristics among organisms of the same species. It may
be caused by the difference in environment during development or by the differences in genetic
make-up of the individual.

Importance or advantages of Variation

1. It increases the chance of survival for breeding and produce offspring that survive under new
condition.
2. It is the main source of differences within species.

Examples of features of human being which can show Variation

 Baldness
 Facial appearance
 Body weight
 Colour of hair
 Blood group
 Tongue rolling
 Height
 Colour of skin
 Hair on body
 Colour of eye

Types of Variation

There are two types of variation namely ;

 Continuous variation
 Discontinuous variation.

Continuous variation

This is a type of variation within species with intermediate forms between two extremes. Or

This is a type of variation which involves gradual changes in a particular character from generation
to generation.

These characteristics may be influenced by both genetic environmental factors.

Examples of continuous variation

 Weight (mass)
 Height
 Skin colour or complexion
 Amount of human red blood cells
 Shape
 Hair colour
 Intelligence
 IQ level
Discontinuous variation

This is a type of variation where a particular character remains the same from generation to
generation. Or

This is a type of variation which shows clear cut difference between the character with no
intermediate forms.

Examples of Discontinuous variation

 Rhesus factor
 Blood group
 Sex
 Tongue rolling
 Colour blindness
 Haemophilia
 Sickle cell anaemia
 Albinism
 Ability to taste PTC
 Thumbprint
Causes of variation

1. Environmental factors
2. Genetic factors.

Environmental factors

These are external conditions that affect or influence the life processes and bring about differences
among organisms of the same species. Examples of environmental factors;
  Food
 Light
 Wind
 Altitude
 Amount of water supply
 Temperature changes
 Other organisms eg pathogens

Genetic factors

These are hereditary. It is caused by the behaviour of chromosomes at meiosis and interaction of
genes. Examples of genetic factors are;

 Segregation and recombination

 Independent assortment
 Polygenic characters
 Co-dominance or incomplete dominance
 Mutation
 Epitasis

Mutation

This is defined as the change in genes or chromosomes leading to a change in characteristics of the
individual.

 Mutation can occur in the following; ordinary cell, somatic cell and gametes.
 Mutation can be inherited if it occurs in the gametes or reproductive mother cells.
 Mutation elsewhere in the body cannot be inherited.
 Mutation can occur naturally or spontaneously and it can also be induced artificially by
mutagens or mutagenic agents.

Examples of mutagens or mutagenic agents

1. X-ray
2. Gamma rays
3. Ultraviolet rays
4. Benzene
5. Mustard gas

Types of mutation

1. Chromosome mutation
2. Gene mutation

Consequences of variation

It results in natural selection, which allows certain organisms, which have advantageous characters
to survive while others, which are not well adapted to the environment, die.

Inheritance in Organisms

Heredity

It is the passing on of the traits or characteristics of parents to their offspring (progeny).

Genetics

 It is the study of heredity and variation.

 In both sexual and asexual reproduction, certain quantities of genes are passed onto
offspring.

Importance of genetics

1. It is used in genetic engineering by changing Gene in chromosomes.

2. It enables us to understand some hereditary diseases so as to be able to treat or manage
them.
3. In agriculture, it is used for selective breeding to yield plants and animals with desirable
qualities.
4. For the production of antibiotics by adding a particular gene to bacteria.

Inheritable characteristics in humans

 Tongue rolling
 Colour blindness
 Haemophilia
 Baldness
 Height

Inheritable diseases

 Sickle cell anaemia

 Colour blindness
 Muscular dystrophy
 Haemophilia

Mendel laws of inheritance

These laws govern inheritance of characters.

1st law: Law of Segregation: It states that an organism’s characteristics are determined by internal
factors that occur in pairs.

2nd law: Law of independent assortment: it states that anyone of a pair of characters may combine
with either one of another pair.

3rd law: Law of dominance: it states that one form of a hereditary trait dominates or prevents the
expression of the other form, the recessive trait.

Terms Associated with inheritance

Chromosomes: It is a threadlike structure containing genes or DNA and protein occurring in the
nuclei of eukaryotic cells which transfers genetic materials from parent to offspring. DNA is referred
to as deoxyribonucleic acid.

Genes: Genes can be defined as the particles on the Chromosomes that pass the characteristics from
parents to offspring.

Alleles: These are alternate forms of the same gene that occupy the same locus on the homologous
chromosomes and produce contrasting characteristics.
Homologous pair: It is a matching pair of chromosomes that carry genes which control the same
characteristics; and each is derived from one of the two parents.

Homozygous : These are the organisms that have the same two alleles. Eg TT or tt.

Heterozygous: These are the organisms that have two unlike alleles. Eg. Tt.

Co-dominance or incomplete dominance: This is a condition in the heterozygote where both alleles
have equal dominance and the phenotype exhibits a mixture of the opposing characteristics in equal
dominance.

F1 (First filial generation)

The offspring produced by crossing the parental generation.

F2 (Second filial generation)

The offspring produced by crossing the F1 generation.

Genotype: This is the genetic constitution or make-up of an organism. Eg. Genotype of height TT, Tt
and tt.

Phenotype: This describes the physical characteristics or outward appearance of an organism. It is

determined by the genotype and the environment.

Hybrid: An organism produced from a cross between parents that are not genetically identical.

Monohybrid cross: This is a cross involving two individuals that differ in only one character.

Test cross: This is the mating of an F1 individual having the phenotype of the dominant parent, with
a double recessive parent.

Dominant character: This is one of a pair of contrasted character which is expressed in an

heterozygote state.

Recessive character: It is the one of a pair of contrasted character which is not expressed in the
heterozygote state.

