Environmental Impact of Industrial Pollution

(Environmental Risks)
(1)

Air Pollution
Prof. Dr. Eng.
Mohamed Sayed Ahmed
 The Environment
can be defined as one’s
surroundings
the word Environment may take on global
dimensions, may refer to a very localized
area in which a specific problem must be
addressed, or may refer to small volume
of liquid, gaseous, or solid materials
within a treatment plant reactor (in case
of contained environment).
 Environmental Engineering
Environmental engineering has been
defined as the branch of engineering that
is concerned with protecting the
environment from the potentially
deleterious effects of human activity,
protecting human populations from the
effects of adverse environmental factors,
and improving environmental quality for
human health and well-being. )‫(تحسين الجودة البيئية لصحة اإلنسان ورفاهيته‬
 What is an Environmental Engineer?

An environmental Engineer is someone

who uses the principles of engineering,
soil science, biology, and chemistry to
develop solutions to environmental
problems. They are involved in efforts
to improve recycling, waste disposal,
public health, and control of water and
air pollution.
 The Global Environment

The global environment consists of

“the atmosphere, the hydrosphere,
and the lithosphere”, in which life-
sustaining resources of the earth
are contained.
 The Atmosphere
The atmosphere, a mixture of gases
extending outward from the surface of
the earth, evolved from the elements of
the earth that were gasified during its
formation and metamorphosis.
The atmosphere is divided into layers according to
major changes in temperature:
“Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, and Ionosphere”
as the following figures indicate:
 Layers of the Earth's atmosphere

Layers of the Earth's atmosphere

Definition of Troposphere:

Troposphere, is where all weather takes

place; it is the region of rising and falling
packets of air. The air pressure at the
top of the troposphere is only 10% of
that at sea level. There is a thin buffer
zone between the troposphere and the
next layer called the tropopause.
Definition of Stratosphere:

Stratosphere and Ozone Layer, above

the troposphere is the stratosphere,
where air flow is mostly horizontal. The
thin ozone layer in the upper
stratosphere has a high concentration
of ozone, a particularly reactive form
of oxygen (O3). This layer is primarily
responsible for absorbing the
ultraviolet radiation from the Sun.
The formation of ozone layer is a
delicate matter. Ozone layer form
and prevent an intense flux of
ultraviolet radiation from reaching
the earth surface, where it is quite
hazardous to the evolution of life.
Definition of Mesosphere and Ionosphere:

The Mesosphere and Ionosphere, above the

stratosphere is the mesosphere and above
that is the ionosphere (thermosphere), where
many atoms are ionized (have gained or lost
electrons so they have a net electrical
charge). The ionosphere is very thin, but it is
where aurora take place, and is also
responsible for absorbing the most energetic
photons from the Sun, and for reflecting radio
waves, thereby making long-distance radio
communication possible.
 The hydrosphere

The hydrosphere, consists of the

oceans, the lakes and streams,
and shallow ground water that
interflow with the surface
water.
 The lithosphere
The lithosphere, is the soil
mantle that wraps the core of
the earth.
The atmospheric layer of greatest
interest in pollution control is the
Troposphere, since this is the
layer in which most living things
exist (the Biosphere).
 The Biosphere
(

(The Global Environment)

➢ A thin shell that encapsulates the earth, is

made up of the atmosphere, lithosphere
and hydrosphere (i.e. Troposphere).
➢ The life forms of earth, including humans,
live within the biosphere.
➢ Life-sustaining materials, in gaseous, liquid
and solid forms, are cycled through the
biosphere.
lithosphere
➢Life-sustaining resources – air, food
and water – are withdrawn from the
biosphere.
➢Also, waste products in gaseous,
liquid and solid forms are discharged
into the biosphere.
Life-sustaining materials

waste products
(Gas, liquid or solid)
 Pollution
Pollution, is the introduction
of contaminants into the
natural environment that
cause adverse change.
Air Pollutants
Air Pollutants
Air Pollutants
Air Pollutants
Water Pollutants
Water Pollutants
Water Pollutants
Water Pollutants
Soil Pollutants
Soil Pollutants
Air Pollutants
Smog
Hydrologic Cycle
Health effects of pollutants
 ‫أوزون ‪O3‬‬
‫رصاص ‪Pb‬‬
 Forms of Pollution
➢ Chemical Substances (Pollutants)
➢ Energy (noise, heat or light)
➢ Visual Pollution
➢ Radioactive Contamination
 Pollutants
A pollutant is a waste material
that pollutes air, water or soil.
Three factors determine the severity
of a pollutant:
1)Chemical nature,
2)Concentration, and
3)Persistence. )‫(ثبات‬
 Sources of Air Pollutants

