Introduction to C++

CS 52: C++ Programming

  Look at what a software developer needs for their skill set
 Define some rules for programmers
 Take a peek at C++ concepts and the background
 Understand the compiler and the compilation process
Objectives  Answer the question “Why program in C/C++?”
 Understand the basic rules for C++ statements
 Discover what it takes to do some basic output
 Check out what an identifier is and the rules for using one
  C++ is widely used in today's programming environment
 Game Programming
 Controllers for Robots
Where Is C++  User Interfaces
Used?  Graphics for Games

 Java is used more for mobile games and web development

  Programming
 Design Skills
 You must know/research the field you are designing the program for
 Object-Oriented Design
Skill Set
 Documentation
Needed for  Your software may be used for years to come
Software  Someone should be able to read your code and easily understand it

Developer  Communication
 Team members, customers, end users

 Quick Learners
  Keep your cool
 Work when you are rested
 Keep it simple
 Give help/Get help
 On Homework – NOT on tests
Rules for  What is help?
Programmers  Ask me in lab, come to office hours or email
 What is NOT help
 Copying code
 Copying code and only changing variable names or the order of certain
statements

 Study and Know the Rules for the Language

 Syntax
  Learn the Development Environment and Tools
 Microsoft Visual C++
 Microsoft Visual Studio .NET
 X-Code
 G++
Rules for
 Understand the Problem You are Trying to Solve
Programmers  Build and test your software in steps
(2)  Compile often

 Save early/save often

 Practice and Study
 Know both how to program and the programming concepts we
discuss in lecture
  Originally developed by Bell Laboratories
 In the 1970s C was originally used for operating systems (Bell's UNIX)
 C quickly grew in popularity as a general purpose programming
language
 Offered the tools for writing many types of programs
C/C++ Brief  In 1978, in addition to the UNIX versions of C, Honeywell, IBM, and
Interdata also offered application software for the C language
History and  C kept growing in popularity and hardware became more
Overview affordable
 There were many versions of C created
 Rumor: At one time there were 24 Versions of C!
 PROBLEM: There was no standard for the language
  American National Standards Institute Committee (ANSI)
 Formed in 1982 to create a standard for the C language
 The ANSI standard was adopted by the International Standards
C/C++ Brief Organization (ISO) in 1989
 Think of the ISO as the governing laws for C/C++
History and  These laws dictate the correct form of C/C++ statements and how
Overview (2) aspects of the language must work

 ANSI Standard
  In the mid 1990s extensions and corrections to the ISO C Standard
were adopted
C/C++ Brief  BIG PART OF EXPANSION: The ability to build object-oriented
software
History and  The birth of C++
Overview (3)  Other parts of the extension
 Additional library support for foreign character sets, multibyte
characters and wide characters
  A working draft of the ISO C++ Standard was created in 1994
 In 1997 the ANSI committee published the final draft of the C++
C/C++ Brief language
 It was approved by the ISO making it an international standard
History and  Programs written according to ISO C++ standards can be run (or
Overview (4) modified and run) on any computer system that has ISO Standard
C++ software
  Since the C++ language was an expansion of the C language:
C/C++ Brief  When you learn C++, you are learning C as well
 The entire C language is wrapped up in C++
History and  if and for loops are essentially identical in C and C++
Overview (5)  C has structures (structs), C++ has structures and classes (used with
objects)
  C++ source program
 Set of instructions written in C++ language

 Program Translation
 How a program goes from your C++ source code to machine
C++ Concepts/ language that can be read by the computer

 Machine language
Background  Internal computer language
 Consists of a series of 1s and 0s – Are they really 1s and 0s? What
does the computer really read?
 Source code in any language cannot be executed until it is translated
into machine language
  Computer languages are either interpreted or compiled
 Interpreted language translates one statement at a time and
executes it
 Compiled language translates all statements together – the program
C++ Concepts/ can then later be executed all at once

 C++ is a Compiled Language

Background (2)  A compiler is a computer program that reads source code, and if
that source code is grammatically correct translates it into machine
code
 Note, that we say compilation of a program results in a machine
language program in C++, we do NOT yet have an executable file
C++ Machine
Translation
language language
program
source program
program
Low-Level vs.  Low Level Languages
High Level vs.  Machine Language: The language made up of binary coded
instructions that is used directly by the computer
Intermediate  In the beginning all programming was done in machine language