Blood Groups and Rhesus Factor

There are four blood groups in man, namely A, B, AB and O. Every person belong to one of these
four blood groups. These four blood groups results from the influence of three alleles called A, B
and O. Alleles A and B are equally dominant. Therefore a person with both alleles A and B has a
blood group of AB. Also both alleles A and B are equally dominant over alleles O which is recessive.
There are six genotypes and four phenotypes of blood groups.
Note that blood groups are written in capitals.
Blood transfusion

This is the technique of transferring blood from one person to another.

People with blood group AB can receive blood from any other group. They are therefore universal
recipients. People with blood group O can give blood to all the other blood groups including theirs.
They are therefore universal donors. To be sure that the donor’s blood is compatible with that of
the recipient, in hospitals blood is only given to a patient if the blood group is known. A simple test
can be conducted to find the blood group of a person.

Definition of terms

Antigens: These are substances that stimulate an immune response in the body by producing
antibodies.
Antibodies: These are blood proteins produced in response to and counteracting specific antigens.

Agglutination of blood: This is the reaction between antibodies and antigens of red blood cells when
incompatible blood groups are transfused.

Note: There are other systems of classifying blood besides the ABO system. One is the Rhesus
system.

Rhesus factor (Rh): It is an antigen or chemical or protein present in the blood of Rhesus monkey or
humans. These chemicals were first detected on the red blood cells of Rhesus monkey; that is how
the name came about.

How does agglutination occur or why is it not advisable for an Rh negative (Rh-) woman to marry
an Rh positive (Rh+).

 Agglutination occurs when an Rh negative receives blood which is Rh positive.

 Agglutination does not occur when Rh positive blood is given to Rh negative person.
 So it is not advisable for an Rh- woman to marry an Rh+ man because the Rh factor is
inherited.
 Rh- people are induced to produce Rh+ antibodies when Rh+ is introduced into their body.
 The Rh+ antigen reacts with the Rh- antibody to cause agglutination.
 When an Rh+ homozygous man marries an Rh- woman, the foetus inherits this allele from
the father and become Rh+.
 Fragments of the Rh+ red blood cells of the foetus containing Rh+ antigens may move across
the placenta into the blood of the Rh- mother to produce the Rh+ antibody.
 The antibody in turn moves across the placenta into the blood of the foetus, where it causes
agglutination of the red blood cells.
 The foetus may die as a result.

Advantages of knowledge about group and Rhesus Factor.

1. To predict possible blood groups of children of couples.

2. It is useful to determine the paternity of a child mostly during legal disputes.
3. It is used to identify the appropriate blood for transfusion.
4. Useful in tissue or organ transplantation.

Factors use in determining paternity

1. Blood group
2. Rhesus factor
3. DNA.

Sex determination in humans.

Human being is made up of a total of 23 pairs of chromosomes. The first 22 pairs are called body
chromosomes or autosomes. The last 23rd pair is referred to as sex chromosomes. The sex (23rd
pair) chromosomes in man’s sperms is denoted by XY. The sex (23rd pair) chromosomes in woman’s
ova is denoted by XX. At fertilization, a child inherits two chromosomes, one from the each parent.
The child always inherit X chromosome from the mother at fertilization.

However, the child can inherit either X or Y chromosomes randomly from the father and the type
inherited determines the sex of the child. If X is inherited from the father, the child is female i e XX
and if Y is inherited, the child is male ie XY. This shows that the sex of a child is solely depends on
the father. This is shown diagrammatically in the illustration below:

Sex-linked characters in humans

This is a character, which is controlled by a recessive gene located on the X sex chromosome.

It can be defined as the characters that are inherited along with the sex of the individual.

Examples of sex-linked characters in humans

1. Baldness
2. Colour blindness
3. Haemophilia
4. Lack of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G-6PD)
5. Hairy ear lobe
6. Muscular dystrophy.

Reasons why sex-linked characters are exhibited less frequently in females.

These inherited sex-linked characteristics frequently affect men but occur very rarely in women.
They are expressed in males because of the lack of dominant counterpart on the Y chromosome.
Only females who are homozygous recessive for the trait are affected. Females with heterozygous
genotype are carriers who do not show the conditions but carry a recessive allele which can be
passed to their offspring.

Sickle cell anaemia

This is a disease condition where some of the red blood cells of a person become sickle-shaped
owing to abnormal haemoglobin. Red blood cells are normally bi-concave discs and contain red
pigments called haemoglobin. The Sickle cell allele causes the production of abnormal haemoglobin
resulting in distorted Sickle celled red blood cells.

 SS (Normal person)
 Ss (Sickle cell carrier)
 ss (Sickle cell anaemia)
Haemophilia: It is defined as a disease condition in a person in which the blood of the infected
person does not clot properly when he/she is injured due to the absence of protein needed for the
blood to clot.

Evolution

It is the process by which the present by which the present day organisms arose or developed from
earlier ones.

It is the gradual process of changes over a period of geological time.

Types of evolution

There are two types namely convergent evolution and divergent evolution.

Convergent evolution produces similar structures in Organisms, which have evolved from different or
unrelated ancestors. Eg man and mosquitoes are different ancestral stock ( man is mammal
mosquito is insect) but both have similar shape of legs used for the same function.

Divergent evolution is the modification of structures in Organisms, which evolved from common
ancestors due to adaptation to environmental changes. Examples bat, monkey and horse are from
the same stock- mammals but have different functions.

Evidence of evolution

1. Fossil records
2. Comparative embryology
3. Comparative anatomy
4. Studies of geological distribution of plants and animals.