➢ Natural Sources.
➢ Anthropogenic Sources.
From the beginning of time, the Biosphere
has received and digest the wastes
generated by the plant and animal life.
At that time the pollution was comparatively less
and could be handled by nature

Natural system has been ever active,

dispersing smoke from forest fires,
diluting animal wastes washed into
streams and rivers, and converting debris
of past generations of plant and animal life
into soil rich enough to support future
populations.
For every natural act of pollution, for
every undesirable alteration in the
physical, chemical, or biological
characteristics of the environment,
and for every incident that eroded
the quality of the environment, there
was natural action (system) that
restored that quality again.
Thus, natural processes such as
dilution, biological conversions, and
chemical reactions convert waste
materials (gas, liquid or solid) to more
acceptable forms and disperse them
through a larger volume.
Yet those natural processes can no
longer perform the clean up alone.
Though the natural system has
operated for millions of years,
it has begun to show signs of
stress, primarily because of
the impact of humans upon the
environment.
Types of Pollution
➢ Air Pollution
➢ Water Pollution
➢ Solid Wastes
 Air Pollution
is the presence in the outdoor or indoor
atmosphere of one or more contaminants
(i.e., dust, fumes, gas, mist, odor, smoke,
or vapor) in sufficient quantities, of such
characteristics and duration to be
injurious to human, plant, or animal life or
property, or which reasonably interferes
with the comfortable enjoyment of life or
property.
 Concentration of Clean, Dry Air at Ground Level

Component Symbol Volume

Nitrogen N2 78.084%

Oxygen O2 20.947%

Argon Ar 0.934% 99.998%

Carbon Dioxide CO2 0.033%

Neon Ne 18.2 parts per million

Helium He 5.2 parts per million

Krypton Kr 1.1 parts per million

Sulfur dioxide SO2 1.0 parts per million

Methane CH4 2.0 parts per million

Hydrogen H2 0.5 parts per million

Nitrous Oxide N2O 0.5 parts per million

Xenon Xe 0.09 parts per million

Ozone O3 0.07 parts per million

Nitrogen dioxide NO2 0.02 parts per million

Iodine I2 0.01 parts per million

Carbon monoxide CO trace

Ammonia NH3 trace

 Natural Sources of Air Pollutants:
▪ Smoke, fumes, ash and gases from
volcanoes and forest fires.
▪ Sand and dust from windstorms.
▪ Fog in humid, low-lying areas.
▪ Hydrocarbons from biological sources, e.g.,
bacterial decomposition of organic matter.
▪ Nox formed by solar radiation and lightning.
▪ Ozone formed by solar radiation, lightning
and forest fires.
Anthropogenic Sources of Air Pollutants:

▪ Mobile transportation.
▪ Stationary combustion.
▪ Industrial processes.
▪ Solid-waste disposal.
Pollution from natural sources
(e.g., forest fires, volcanic
eruption and storms) does not
usually, by itself, pose problems
severe enough to endanger life
and property.
Air pollutants may be classified according to:

• Origin,
• Chemical composition and
• State of matter.
 Classification of Air Pollutants
Particulates Gases
Subclasses Typical members Subclasses Typical members

1. Solid Dust 1) Organic ▪ Hydrocarbons:

Smoke and fumes (e.g., benzene, methane, butane)
Fly ash ▪ Aldehydes:
(e.g., formaldehyde, acetone)
2. Liquid Mist
Spray ▪ Other organics:
(e.g., Chlorinated hydrocarbons)