Level  Unique to each computer (different binary codes for each instruction)
 Hard to read and modify
Languages
  Low Level Languages (cont.)
 Assembly Language: developed to make the programmer’s life
Low-Level vs. easier
 Uses mnemonics to represent each of the machine language
High Level vs. instructions in a particular computer
 ADD 100101
Intermediate  Is easier to work with but a computer cannot directly translate the
instructions – An assembler is required
Level  Assembler: A program that translates an assembly language program
into machine code
Languages (2)  Assembly language is a step in the right direction but still requires that
programmers think in terms of individual machine instructions
 Assembly language is a low-level language
Low-Level vs.  Low Level Language characteristics
High Level vs.  Usually Involve Instructions unique to the processor around which
the computer is constructed
Intermediate  Permit the programmer to use special instructions that are tied to
the particular type of processor the language is for
Level  Closer to machine language than to the natural language of humans
 Faster to execute than high level languages
Languages (3)
Low-Level vs.  High Level Languages
 Easier to learn than assembly language or machine code because
High Level vs. they are closer to English and other natural languages
 One word of code represents many machine language instructions
Intermediate  Examples: C++, C, Java, FORTRAN, C#, Pascal etc.
Level  The translation process is more involved in a high level language so
programs may take longer to execute than those written in a low
Languages (4) level language
  Intermediate Level Language
Low-Level vs.  Sometimes C++/C are referred to as intermediate level languages
High Level vs. because they are closer to machine language than a language like
Java is
Intermediate  However they are still much higher level languages than assembly
language
Level  C++ gives the programmer the ability to work with and manipulate
memory which Java does not
Languages (5)  Pointers (used often in graphics and game programming)
  C++ provides libraries containing classes and functions that a
programmer can use in their programs
Libraries  One C++ library we will use in our very first program is a library
that provides tools to receive input from the keyboard and write
output to the monitor
  Use a text editor or IDE (integrated development environment) to
enter the C++ source code
 Save the source code as a .cpp file
General C++  Tell the C++ compiler to convert the program into low-level
Programming instructions (machine code)
 When you tell the compiler to run, the preprocessor will be run
Process before the compiler as part of the process
 We are going to use the Microsoft Visual C++ IDE for this class
 Since Microsoft Visual C++ is a common IDE used in the industry you
must use this IDE for the class
  Tell the C++ compiler to link the source code file with supporting
libraries and/or other source code files the program needs and
produce an executable file
General C++  Run the program
Programming  The operating system loads your executable file into memory and
passes control over to it
Process (2)  Program runs
  PORTABLE LANGUAGE: A language in which the source code
does not need to be changed when the program is moved from
one computer to another
 Example: You write a program in ISO ANSI Standard C++
 To run the program on a PC, it must be compiled and linked on a PC.
 The executable file issues commands directly to the processor when
Portable the program runs
 To run the program on a Sun Microsystems Computer with a SPARC
Language processor, the code must be compiled and linked on this type of
machine
 NOTE: The ISO/C++ source code does not need to be changed
 This makes C++ a portable language since the source code does not
need to be changed when moved from one type of machine to
another
 You only need to re-compile to run the program on a different type
of machine
Procedural and  Programming languages are also classified by orientation
 Procedural Languages
Object-  Object-oriented Languages

Oriented  C++ is considered an object-oriented language since it has the

tools available for the programmer to write an object oriented
Programming program with
Procedural and  HOWEVER, programs written in C++ are NOT automatically
object-oriented
Object-  Everything in C++ is NOT an object

Oriented  For a C++ program to be object-oriented it must be written using

objects and classes
Programming  Before the C++ extension was added to the C language programs in
C were written as procedural programs rather than object-oriented
(2) programs
  Procedural programs are designed in a linear manner and focus on
a specific sequence of events that solve a problem – procedural
programs are less reusable than object oriented programs
 Common design scenario for a procedural program:
 Start the program
 Find and open the data file
 Use the data as needed and calculate the needed output
Procedural  Output some sort of report

Programming  Close the data file

 You would design methods (called functions in C++) that perform
various tasks on the data, the methods would accept both input and
output data…so in procedural programs we have methods that act
on data
 It is possible to write a procedural program in C++
 As we learn basic concepts we will start with procedural programs
that utilize objects
  An object-oriented program defines an object as a conceptual
type of data
 This object contains both the general characteristics of the data
Object- object and set of operations that operate on the data object’s
characteristics
Oriented  Think of how we describe an objects in the real world
Programming  We categorize everything into objects
 For example a car is an object
 A car has characteristics such as a color, a model, and an engine
 A car also has certain operations that can be performed on it such as
acceleration and braking
  Object oriented programming breaks down programming
operations by object rather than by procedure
Object-  Object Oriented Programming is based on the idea of Classes
 A class is a definition for an object that contains the general
Oriented characteristics of an object and the operations that manipulate that
object
Programming
 Think of a Rectangle object
(2)  Some of its characteristics would be length and width
 Some operations that could be performed on it would be calculating
its area and perimeter
  Also keep in mind that an object-oriented program can have
multiple objects (classes) that interact with each other
Object-  We will go through an example design of an object oriented
Oriented program with multiple objects in it when we get into object
oriented programming later in the course
Programming  Object Oriented Programming is one of the topics students find
(3) harder in this course
 Most of you probably have more experience writing procedural
(step-by-step) programs than object oriented programs so far
  Even though you are writing procedural programs at the beginning of
this course, I want you to keep in mind that the object-oriented
programming we do later in the class is what you will need in the real
world
 Why learn procedural first?
 It tends to be easier to grasp basic programming concepts
Object- (selection/repetition statements) when programming procedurally
 In order to program using object-oriented programming, you need to
Oriented have these basic concepts down cold
 C++ Syntax, Data types, Selection Statements, Repetition/Looping
Programming Statements, Functions
 These basic concepts were covered in Java but there will be some
(3) differences in C++ which I will point out
 These basic concepts will be in every language, so it's imperative you get
them down

