📚 Solution Properties
Brief Overview
This note covers chemical solutions and was created from a 30‑page PDF of study notes.
It provides a concise tour of solution types, concentration units, Henry’s and Raoult’s laws,
and colligative properties with practical examples.
Key Points
Classification of gaseous, liquid, and solid solutions
Multiple ways to express concentration (w/w, v/v, molarity, ppm, etc.)
How Henry’s Law and Raoult’s Law describe gas–liquid and liquid–liquid
equilibria
Effects of temperature on solubility and the role of the Van 't Hoff factor in
colligative phenomena
🧪 Types of Solutions & Expressing Concentration
1. Solution Classifications
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more components where composition
and properties are uniform throughout.
Solvent: Component present in largest quantity, determines physical state
Solute: All other components present in smaller quantities
Binary solutions: Only two components considered in this unit
Type Solute Solvent Common Examples
Gaseous Gas Gas Mixture of oxygen
and nitrogen gases
Liquid Gas Liquid Oxygen dissolved
in water
Liquid Liquid Liquid Ethanol dissolved in
water
Liquid Solid Liquid Glucose dissolved
in water
Solid Gas Solid Hydrogen in
palladium
Solid Liquid Solid Mercury in
cadmium
Solid Solid Solid Copper dissolved in
gold
2. Concentration Expression Methods
Concentration: Amount of solute present in a given amount of solution or solvent
2.1 Mass Percentage (w/w)
Mass of component
Mass percentage =
× 100
Total mass of solution
Example: Commercial bleaching solution contains 3.62% sodium hypochlorite
2.2 Volume Percentage (v/v)
Volume of component
Volume percentage =
× 100
Total volume of solution
Example: 10% ethanol solution means 10 mL ethanol in solution totaling 100 mL
2.3 Mass/Volume Percentage (w/v)
Mass of solute (g)
Mass/Volume percentage = × 100
Volume of solution (mL)
2.4 Parts per Million (ppm)
Number of parts of component 6
ppm =
× 10
Total number of parts of all components
2.5 Mole Fraction
Number of moles of component
Mole fraction of component =
Total number of moles of all components
For binary mixture: x A =
nA
nA +nB
and x B =
nB
nA +nB
Key property: Sum of all mole fractions equals 1 (∑ x i = 1 )
2.6 Molarity (M)
Moles of solute
Molarity =
Volume of solution in litres
Temperature dependent because volume changes with temperature
Units: mol/L or mol dm −3
The linear relationship shows vapor pressure directly proportional to mole fraction in
solution, confirming Henry's Law for gas solubility.
Shows (a) gas-liquid equilibrium at normal pressure and (b) increased gas solubility under
higher pressure when volume is compressed.
3. Henry's Law
Henry's Law: At constant temperature, solubility of gas in liquid is directly proportional
to partial pressure of gas above solution
p = KH ⋅ x
where:
p = partial pressure of gas
K H= Henry's law constant
x = mole fraction of gas in solution
Applications:
Scuba diving: Prevents "the bends" by using He/N /O mixtures
2
2
Carbonated drinks: CO dissolved under high pressure
2
High altitude effects: Lower O partial pressure affects blood oxygen levels
2
4. Temperature Effects on Solubility
Solid in liquid: Generally increases with temperature (endothermic dissolution)
Gas in liquid: Decreases with temperature (exothermic dissolution)
⚗️ Raoult's Law & Vapor Pressure
4.1 Raoult's Law for Volatile Components
Raoult's Law: For solution of volatile liquids, partial vapor pressure of each component
is directly proportional to its mole fraction
0 0 0 0
P1 = x1 ⋅ P1 P2 = x2 ⋅ P2 Ptotal = P1 + P2 = x1 P1 + x2 P2
4.2 Raoult's Law for Non-volatile Solutes
When solute is non-volatile: P = x ⋅ P where vapor pressure of solvent decreases
1
0
1
proportionally with mole fraction of solute
Linear relationship between vapor pressure and mole fraction in ideal solutions, showing
how total pressure varies with composition.