3. Biological Protozoa 2) Inorganic • Oxides of carbon

Bacteria (CO , CO2)
Viruses • Oxides of sulfur
Fungi (SO2 , SO3)
Spores • Oxides of nitrogen
Pollens (NO2 , NO)
Algae • Other inorganics
(H2S , HF , NO3)
Particulates
 Dust
Dust is small solid particles created by the
breakup of larger masses through processes such
as crushing, grinding or blasting, may come
directly from the processing or handling of
materials such as coal, cement or grains.
Dust may be a by-product of a mechanical
process such as the sawing of wood or made up of
residue of a mechanical operation, such as
sandblasting.
Dust is capable of temporary suspension in air or
other gases, it does not diffuse and it settles under
the influence of gravity.
Dust may range in size from 1.0 to 1000 µm.
 Smoke
Smoke is fine, solid particles resulting from the
incomplete combustion of organic particles such
as coal, wood or tobacco.
Smoke particles consists mainly of carbon and
other combustible materials.
Smoke particles have diameters ranging from
0.5 to 1.0 µm.
 Fumes
Fumes are fine, solid particles (often metallic
oxides, such as Zn and Pb oxides), formed by
condensation of vapors of solid materials.
Fumes may be from sublimation, distillation,
calcination, or molten metal processes.
Fumes particles have diameters ranging from
0.03 to 0.3 µm.
Fumes flocculate and coalesce, then settle
out.
 Fly ash
Fly ash consists of finely divided, noncombustible
particles (mineral or metallic substances) contained
in flue gases arising from combustion of coal.
These mineral or metallic substances are released
when the organic portion of coal is burned.
Fly ash shares characteristics of all three of the
other solid particles discussed:
- Like dust, it has particles that range in size from
1.0 to 1000 µm;
- like smoke, it results from burning; and
- like fumes, it consists of inorganic metallic or
mineral substances.
 Mist
Mist consists of liquid particles or droplets
formed by the condensation of a vapor, the
dispersion of a liquid (as in foaming or
splashing), or by a chemical reaction (such as the
formation sulfuric acid mist).
Mist are usually are less than 10 µm in diameter.
If mist concentration is high enough to obscure
visibility, it is called a Fog.
 Spray
Spray consists of liquid particles formed
by the atomization of parent liquids,
such as pesticides, herbicides.
Spray particles range in size from 10 to
1000 µm.
 ‫‪Particulate size and respiratory defense mechanism‬‬
‫كيف يحمي الجهاز التنفسي نفسه من الجسيمات العالقة‬
‫‪Particle size‬‬ ‫‪Description‬‬ ‫‪Mechanism‬‬
‫‪Hairs at the front of the nose‬‬
‫‪Over 10 µm‬‬ ‫‪Coarse dust , Fly ash‬‬
‫‪remove all particles over 10 µm.‬‬
‫)‪(visible to the naked eye‬‬
‫يتم إزالتها من هواء الشهيق عن طريق الشعر‬
‫الموجود في مقدمة األنف‪.‬‬
‫‪Movement of cilia sweeps mucus‬‬
‫‪2 – 10 µm‬‬ ‫‪Fumes , Dust , Smoke particles‬‬
‫‪upward, carrying particles from‬‬
‫‪windpipe to mouth, where they can‬‬
‫‪be swallowed.‬‬
‫يتم طردها من هواء الشهيق بواسطة األهداب‬
‫المبطنة للقصبة الهوائية وتخرج من الفم مع البلغم‪.‬‬
‫‪Lymphocytes and phagocytes in the‬‬
‫‪< 2 µm‬‬ ‫‪Aerosols , Fumes‬‬ ‫‪lung attack some submicron particles.‬‬
‫* األحجام ما بين ‪ 2-1‬يبقى حوالي ‪ %40‬منها داخل‬
‫الشعب الهوائية حيث توجد خاليا البالعم‬
‫)‪ (Phagocytes‬في الرئة تبلع األجسام الغريبة‬
‫وتقضي عليها‪.‬‬
‫* األحجام ما بين ‪ 0,25 -1‬أغلبها يدخل مع هواء‬
‫الشهيق ويخرج مرة أخرى مع هواء الزفير‪.‬‬
‫* أقل من ‪ 0,25‬معظمها يمتص في الشعب الهوائية‬
‫حيث تهاجمها الكريات اللنفاوية )‪(Lyphocytes‬‬
‫في الدم وتقضي عليها‪.‬‬
 Effects of Particulate Matter on Materials