 Every programming concept in this class builds on what has been

learned before it
 If you don't understand a concept ask questions because it will be
necessary to understand that concept in order to get the next one
  Since C++ is built on the procedural language C it is important to
understand both the procedural and object oriented aspects of it
 You cannot write a C++ program without relying on some procedural
code
Approach for  In this class we will start by learning the procedural aspects of C++
 For now just know the basic differences between procedural and
This Course object oriented programming
 Keep in mind at the beginning that you are learning procedural
programming
 We will go into detail and expand on the object oriented
programming as the class proceeds
  What is programming?
 A program is a set of instructions a computer follows in order to
perform a task
Programming  Programming is the process of writing a computer program in a
Fundamentals language that the computer can respond to and that other
programmers can understand
 These instructions to the computer and the associated rules are
called a programming language
  The Big Picture
 Programming requires problem solving skills
 You will usually be presented with a problem or some sort of desired
Programming end result

Fundamentals  "Can you make the computer do this?"

 Most of your clients will not be programmers and many won't be
(2) intermediate or advanced users
 As a programmer you need to understand the problem/goal and
figure out a plan of how to solve the problem/reach the goal
 Your first plan is not always the best one
  As a software developer you must plan/design, code, build and
test your programs
 Algorithm development is an essential part of the programming
process
 What is an algorithm?
Programming  A step by step sequence of instructions for performing a task or
solving a problem in a finite amount of time
Fundamentals  It's imperative that you create a set of steps for a program before
(3) you sit down and start entering code
 There is (except with the most basic program) more than one way to
solve a problem
 So there is more than one algorithm that solves a problem
 The first algorithm you think of is often NOT the best one

 Why is it not ok to "just have the code work"?

  Example: Suppose you had to write a program that reads text
from a data file and determines how many times the word sheep is
found in that data file. How would you solve this problem?
 At this point we're not thinking about C++ coding at all, just how we
Pseudocode would solve this problem
 There are several approaches (and several algorithms) that would
solve this problem).
 We will go over two different algorithms to solve the problem
  Algorithm #1
1. Create a variable named sheepCount to keep track of the number of
'sheep' found and set it to zero
2. Read the data file one line at a time
3. As each line of text is read in, search that line letter by letter for the
letter 's‘
4. If the letter 's' is found, check the character before the 's' to make sure
it is blank .
Pseudocode a) If the character before the 's' is not blank
1) if you have not reached the end of the line return to step 4.
(2) 2) if you have reached the end of the line of data return to step 3 and read the
next line of data
b) If the character before the 's' is blank check the first character after the 's'
to see if it is an 'h'. If it is an 'h' check the first letter after the 'h' to see if it
is an 'e'. Keep this process up until you find an letter that doesn’t fit the
pattern or you reach the letter 'p' in the correct sequence
c) If you find a match increase the sheepCount by 1 otherwise continue
reading the line
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for each line of code in the data file
6. Display the number of time the word 'sheep' was found to the screen
  Algorithm #2
1. Create a variable named sheepCount to keep track of the number
of 'sheep' found and set it to zero
2. Create a String type variable (a memory location) named testWord
and have that variable be equal to "sheep“
3. Read the data file one WORD at a time
Pseudocode 4. Check to see if the word read in is equivalent to the testWord
variable
(3) a) Notice there is no mention of HOW this will be implemented with
code – Why? Pseudocode
b) Should be able to be used with any programming language
5. If the words are equal increase the sheepCount variable by 1
6. Repeat steps 3-5 until the end of the data file is reached
7. Display the number of time the word 'sheep' was found to the
screen
  QUESTION: What do we call the previous series of statements?
 Answer: PSEUDOCODE for an ALGORITHM
Pseudocode  Pseudocode is not rewriting your assignment instructions
 Ask this question: How am I going to instruct the COMPUTER to
(4) SOLVE THE PROBLEM – what do I need to tell the computer to do?
 Try starting each line with a verb or using some code like words (if,
else, while) but not actual code
  You must develop an algorithm before you start your code
 Only after an understanding of the problem, the data needed for the
problem, and the algorithm that is going to solve that problem is
acquired can a program be written

 Algorithms can be written or described in various ways

 In this class we will use pseudocode to describe our algorithms
Algorithm and  PSEUDOCODE: English like phrases or descriptions to describe the
algorithm
Pseudocode  Pseudocode does not need to be pages long; a simple step by step set
of English instructions is sufficient
 Pseudocode describes an algorithm, not a program
 If your pseudocode starts like this "This program does….." you will
not get credit for the pseudocode – this is repeating the instructions
 Why? We need to understand the difference between pseudocode and
a program
  What is the difference between a pseudocode and a program?
 Pseudocode describes an algorithm (a finite series of steps to solve a
problem)