4.3 Ideal vs Non-ideal Solutions
Solution Type Behavior ΔH mix
A-B interactions vs
A-A, B-B
Ideal Obeys Raoult's law =0 A-B ≈ A-A ≈ B-B
over entire range
Non-ideal positive Higher vapor >0 A-B < A-A, B-B
pressure than
predicted
Non-ideal Lower vapor <0 A-B > A-A, B-B
negative pressure than
predicted
4.4 Azeotropes
Binary mixtures with same composition in liquid and vapor phase at specific
temperature:
Minimum boiling: Ethanol-water (95% ethanol)
Maximum boiling: Nitric acid-water (68% HNO , 32% water, bp 393.5 K) 3
🧊 Colligative Properties
Colligative properties: Properties depending only on number of solute particles, not
their nature
5.1 Relative Lowering of Vapor Pressure
0
P −P n2
= x2 =
0
P n1 +n2
For dilute solutions:
0
P −P n2
w2 /M2
0 ≈ =
P n1 w1 /M1
5.2 Elevation of Boiling Point
Boiling point increases when non-volatile solute is added because vapor pressure is
lowered, requiring higher temperature to reach atmospheric pressure
5.3 Depression of Freezing Point
Freezing point decreases proportionally to solute concentration
5.4 Osmotic Pressure
Pressure required to prevent osmosis across semipermeable membrane
🔥 Boiling Point Elevation & Freezing Point Depression
Boiling Point Elevation
When a non-volatile solute is dissolved in a solvent, the boiling point increases because
the vapor pressure is lowered, requiring a higher temperature to reach atmospheric
pressure.
Boiling point elevation (ΔT ) is the increase in boiling point of a solution compared to
b
the pure solvent.
The relationship is given by: ΔT b = Kb ⋅ m
where:
ΔTb = boiling point elevation
Kb = molal elevation constant (ebullioscopic constant)
m = molality (mol/kg)
Example: When 18 g of glucose (C$6H {12}O_6$) is dissolved in 1 kg of water:
Moles of glucose = 18 g ÷ 180 g/mol = 0.1 mol
Molality = 0.1 mol/kg
ΔT = 0.52 K·kg/mol × 0.1 mol/kg = 0.052 K
b
Boiling point of solution = 373.15 K + 0.052 K = 373.202 K
Freezing Point Depression
Freezing point depression (ΔT ) is the decrease in freezing point when a non-volatile
f
solute is dissolved in a solvent.
ΔTf = Kf ⋅ m
where:
Kf = molal depression constant (cryoscopic constant)
Example: When 222.6 g of ethylene glycol (C H O ) is mixed with 600 g of water:
2
6
2
Moles of ethylene glycol = 222.6 g ÷ 62 g/mol = 3.6 mol
Mass of water = 0.6 kg
Molality = 3.6 mol ÷ 0.6 kg = 6 mol/kg
ΔT = 1.86 K·kg/mol × 6 mol/kg = 11.16 K
f
Freezing point = 273.15 K - 11.16 K = 261.99 K
💧 Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
Osmosis
Osmosis is the spontaneous movement of solvent molecules through a
semipermeable membrane from a region of lower solute concentration to higher
solute concentration.
Diagram showing osmotic pressure apparatus with
semipermeable membrane
Osmotic Pressure
Osmotic pressure (Π) is the minimum pressure that must be applied to a solution to
prevent the inward flow of solvent through a semipermeable membrane.
n2
Π = RT = cRT
where:
n2 = moles of solute
V = volume of solution (L)
c = molar concentration (mol/L)
R = gas constant (0.083 bar·L/mol·K)
T = temperature (K)
Applications:
Isotonic solutions: Same osmotic pressure (0.9% NaCl = normal saline)
Hypertonic: Higher concentration → cells shrink
Hypotonic: Lower concentration → cells swell
🔄 Reverse Osmosis
Reverse osmosis occurs when pressure greater than osmotic pressure is applied to
the solution side, forcing pure solvent to flow out through the semipermeable
membrane.
Practical uses:
Desalination of seawater
Water purification systems
Uses cellulose acetate membranes that are permeable to water but
impermeable to ions
⚡ Van't Hoff Factor & Abnormal Molar Masses
Van't Hoff Factor
When solutes dissociate or associate in solution, the number of particles changes,
affecting colligative properties.
Van't Hoff factor (i) accounts for this: i = Normal molar mass
Abnormal molar mass
=
Observed colligative property
Calculated colligative property
Values:
Dissociation (KCl → K + Cl ): i > 1+ −
Association (ethanoic acid dimer in benzene): i < 1
No change: i = 1
Modified Colligative Properties
With van't Hoff factor:
Relative lowering of vapor pressure:
0
P −P
= i ⋅ x 2
P0
Boiling point elevation: ΔT = i ⋅ K ⋅ mb
b
Freezing point depression: ΔT = i ⋅ K ⋅ m f
f
Osmotic pressure: Π = i ⋅ cRT
Example: Benzoic acid (C H COOH) in benzene forms dimers:
6
5
Experimental molar mass = 241.98 g/mol
Normal molar mass = 122 g/mol
122
i = = 0.504
Degree of association = 99.2%
241.98