Particulate matter can damage materials by:

- Soiling clothing and textiles,
- Corroding metals (especially at relative humilities
above 75%),
- Eroding building surfaces, and
- Discoloring and destroying paint surfaces.
e.g., at particulate-matter concentrations ranging from
130 to 180 µg/m3 and in the presence of SO2 and
moisture, corrosion of steel and zinc panels is from 3
to 4 times greater than in areas close to background
particulate levels 60 µg/m3.
 Sources of Particulates
Natural Anthropogenic

• Pollen • Fly ash

• Spores • Smoke
• Bacteria • Soot particles
• Viruses • Metallic oxides and Salts
• Protozoa )‫(كائنات أولية‬ • Oily droplets
• Fungi • Acid droplets
• Plant fibers • Silicates
• Rusts • Fumes
• Volcanic dust
 Lead (Pb)
Health problems associated with Pb particulates have been of special
interest in recent years.
Pb is emitted into the atmosphere in different forms:
- Elemental leas (Pb)
- Lead oxides (PbO , PbO2 , PbxO3)
- Lead sulfate (PbSO4)
- Lead sulfide (PbS)
- Alkyl lead [ Pb(CH3)4 , Pb(C2H5)4 ]
Clinical, epidemiological and toxicological studies have demonstrated
that exposure to Pb-containing particulates adversely affects human
health. The three systems in the body most sensitive to lead are:
1) The blood-forming system,
2) The nervous system, and
3) The renal system.
The major atmospheric source of Pb:
- Combustion of fuels,
- Solid waste disposal, and
- Combustion of waste oil.
 Detection and Analysis of Particulates

Settleable particulates Suspended particulates

(a dust fall bucket) (the high-volume sampler)

An open-mouthed container A specially housed vacuum-

made of glass, polyethylene, sweeper motor with an attached
or some other inert material, filter holder and the results
reported in “mg or µg /m3/day”.
is used to collect settleable
atmosphere particulates. The rate of air flow is measured
with a flow-meter calibrated in
After collection, the particles l/min. samples are usually
are weighed and the results collected for 24 hrs. period.
reported in “mg/cm2/month”.
Gases
 Hydrocarbons (HC)
HC: Organic compounds containing only Carbon and Hydrogen,
(e.g., most of petroleum), which are divided into two major
classifications “aliphatic” and “aromatic”.

• Aliphatic HC group contains:

Alkane Alkenes Alkynes
(Olefins)
Saturated HC Unsaturated HC Unsaturated HC
(e.g., methane & ethane) (e.g., ethylene) (e.g., acetylene)
Are fairly inert and generally Are highly reactive in Though highly reactive, are
not active in atmospheric atmospheric photochemistry. relatively rare and thus not of
photochemical reactions. major concern in air-pollution
studies.

CH4 C2H6 C2H4 C2H2

• Aromatic HC :
Aromatic hydrocarbons are biochemically and biologically
active, and some are potentially carcinogenic.
All aromatic are derived from or related to Benzene “C6H6”.
 Sources of Hydrocarbon
Natural Anthropogenic

• Biological sources • Transportation

• Coal fields • Fuel combustion in
• Petroleum fields stationary sources
• Natural fires • Industrial processes
• Solid waste disposal
• Forest fires
• Agricultural burning
• Coal waste fires
 Control of Hydrocarbons
Available control technology of HC:

1) Incineration process of HC .. are classified as either after- burners or

catalytic after-burners.
2) Carbon adsorption of HC .. by using activated carbon. The activated
carbon can be adversely affected by particulate matter in the gas
stream.
3) Absorption of the HC in a scrubbing solution .. is usually carried out
in: “bubble-plate columns”, “jet scrubbers”, “packed towers”,
“spray towers” and “venturi scrubbers”.
4) In condensation .. the temp. of the gaseous HC is lowered so that
they turn into a liquid, which can be recovered for reuse.
Condensation is generally used only for high-level HC emissions.
5) The substitution of less reactive HC .. has been utilized to reduce
photochemical oxidant formation, e.g., trichloroethylene, which is
less reactive than olefins or aldehydes, can be substituted where
approptiate.
 Carbon Monoxide (CO)
CO monoxide gas is colorless, tastless and odorless.
It is chemically inert under normal conditions and has an
estimated atmospheric mean life of about 2.5 months.
CO at present ambient levels has little effect on property,
vegetation, or materials.
At higher concentrations of CO, it can seriously affect human
aerobic metabolism, owing to its high affinity for hemoglobin, the
component of the blood responsible for the transport of oxygen.
CO reacts with the hemoglobin (Hb) of blood to give
carboxyhemoglobin (COHb), thus reducing the capability of the
blood to carry oxygen.
CO + Hb = COHb
Since the affinity of Hb for CO > 200 times as great as its affinity
for O2, even when present at low concentrations. The health
effects observed on persons exposed to CO are given in the
following table.
 Health effects of COHb at various levels in the blood
‫“ في الدم‬COHb” ‫التأثيرات الجانبية الناتجة عن ارتفاع نسبة‬

“COHb” ( % ) Demonstrated effects

level in the blood
< 1.0 No apparent effect ‫ال تظهر أي تأثيرات‬

1.0 to 2.0 Some evidence of effect on behavioral performance

‫يظهر بعض التأثيرات على السلوك األدائي‬
2.0 to 5.0 Central nervous system effects; ‫يتأثر الجهاز المركزي العصبي ومن عالماته‬
- impairment of time interval discrimination, ‫ضعف تمييز الوقت‬
- Visual acuity, ‫ضعف حدة اإلبصار‬
- Brightness discrimination, and ‫الشعور باالكتئاب‬
- Certain other psychomotor functions. ‫النفسية‬-‫ضعف بعض الوظائف الحركية‬
> 5.0 Cardiac and pulmonary functional changes
‫تغيير في وظائف القلب والرئتين‬
10.0 to 80.0 Headaches, fatigue, drowsiness, coma, respiratory failure, and death
‫ الموت‬- ‫الشعور يصداع – إجهاد وتعب – خمول ونعاس – غيبوبة وتسمم – فشل الجهاز التنفسي‬
 Sources of CO
Natural Anthropogenic

• Oxidation of methane gas from • Transportation

decaying vegetation • Fuel combustion in stationary
• The exhalations of resting person sources
contain approx. 1ppm CO (applied to • Industrial processes
the entire nation in USA, this would • Solid waste disposal
total about 2.9 tones of CO / day) • Forest fires
• Petroleum fields • Agricultural burning
• Natural fires • Coal waste fires
 Control of Carbon Monoxide

Control of CO at the source is far more desirable than control by

dilution in the ambient air. The basic technical control methods
used for CO are:

1)Burning fuel with excess air (O2) to avoid incomplete

combustion of C
2)Adsorption of emitted CO
3)Absorption of emitted CO
4)Condensation of emitted CO
5)Combustion of emitted CO

The use of these methods can control almost all CO emissions.

 Oxides of Sulfur (SOx)
The oxides of sulfur are probably the most wide-spread and
the most intensely studied of all anthropogenic air
pollutants. They include six different gaseous compounds:

- Sulfur monoxide (SO),

- Sulfur dioxide (SO2),
- Sulfur trioxide (SO3),
- Sulfur tetroxide (SO4),
- Sulfur sesquioxide (S2O3), and
- Sulfur heptoxide (S2O7).