Pseudocode  A program implements an algorithm in a specific programming

language
vs. Program  All programmers have a different programming style so even if the
same algorithm is implemented to solve a problem, the resulting
programs will still be different
  PROBLEM: Calculate someone's Gross Pay
 High Level Pseudocode
 Get Payroll Data
 Calculate Gross Pay
 Display Gross Pay
Pseudocode  Detailed Level Pseudocode
Example  Display How Many Hours Did You Work?
 Store user input in the hours variable
 Display How Much Did You Get Paid Per Hour?
 Store user input in the rate variable
 Store the value of hours times rate in the pay variable
 Display the value of the pay variable
  Only after an algorithm has been selected (more than one
algorithm can solve a problem) and understood by the
programmer (using pseudocode or a flowchart) can the program
be coded
Coding An  There are different algorithms that can be used to solve problems
Algorithm in a program
 It is the job of the programmer to determine the algorithm that:
 Solves the problem correctly
 Solves the problem efficiently
  THE ALGORITHM MUST DO BOTH OF THE ABOVE – Just
compiling is NOT enough!
 CODING: the writing of a program using computer language
Coding An statements
Algorithm (2)  Look back to our translation process, we are on the FIRST step;
keep in mind the computer doesn't understand C++ until it is
translated to machine language and the linker is run to create the
executable code
Determine Program Select/Understand Code the Algorithm
Requirements Algorithm in C++
  Every C++ program consists of several basic components whether
the program is complex or consists of just a few lines of code
 A couple of fundamental C++ concepts
 C++ is case sensitive
 This means C++ knows the difference between upper case and lower
case letters
 Every character in C++ is important, so pay attention to every symbol
C++ Program and every letter (whether uppercase or lowercase) – DETAILS MATTER
 The language will view the following names as three separate things:
Structure  total
 Total
 TOTAL
 A function is a block of code that has a specific format with an
entrance point and an exit point
 Functions are an essential part of procedural programming and allow
us to build code blocks that do program tasks
 We'll start by writing procedural programs that are just one big function
and as we learn more will write programs that use many functions
  In C++ a function is a set of C++ statements that perform a
particular task (in Java this is called a method)
 Each function is similar to a small machine that transforms the data
it receives into a finished product
C++ Program  Another key aspect of procedural programming

Structure (2)  Formally, a function is a self-contained block of code with a unique

name that performs a task or set of tasks
 For all functions other than main, a C++ program executes a function by
calling it (using a specific command code to make it execute)
 A function is called by using it's name
  In procedural programming, think of a collective group of
functions as subprograms that work together to perform the
C++ Program overall task of a program
 All of the functions work together collectively to form the entire
Structure (3) program that solves the problem
 A C++ program is a collection of one or more functions
  Every C++ program must have a main function
 A C++ program can have one and only one main function
 Think of the main function as the master function of the program
and the other functions as the servants
 The main function not only drives all of the other functions but in object
C++ Program oriented programming the main program is also in charge of the class
data types used in a program (when they are instantiated and when
they are used)
Structure (3)  The main function can also be thought of as the driver function
because it drives the other functions by telling them when and in
what sequence they will execute
 So the main function is automatically called (executed) in a C++
program but the other functions (circle and square in this example)
are only executed when they are called by the main function
 //A first C++ Program
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

First C++ int main()

Program {
cout << "Hello World!";
return 0;
}
  The first line of this program is a comment
 //A first C++ Program
 Question: Is this a useful comment? Why or why not?

 Comments are explanatory remarks written within program

Comments  Clarify purpose of the program
 Describe objective of a group of statements
 Explain function of a single line of code or section/lines of code

 Computer ignores all comments

 Comments exist only for convenience of reader
  A well-constructed program should be readable and
understandable
 Comments help explain unclear components
 Why is it important for code to be readable? Why might "tricks" like
Gotos and globals make a program less readable? (if you haven't
programmed before ignore the second question)
 As a rule you should always comment your program
comprehensively but at the same time do not make unnecessary
Comments (2) comments
 Your comments should be written so that another programmer or
you at a later date can glance at the comments and understand how
a particular piece of code works and what your goal was in writing
that particular piece of code
 Multiple programmers will often work on a project and it saves a lot of
money if your code is easy for the new programmer to understand and
continue working on
 It's also important for you to be able to return to your program at a later
time and quickly and easily understand your intentions for each piece
of code in the program
  There are two types of comments
 Line comments
 Block comments

 Line comment: Begins with 2 slashes(//) and continues to the end of the line
 Can be written on line by itself or at the end of line that contains program code
 // this is a line comment

 Block comment: Multiple line comment begins with the symbols /* and ends
Comment with the symbols */
 /* This is a block comment that

Structure spans
across three lines */
 To embellish or highlight certain comments above functions, many programmers
use a frame around block comments

/*****************************************************
A function and it's description
*****************************************************/
  The second line of the example program is:
#include <iostream>
 This is called a directive because it directs the compiler to do
The #include something
 The #include directive directs the compiler to include the contents
Directive – of the file in <> before compilation
 Remember the compilation process (preprocessor)
Header Files  The preprocessor performs an action before the compiler translates
source code to machine code
 In this example: #include <iostream> causes the iostream file to be
inserted (basically copied into the spot) where the #include
command appears
  iostream is part of the C++ standard library
 Included in iostream are two important classes:
 A class is a piece of code that contains data and actions to be
The #include performed on that data
 istream: Declarations and methods for data input
Directive –  ostream: Declarations and methods for data output
 If we didn't include the contents of iostream into this program it
Header Files wouldn't compile because iostream contains the code definitions
needed to use input and output statements
(2)  cout is the code definition from the iostream library being used in this
program for output to the monitor

