Principles of Engineering Production Lecture 01 Material Properties and Tensile Test
Tensile Strain: The ratio of increase in length to the original length.
The stress can be calculated by two formulae which are distinguished as engineering
stress and true stress, respectively.
Engineering Stress = P/Ao
P = load (N)
Ao = original cross-sectional area (m2)
True Stress T= P/Ai
P = load (N)
Ai = instantaneous cross-sectional area (m2)
Strain: is the ratio of change in dimension to the original dimension.
Engineering Strain = (lf - lo)/ lo = l / lo
lf = final gage length (m)
lo= original gage length (m)
True Strain T= ln (li / lo) = ln (1 +)
li = instantaneous gage length (m)
lo= original gage length (m)
ln = natural logarithm
Hook’s Law: states that when a material is loaded within elastic limit (up to
proportional limit), stress is proportional to strain.
Compressive Strain: The ratio of decrease in length to the original length.
Modulus of Elasticity: The ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain or compressive
stress to compressive strain. It is denoted by E. It is also called as Young’s modulus
of elasticity.
E = Tensile Stress/Tensile Strain
Modulus of Rigidity: The ratio of sheer stress to shear strain. It is denoted by G.
G = Shear Stress/Shear Strain
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Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur
Basrah University – Engineering College
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Principles of Engineering Production Lecture 02 Hardness Test and Impact Test
Lecture 02 Hardness Test and Impact Test
1.2.2 Testing of Hardness
It is a very important property of the metals and has a wide variety of meanings. It
embraces many different properties such as resistance to wear, scratching,
deformation, and machinability etc. It also means the ability of a metal to cut another
metal. The hardness of a metal may be determined by the following tests.
a) Brinell hardness test
b) Rockwell hardness test
c) Vickers hardness (also called Diamond Pyramid) test
Brinell hardness test
Dr. J. A. Brinell invented the Brinell test in Sweden in 1900. The oldest of the
hardness test methods in common use today, the Brinell test is frequently used to
determine the hardness of forgings and castings. Therefore, Brinell tests are
frequently done on large parts. The Brinell hardness number is a function of the test
force divided by the curved surface area of the indent. The Brinell hardness test
method consists of indenting the test material with a 10 mm diameter hardened steel
or carbide ball. The average of the two diagonals is used in the following formula to
calculate the Brinell hardness.
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur
Basrah University – Engineering College
8
Principles of Engineering Production Lecture 02 Hardness Test and Impact Test
Fig. 1.5 Brinell hardness test
Brinell hardness for several materials
Lead 5 -22 HB
Pure Aluminium 15 HB
Copper 35 HB
Hardened AW-6060 Aluminium 75 HB
Mild steel 120 HB
stainless steel annealed 200 HB
Hardened tool steel 600–900 HB
Vickers Hardness Test
The Vickers hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a
diamond indenter, in the form of a right pyramid with a square base and an angle of
136 degrees between opposite faces subjected to a load of 1 to 100 kgf. The full load
is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds. The two diagonals of the indentation left
in the surface of the material after removal of the load are measured using a
microscope and their average calculated. The area of the sloping surface of the
indentation is calculated. The Vickers hardness is the quotient obtained by dividing
the kgf load by the square mm area of indentation.
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur
Basrah University – Engineering College
9
Principles of Engineering Production Lecture 02 Hardness Test and Impact Test
Fig. 1.6 Vickers hardness test
Vickers hardness for several materials
Material Value
316L stainless steel 140HV30
347L stainless steel 180HV30
Carbon steel 120HV5
Iron 80HV5
Martensite 1000HV
Diamond 10000HV
Rockwell hardness test
Stanley P. Rockwell invented the Rockwell hardness test. Rockwell hardness test
enabled the user to perform an accurate hardness test on a variety of sized parts in
just a few seconds. There are two types of Rockwell tests:
1. Rockwell: the minor load is 10 kgf, the major load is 60, 100, or 150 kgf.
2. Superficial Rockwell: the minor load is 3 kgf and major loads are 15, 30, or
45 kgf.
In both tests, the indenter may be either a diamond cone or steel ball, depending
upon the characteristics of the material being tested.
The principles of the Rockwell Test are:
1. The indenter moves down into position on the part surface
2. A minor load is applied, and a zero-reference position is established
3. The major load is applied for a specified time (dwell time) beyond zero
4. The major load is released leaving the minor load applied
The resulting Rockwell number represents the difference in depth from the zero-
reference position as a result of the application of the major load.
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur
Basrah University – Engineering College
10
Principles of Engineering Production Lecture 02 Hardness Test and Impact Test
Fig. 1.6 Rockwell hardness test
Table 1 Rockwell hardness test values
1.2.3 Impact Test
When metal is subjected to suddenly applied load or stress, it may fail. In order to
assess the capacity of metal to stand sudden impacts, the impact test is employed.
The impact test measures the energy necessary to fracture a standard notched bar by
an impulse load and as such is an indication of the notch toughness of the material
under shock loading. Izod test and the Charpy test are commonly performed for
determining impact strength of materials. These methods employ same machine and
yield a quantitative value of the energy required to fracture a special V notch shape
metal.
The beams may be simply loaded (Charpy test) or loaded as cantilevers (Izod test).
Fig. 1.7 shows the impact testing set up arrangement for Charpy test.
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur
Basrah University – Engineering College
11
Principles of Engineering Production Lecture 02 Hardness Test and Impact Test
Fig. 1.7 Impact test
Charpy tests show whether a metal can be classified as being either brittle or ductile.
This is particularly useful for ferritic steels that show a ductile to brittle transition
with decreasing temperature. A brittle metal will absorb a small amount of energy
when impact tested, a tough ductile metal absorbs a large amount of energy. The
appearance of a fracture surface also gives information about the type of fracture
that has occurred; a brittle fracture is bright and crystalline; a ductile fracture is dull
and fibrous.
1.3 CHOICE OF MATERIALS
The choice of materials for the engineering purposes depends upon the following
factors:
1. Availability of the materials,
2. Properties needed for meeting the functional requirements,
3. Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service, and
4. The cost of the materials.
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Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur
Basrah University – Engineering College
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