SO2 is the oxide of sulfur of most interest, in addition to SO3

with lower interest, in the study of air pollution.
SO2 is colorless, nonflammable and non-explosive gas with a
suffocating odor. It has a taste threshold of 784 µg/m3 and an
odor threshold of 1306 µg/m3.
SO2 is highly soluble in water (11.3 g / 100 ml at 20 oC), has a
molecular weight of 64.06 and is about twice as heavy as air. It is
estimated that SO2 remains airborne an average of 2 to 4 days,
during which time it may transported as far as 1000 km. Thus, the
problem of SO2 pollution can became an international one.
SO2 is relatively stable in the atmosphere, and can act either as a
reducing or an oxidizing agent. Reacting photochemically or
catalytically with other components in the atmosphere, SO2 can
produce SO3, H2SO4 droplets and salts of sulfuric acid.

SO2 + H2O H2SO3 (Sulfurous acid)

SO3 + H2O H2SO4 (Sulfuric acid)
 Effect of SO2 on Human health and vegetation

Effect of SO2 on human health Effect of SO2 on vegetation

 Effect of SO2 on Materials

S + O2 SO2 (Sulfur dioxide from combustion of high S-Fuel)

SO2 + H2O H2SO3 (Sulfurous acid)
SO3 + H2O H2SO4 (Sulfuric acid)

Effect on building materials:

Sulfuric acid aerosols will readily attack building materials, especially
those containing carbonates (i.e., CaCO3), e.g., marble , limestone ,
roofing slate , and mortar. The carbonates (insoluble in water) are
replaced by sulfates , which are water soluble, as the following eqn.:
CaCO3 + H2SO4 CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O
(limestone) (gypsum)

Gypsum, formed in this process, is washed away, leaving a pitted,

discolored surface, e.g., Cleopatra’s Needle in Central Park, New York
City, has deteriorated more since it was moved to New York in the
19th century than in all of the 2000 years or so that stood in Egypt.
Effect on metallic materials:
Excess exposure to SO2 accelerates corrosion rates for many
metals such as Fe , Steel , Zn , Cu and Ni, especially at relative
humidity over 70%.
Steel panels exposed to an annual mean concentration of SO2 of 78
µg/m3 accompanied by high particulate levels will lose more than
10% by mass in one year. The accelerated corrosion is particularly
noticeable in the fall and winter, when more fuel is burned.
Corrosion rates are from 1.5 to 5 times greater in polluted urban
areas than in clean areas.

Sources of SOx:
• Transportation
• Fuel combustion in stationary sources (power & heating)
• Industrial processes
• Solid waste disposal
• Forest fires
• Agricultural burning
• Coal waste fires
 Sources of SOx

➢ Transportation
➢ Fuel combustion in stationary sources (power & heating)
➢ Industrial processes
➢ Solid waste disposal
➢ Forest fires
➢ Agricultural burning
➢ Coal waste fire
 Control of Sulfur Oxides

The broad-based methods for control of SOx emissions

include:
1) Burning fuel with less sulfur.
2) Removing sulfur from fuel.
3) Converting high S-coal by liquefaction or gasification.
4) Substitution of another energy source.
5) Cleaning up the combustion products.
6) Dispersion by tall stacks.
 Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)
Oxides of Nitrogen include six known gaseous compounds:

- Nitric oxide (NO),

- Nitrogen dioxide (NO2),
- Nitrous oxide (N2O),
- Nitrogen sesquioxide (N2O3),
- Nitrogen tetroxide (N2O4), and
- Nitrogen pentoxide (N2O5).

The two oxides of nitrogen of primary concern in air

pollution are NO and NO2, the only two nitrogen oxides that
are emitted in significant quantities to the atmosphere.
NO is emitted to the atmosphere in much larger quantities than NO2.
It is formed in high temp. combustion processes when atmospheric
O2 and N2 combine according to the following reaction:
N2 + O2 2 NO
However, NO is readily oxidized to NO2:
NO + ½ O2 NO2
The major process by which NO2 is formed in the atmosphere is:
O3 + NO O2 + NO2
NO2 is heavier than air and reality soluble in water, forming nitric acid
and nitrous acid, as follow:
2 NO2 + H2O HNO3 + NHO2 (nitrous acid)
3 NO2 + H2O 2 HNO3 + NO (nitric acid)
Both nitric and nitrous acid will fall out in the rain or combine with
ammonia (NH3) in the atmosphere to form ammonium nitrate
(NH4NO3). In this instance, the NO2 will produce plant nutrient.
 Secondary Pollutants and NO