 Libraries are very important, the code for input/output is complex

  The #include directive is a Preprocessor Directive
The #include  Peprocessor directives are not C++ statements, they are signals to
Directive – the preprocessor that run prior to the compiler
 They make life easier for the programmer
Header Files  Example: Any program that uses the cout object must contain
extensive setup information contained in iostream. It would be very
(3) time consuming for the programmer to have to type or even cut and
paste all of this information into their program
  The #include preprocessor directive must always contain the
name of a file
 The preprocessor inserts the entire contents of a file into the
The #include program at the point it encounters the #include directive
 The compiler itself doesn’t actually see the #include directive,
Directive – instead it sees the information that was inserted by the preprocessor
as if the programmer had typed it there themselves
Header Files  The iostream file is referred to as a header file because a reference
(4) to it is always placed at the top of a C++ file using the #include
command
 The information in this header file is C++ code
 Later you will learn out to make your own header files
  The next line in the Hello World program is:
using namespace std;
 The standard library in C++ is an extensive set of programming
routines that have been written to carry out common tasks – basic
to complicated programming tasks that as a programmer you
need to perform over and over again
Namespaces  In C++, the C++ Standard Library is a collection of classes and
functions, which are written in the core language and part of the C++
ISO Standard itself[

 Since there are a large number of routines and files in the standard
library that use many different names it is possible when you are
writing your program you will accidentally use one of the names
defined in the standard library for your own purposes (Example:
cout)
  A namespace in a program is used in C++ to avoid problems that
can occur when duplicate names are used in a program for
different things
Namespaces  A namespace does this by associating a given set of names (such as
(2) the ones from the standard library) with a group (family) name such
as which is the namespace name
 **The iostream libraries are associated with the standard
namespace (std)
  Every name that is defined in the code that appears in a
namespace also has the namespace name associated with it
 In the example program the name cout is associated with the
namespace std
Namespaces  So the true name for cout is actually std::cout
 USE NAMESPACE in your programs! It is ANSI Standard, do not use
(3) std::cout!

 The two colons that separate the namespace name (std) from the
name of the entity (cout) are called the scope resolution operator.
 We'll discuss the scope resolution operator later in the semester
  So technically the Hello World program could have been written as follows:
//Hello world program with no using namespace std statement
#include <iostream>

int main()
{
std::cout << "Hello World!\n";
Namespaces return 0;
(4) }
 Notice that in this revised version of the program no using namespace std;
statement appears at the top of the program
 This is not OK for this class and is not ANSI Standard
 In this OUTDATED program with no using namespace std; statement, every
time cout or any name associated with the standard library (which is defined
by the standard namespace was used) the name of the namespace std
followed by the scope resolution operator would have to precede it
 As you will see in this class we will use the standard library a lot, particularly the
iostream file for input and output so using std:: with all of the different names
associated with input and output could lead to having some cluttered code
  So why didn't I use the std:: in front of cout in the original Hello
World program?
 The using declaration:
using namespace std;
 is used to tell the C++ compiler that the program intends to use all of
Namespaces the names from the standard library without specifying the
namespace name
(5)  Once this command is used in a program, the compiler assumes that
every time cout or any other name in the namespace std is used that
the intention is to use the name from the standard namespace
rather than a name defined in the program itself

 In this class, we will use this using directive in almost all our
programs since we are going to be using the standard library for
input and output extensively
  The next line in the Hello World program is: int main()
 int main() marks the beginning of a function, in this case the main
function
 Each C+ program must have one and only one function named main
(CASE SENSITIVE!)
 main is the starting point of the program
 Another way of thinking of a function is as a group of one or more
The main programming statements that collectively has a name – a function is
a set of code that takes input (optional), processes it in some way
Function and produces output (or a result)
 The name of this function is main and the set of opening parenthesis
that follows the name indicates that it is a function
 The word int stands for integer and indicates that the function sends
an integer value back to the operating system when it is finished
executing
 Remember a function takes in data input (optional) does something
and then returns data output (optional)
  The next line of the program is an open curly brace {
 All function statements that make up a function are enclosed in a set of
curly braces (be very careful about the difference between curly braces
and parenthesis)
 The first brace is called a left brace or opening brace and is associated
with the beginning of the function main
 It marks the beginning of the function main’s function statements
 The second brace, right brace in our program indicates the end of the
The main main function
 Every function must have both an opening and closing brace (right/left)
Function (2)  Everything between the two braces are the contents of main (main’s
function body)
 Curly braces are used to enclose the body of all functions.
 When any function executes, it starts executing right after the beginning
curly brace and continues executing sequentially until it reaches the
closing curly brace (this means the code can't look ahead and can't look
back)
 Make sure and make the opening and closing curly braces of EVERY
function easy to identify
  First line of function is called header line
 What type of data, if any, is returned from function
 The name of function
 What type of data, if any, is sent into function
 Data transmitted into function at run time are referred to as arguments
of function

 Keep in mind that a procedural program is a set of functions

working together
 Every program has a main, but you can also design your own
functions to work with main
The main
 The parts of the program we have talked about so far are a
Function (3) framework for your program
 The only part of the basic framework we haven't talked about is the
return zero which we'll get to in a minute
  The cout object sends data to the standard output display device
 Remember cout is defined in the iostream library
 Basically when you use cout you create an instance of an object…this
object defines the data and methods you need to use cout for simple
input and output in your programs
 The display device is usually a video screen
 Name derived from Console Output and pronounced “see out”
The cout
 Data is passed to cout by the insertion symbol <<
Object
cout << “Hello World!”;
 Notice that the message “Hello World!” is printed without the
quotation marks
 The quotation marks are there as a signal to the compiler that is
String type data (strings are sequences of characters), the cout
object requires that you send it String type data
  cout is classified as a stream object which means it works with
streams of data
 To print a message on the screen you send a stream of characters to
cout
 The << is called the stream-insertion operator.
 The information immediately to the right of the operator is sent to cout
The cout and displayed on the screen

Object (2)  Note that this is the only line in our program that causes anything
to display on the screen
 The other lines are necessary for the framework of the program but
do not cause any screen output
 It is the line that actually does something in our very simple program
  The return 0; statement at the end of the program sends the
integer value 0 back to the operating and indicates the successful
completion of the main function
 Remember the function header said that the main function returned
an integer value upon its completion
The return  Any function that has a header indicating a value must be returned
from it must have a return statement, otherwise a compiler error will
Statement occur
 A keyword immediately before the function name defines the data type of
the value returned by the when it has completed its operation.

 For now, the important thing to understand is that the main

function must always end with a return statement (return 0 for
now) and a closing curly brace }
  Remember the body of the one function in the Hello World is the
code enclosed in the curly braces after the function header int
main()
 The lines of code that make up the body of the main function are
called program statements
 A program statement is a basic unit of code defining what a program
does
 One or more program statements make up a program
Program  The action of a function is always expressed by one or more program
statements each ending in a semi colon
Statements
 It is a semicolon that marks the end of a program statement NOT
the end of a line
 A program statement can then be spread over several lines if it
makes the source code easier to read
 Multiple statements can also appear on one line if this makes the
source code easier to read
 Remember the goal is code that other programmers can easily
interpret and understand
  Whitespace is the term used in C++ to describe blanks, tabs,
newline characters, form feed characters, and comments
 One purpose whitespace serves is to separate one part of a
statement from another part of a statement
 This enables the compiler to determine where one element of a
Whitespace statement begins and another ends
 For example:
return 0;
 compiles – legal statement
return0;
 does not compile, compiler can no longer determine that return and 0
are separate statements
  Whitespace consists of
 <space>
 <tab>
 <newline> (also called <enter> and <return>)
 Most whitespace is optional when writing C++ programs (it is ignored
by the compiler)
 However whitespace can be used to improve layout and readability of
the code
Whitespace (2)  These examples are all valid syntax and produce the same result when
executed
 cout << "hello";
 cout <<"hello";
 cout
<< "hello" ;
 The first cout statement has the best programming style of the three
examples
 It's easy to read and understand what the line of code is doing
  Notice that whitespace is not necessary between cout and << or
between << and the " in "Hello"
 This is because these characters are not combinations of
alphanumeric characters together
 However for readability, you should include spaces between these
types of code

 Other than for the purpose described above (to separate elements
Whitespace (3) in a statements that might be confused) whitespace has no effect
on the way the compiler reads code.
 Whitespace is used by programmers to make source code more
readable by other programmers so it can be reused, debugged, and
easily modified.
 In this class you MUST write readable code, I should easily be able to
look at your program see where a function begins and ends and see
what's going on in the program (what your intentions were)
  When one or more program statements are enclosed between a pair
of curly braces they become a block or compound statement
{
program statement;
program statement;
program statement;
….as many more as needed;
Statement }
Blocks  The body of a function is an example of a block.
 Wherever you put a single statement in C++ you could also put a block
of statements between curly braces { statement(s); }
 Statement blocks can be placed inside other statement blocks to any
depth
 As you will see later in the course statement blocks have important
effects on both variables and selection and repetition statements as
well as on functions – curly braces define the scope (visibility) of
statements
  A semicolon marks the end of a complete statement in C++
 Comments are ignored by the compiler so they do not require a
semicolon
 Preprocessor directives do not end with semicolons. Since
C++ Basic preprocessor directives are not C++ statements, they do not require
them. In many cases an error message will result if you terminate
Formatting your preprocessor directive with a semicolon
 The phrase int main() is the beginning of a function, not a complete
Summary statement and you should not use a semicolon after it
 Function bodies {} also do not end with semicolons

 C++ is a case sensitive language.