Photochemically, the NOx are one of two groups of chemical

compounds which are the necessary ingredients for the
production of photochemical smog (fog + smoke), stated in
the following simplified form:
Sunlight
HC + NOx Smog

With increased solar activity (UV), the following reactions

take place:
NO2 + UV NO + O
O + O2 O3
O3 + NO O2 + NO2
 Sources of NOx

Natural Anthropogenic

▪ In the upper atmosphere by ▪ Transportation

solar radiation reach the lower ▪ Fuel combustion in stationary
atmosphere through downward sources
diffusion. ▪ Industrial processes
▪ By lightening and forest fires. ▪ Solid waste disposal
▪ Bacterial decomposition of ▪ Agricultural burning
organic matter. ▪ Coal waste fires
▪ Natural fires
Effect of NOx on Human Health:
NO is relatively inert gas and only moderately toxic. Although NO,
like CO, can combine with hemoglobin (Hb) to reduce the O2-carrying
capacity of the blood, NO conc. are generally less than 1.22 mg/ m3 in
the ambient air and are thus not considered health regards.
However, NO2 irritates the alveoli in the lungs. ‫يهيج الحويصالت الهوائية في الرئتين‬

Effect of NOx on Plant and Materials:

There is no evidence that NO is damaging to plants outside the
laboratory, and while NO2 can cause some injury to vegetation,
secondary pollutants produced during photochemical reactions
involving NOx (e.g., PAN and O3) are far more likely to be damaging to
plants;
Sunlight
[ HC + NO2 + O2 PAN + O3 ]
• PAN : peroxyacetyle nitrate
• O3 : Ozone
 Control of Nitrogen Oxides

In general, most control measures for NOx emissions have

been directed at:
1) modification of combustion conditions (O2 & temp.) to
decrease NOx production, and
2) utilization of various devices to remove NOx from
exhaust gas streams.
 Material balance problem
Coke, with the following composition "C = 86 %, S = 1 % and Ash = 13 %",
is used as a fuel in an iron and steel plant. Assuming that:
- About 1% of C in the coke is oxidized as CO and the rest as CO2
- All S is oxidized as SO2
- 200 % excess air is used in this process
Given that the maximum limits of CO and SO2 allowed in the flue gases
emitted during this process (referring to the environmental Egyptian law)
are: 500 and 400 mg/m3, respectively.

Calculate the equivalent mg/m3 of CO and SO2 in the emitted flue gases
and its compatibility with the environmental Egyptian law.
The maximum limits of CO and SO2 allowed in the flue gases emitted during this
process (the environmental Egyptian law) are : 500 and 400 mg/m3, respectively.
 Exercise 1
Coal, with the following composition "C = 80 %, S = 3 % and Ash = 17 %",
is used as a fuel in a power plant. Assuming that:
- About 0.5 % of C in the coal is oxidized as CO and the rest as CO2,
- About 60 % of S is oxidized as SO2, and
- 250 % excess air is used in this process,
Calculate the equivalent mg/m3 of CO and SO2 in the emitted flue gases
and its compatibility with the environmental Egyptian law.
Given that:
Referring to the environmental Egyptian law, the maximum limits of CO
and SO2 allowed in the flue gases emitted during the combustion of coal
are: 300 and 1300 mg/m3, respectively.
Atomic weights; "C = 12, S = 32, O = 16, N = 14".
 Photochemical Oxidants
Oxidants or total oxidants, two terms used to
describe levels of photochemical oxidants, generally
indicate the net oxidizing ability of the ambient air.
Ozone (O3), the major photochemical oxidant, makes
up approx. 90% of the oxidant pool. Other
photochemical oxidants of concern in air pollution
monitoring include nascent oxygen (O), excited
molecular oxygen (O2), peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN),
peroxy-propinol nitrate (PPN), peroxy-butyl nitrate
(PBN), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2), and alkyl nitrate.
 Sources of Ozone (O3)
Ozone (O3) is a strong oxidizing agent. In the troposphere, it is formed
through a complex series of reactions involving the action of sunlight on
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and hydrocarbons (HC).
hν
HC + NO2 + O2 → PAN + O3
There are no significant anthropogenic emissions of ozone.
Ozone-producing processes, which involve absorption of solar radiation
(hν) by nitrogen dioxide, and ozone scavenging by nitric oxide (NO), can
be characterized by the following reactions:

NO2 + hν → NO + O
O + O2 → O3

O3 + NO → NO2 + O2

Thus, O3 conc. often are higher in suburban )‫ (ضواحي‬and even rural )‫(ريفية‬
areas than in urban )‫الصناعية‬/‫ (الحضرية‬areas, because O3 in urban areas is
lost due to reactions with NO:
* Ozone (O3), the photochemical oxidant of major
concern in air pollution, is produced in the upper
atmosphere by solar radiation, and small concentrations
of this gas diffuse downwards.
Also, small concentrations of this gas are produced by
lightening and forest fires. Background concentrations
of O3 range from 39 to 78 µg/m3.

* Peroxyacetyle nitrate (PAN) can be produced also in

presence of HC and NO2 with increased solar activity
(hv):
hv
HC + NO2 + O2 → PAN + O3
Effect of Oxidants on Human Health:
Numerous clinical studies indicate that significant health
effects are experienced in human exposed to photochemical
oxidant levels of 725 µg/m3.
Ozone (O3) is considered to have effects similar to ionizing
radiation.

Effect of Oxidants on Plant and Materials:

Plants .. the major component in the oxidant pool that cause
damage to plants are O3 and PAN. Both enter the plant leaf
and interfere with plant cell metabolism.
Materials .. ozone (O3) is an extremely active compound and
readily oxidizes paints, elastomers (such as rubber), textile
fibers and dyes.
 Control of Oxidants

Oxidants control strategy has traditionally been aimed at

limiting HC and NO emissions, the precursors of the
oxidants. However, it is now known that even if no HCs or
aldehydes are present in the atmosphere, significant conc.
of O3 can still be generated as long as CO and NOx are
present. Currently, despite concerted efforts to control CO,
HC and NOx emissions, quantities of these air
contaminants sufficient to photo-chemically generate O3
are still present.
 Indoor Air Pollution
Until recently, the principal actions taken to control air
pollution have emphasized emissions to the atmosphere.
However, since most people spend a large percentage of
their time indoors, attention has recently been given to the
health problems posed by indoor air pollutants that
originate from:
▪ Building materials,
▪ Furnishings,
▪ Equipment, and
▪ Human activities (e.g., cooking, cleaning and smoking).

Several potential indoor air pollutants have been identified

for which there is evidence of adverse health effects.
Indoor Air Pollutants include:
- Formaldehyde,
- Tobacco,
- Radon and radon daughters,
- Unvented combustion appliances, )‫(احتراق وقود في عدم وجود هوايات‬

- Aeropathogens, )‫(جراثيم هوائية‬

- Pesticides, and )‫(كيماويات قاتلة للحشرات‬
- Asbestos.
Control of Indoor Pollutants:
1) Exposure reduction
2) Control strategies.
 Air Quality Management Concept

Air quality management is a term used to describe all functions

required to control the quality of the atmosphere. Among the
essential elements of such a program are:
1. Control regulations and a control strategy, )‫(قوانين منظمة واستراتيجية للتحكم‬

2. Legal authority to implement the control strategy, )‫(سلطة تنفيذية لتحقيق االستراتيجية‬

3. Emission inventories, )‫(حصر االنبعاثات‬

4. An atmospheric surveillance network, )‫(شبكة مراقبة ملوثات الهواء‬

5. A data management system, )‫(نظام إلدارة البيانات‬

6. Agency staffing and funding, )‫(العمالة والتمويل‬

7. A system for analysis of complains, and )‫(نظام لتحليل الشكاوي‬

8. Stack sampling operations. )‫(عمليات أخذ عينات انبعاثات المدخنة‬