 int MAIN() is not the same as int main()
  Every opening brace { in a program must also have a closing brace
}
 You should write your code so one can EASILY identify the beginning
and ending curly brace for a function (or other code block) – one way
is to line them up like I do
 Curly braces denote the beginning and end of a block of code (a
function in our case right now) – think of it like a beginning must
C++ Basic have an end
 Notice this rule holds for the smooth braces () as well, they denote
Formatting input (arguments), you must define where the arguments begin and
where they end
Summary (2)  Also note that a function header or any part of a function's
structure is not followed by a semicolon – structure is not a
statement
 You'll get used to the semi colons more by practicing code
 It is important to have useful comments in your program.
 Makes the program more readable and easier to understand
  What do we mean by IDE?
Integrated  IDE stands for Integrated Development Environment
 It's important for a programmer (software developer) to understand
Development the tools of their development environment
 Think of a construction worker that knew how to build a house but
Environment didn't know how to use the tools
 Think of the IDE as a "workbench" for programmers
(IDE)
  IDEs provide an integrated set of tools for writing, editing and
debugging programs
 Editor
 Compiler
Integrated  Usually a window lists compiler errors
 Linker
Development  Hooks the object code(s) and the library code together
Environment  Builds and executable file to run the program
 Debugger
(IDE) (2)  Allows the programmer to single-step through the program, providing
the ability to watch variables and follow the flow of the program
 Breakpoints can be set in the program so the program will stop at
certain points the programmer wants to focus on
 Help
  Remember, cout is classified as a stream object which means it
works with streams of data
 To print a message on the screen you send a stream of characters to
cout
 The << is called the stream-insertion operator
 The information immediately to the right of the operator is sent to
cout and displayed on the screen
More on cout  Note that Strings in C++ are any combination of letters and special
characters enclosed in double quotes Example: “string”
 Strings in C++ are very similar to Strings in Java

 Unless you specify otherwise, a C++ program displays output as a

continuous stream of characters
 In the example below, all of the characters are printed on one line
which may not be the result you are wanting
 Solution: Newline Escape Sequence
  Example #1
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{

More on cout cout<<"The following items were topsellers";

cout<<"for June:";
(2) cout<<"Computer Games";
cout<<"Coffee";
cout <<"Gum";

return 0;
}
 This program would print everything on one continuous line
  Example #2
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
cout<<"The following items were topsellers ";

More on cout cout<<"for June:\n";

cout<<"Computer Games\n";
(3) cout<<"Coffee\n";
cout <<"Gum\n\n";

return 0;
}
 \n is an example of an escape sequence
 Escape sequences are written as a backslash character followed by one or more control
characters and are used to control the way output is displayed
 The backslash signals to the compiler that the character following it should be interpreted with a special
meaning
  The newline escape sequence \n instructs the display device to
move to a new line
 A newline is caused when the a backslash \ character followed by an
Newline n character are used together
Escape  Backslash provides an “escape” from the normal interpretation of
the character that follows
Sequence  Newline escape sequences can be placed anywhere within a
message to cout to force the display device (cursor) to move to
the next new line
 Escape Sequence Name Description
\n Newline Causes the cursor to go to the
next line for subsequent
printing
\t Horizontal Tab Causes the cursor to skip over
to the next tab stop

Other \a Alarm Causes the computer to beep

\b Backspace Causes the cursor to back up,

Common or move left one position
\r Return Causes the cursor to go to the
Escape beginning of the current line
instead of to the next line
Sequences \\ Backslash Causes a backslash to be
printed
\’ Single Quote Causes a single quotation
mark to be printed
\” Double Quote Causes double quotation
marks to be printed
 //An example using Escape Sequences

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
Other
Common int main()
{
Escape cout << "\"This is how to print a direct quote.\"\n";
Sequences - cout << "The title of the book was \'Intro to C++\'.\n";
cout << "The next line will use tabs to separate data with tabs.\n";
Example cout << "apples\t oranges\t grapes\t \n\n";

return 0;
}
  Example
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
cout<<"The following items were topsellers ";
cout<<"for June:" << endl ;

endl cout<<"Computer Games" << endl;

cout<<"Coffee" << endl;
cout <<"Gum" << endl;

return 0;
}
 endl is a stream manipulator in the iostream file
 Every time cout encounters and endl stream manipulator it advances to the next line for printing
 The endl manipulator can be inserted anywhere in the stream of characters sent to cout outside the double
quotes and after a << symbol
 Note since endl is a stream manipulator it must be placed after a << symbol….it does not just go in the string like \n
does
  Syntax is the set of rules for formulating grammatically correct
C++ language statements (grammar rules of C++)
 Compiler accepts statements with correct syntax without
generating error message

 A program statement can syntactically correct and logically

incorrect
 Compiler will accept statement
 Program will produce incorrect results
Syntax Errors  These type of errors are much harder to find than syntax errors and are
called bugs

 You will notice that C++ does not give as strict of compiler errors
as Java does
 It is assumed by the C++ compiler that the programmer has done
things for a reason
 Therefore it is very important to watch errors that don't necessarily
cause compiler errors but may instead cause your program not to run as
expected
  Every C++ program must contain one and only one main() function
 The program statements that make up the function included within
the curly braces following the function header
Programming  {}

Style  C++ allows flexibility in format for the word main, the parentheses
( ), and braces { }
 More than one statement can be put on line
 One statement can be written across lines
  However, use formatting for clarity and ease of program reading
 Function name starts in column 1
 The function header (name and parentheses) should be on its own
single line
 Opening curly brace of function body on next line
Programming  Aligned with first letter of function name
 Closing curly brace is last line of function
Style (2)  Aligned with opening curly brace of the function
 This standard form highlights the function as a unit
 When possible try to put all statements associated with a particular
command such as cout on a single line
 The idea is to have a readable program organized by functions
 Bad Style Good Style

#include <iostream> #include <iostream>

using namespace std; using namespace std;
Programming
Style (3) int main( int main()
){ {
cout<<“Hello World”; statements;
return 0;} return 0;
}
  A C++ Program can contain more functions than just the main
function
 The additional functions are user defined functions and must be
named
 A user may name these functions with any name they like as long as it
follows the rules to be a legal name in C++

 In addition, like in any other programming language, in a C++

C++ Identifiers program, variables must also be named
 C++ Identifiers are programmer defined names that represent
some element of a program such as a variable or a user defined
function (note main is always named main as it is special and
identifies the starting point of a program)
 So an identifier can be used to name a user defined function (such as
the square function in the earlier example) or a user defined variable
(next chapter)
  You can choose any identifiers you want for your function and
variable names as long as they are legal. To be legal they must
adhere to the following rules:
 The first character of the identifier must be a letter or an underscore
_
 After the first character any additional characters can only be
C++ Identifiers letters, digits (0-9) or underscores
(2)  You cannot use a keyword

 C++ keywords are words that are set aside for a special purpose in
the language and should only be used in the specified manner
 These rules are slightly different than the naming rules in Java
  You should always choose names for variables and functions that
give an indication of what the variable or function is used for
 It is a good idea to try to use a mnemonic for a function, variable or
class name so it will be easier to remember it
C++ Identifiers  degToRad is a good function name for a function that converts degrees
to radians because it gives someone reading the program an idea of
(3) what the function does as well as an easy way to remember what the
function does

 Remember C++ is case sensitive

 DegToRad would be a different identifier than degToRad
  There are a couple different standard ways that people like to
name identifiers in C++
 Some like to start with a lowercase letter and separate words with
underscores
C++ Identifiers  Ex. deg_to_rad
 The standard in C++ is to start an identifier with a lower case letter
(4) and then capitalize the first letter of any additional words in the
identifier
 Ex. degToRad
 Whatever way you choose to format your identifiers it is important
that you format them all consistently throughout your program
  Examples of valid identifiers:
 grossPay
 taxCalc
 addNums
 degToRad
C++ Identifiers  multByTwo
 salesTax
(4)  netPay

 Examples of invalid identifiers:

 4ab3 (begins with a number)
 e*6 (contains a special character)
 while (is a keyword)
C++ Keywords
  Always keep in mind C\C++ has not always been standardized
 As a result there is a newer style (standardized) and older style (pre-
standardized) of writing C++ code
 We are using the standardized newer style in this class
 The differences between the older and newer styles are subtle but it is
important to recognize them because some workplace’s
Standard and programming tools may only support the older conventions
 Older style header files
Pre-Standard  In the older style C++ all header files end with the “.h” extension.
 The iostream header in the older style would be written as: #include
C++ <iostream.h>
 Older style use of namespace std;
 Older style C++ programs typically do not use the using namespace std
 Some older compilers do not support namespace at all and will produce and error
message if you use it

 Some standard C++ compilers do not support programs written in the

older style and the older pre-standard compilers do not support
programs written in the newer style
  Our first program written in the older style
//A first C++ Program
#include <iostream.h>

void main(void)
Standard and {
Pre-Standard cout << "Hello World!";

C++ (2) }
 It’s not important to know the older style exactly just to be able to
recognize why a C++ program written in the older style may look
different
 You will find one of the most frustrating things about working in C++ is
the differences in compilers
 If you learn C# or C++ programming with in .NET you will see a lot of
these issues have been resolved
  Compile Often
 Do not write your entire code and then try to compile, compile and
find errors as you go

 Don't go to the computer start typing in code and hope you will be
able to figure the program out as you go along
 This may work in the beginning
Tips for  Can lead to less efficient algorithms and a lot of PAIN in this class
 Your first idea isn't always the best one
Programmers  Don't assume because your program compiles it is correct
 Test your program to see if it is doing what it's supposed to
 A program can compile and not run correctly

 Don't avoid comments

 As programs become more complex, you could go back and look at
a partially finished project and wonder what you were doing
  If you get frustrated leave the program alone for a while and come
back to it
Tips for  A fresh perspective does wonders

 Don’t wait until the last minute!

Programmers
 Use good style from the beginning (don't put in the style later)
(2)  This will just waste time in the line run

 Don't add random braces to try to get a program to compile!

  Omitting parentheses after main
 Omitting or incorrectly typing the opening brace {
Common  Opening brace signifies start of function body
Programming  Omitting or incorrectly typing the closing brace }
 Closing brace signifies end of function
Errors
 Misspelling the name of an object or function
 Example: Typing cot instead of cout
Common  Forgetting to close a string sent to cout with a double-quote
symbol
Programming  Omitting the semicolon at the end of each statement
Errors (2)  Forgetting \n or endl to indicate a new line
  C++ is an high level programming language
 C++ is an object oriented language with procedural aspects
 Programs cannot be written until algorithms are selected and
understood.
 Once a program is written in C++ it must be compiled and linked
before it can be executed
 The simplest C++ program has the form
Summary #include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
program statements;
return 0;
}
  C++ program statements are terminated by a semicolon
 The Standard library contains many functions and classes
 cout object displays text or numeric results
 There are various ways of formatting program output generated
with C++ (escape characters and endl)
Summary (2)
 C++ identifiers are used to name various elements of a C++
Program such as user defined functions and variables
 There are C++ formatting standards that should be followed to
make your program more readable
 C++ is now a standardized language