Intro

Neolithic was a very important stage of the history of human culture when humans

were no longer dependent entirely on nature but had started to exploit nature totheir own
advantage. The long association of humans with nature enabled them

to distinguish some plants and animals which they could manipulate according

to their needs. They tamed some animals and kept them in pens and took the

responsibility of producing plant food by cultivating some useful varieties. They

needed to clear the forest and till the soil for agriculture. From nomads the people

became settled in villages, New tool types made with new techniques emerged.

Though new subsistence strategies of the domestication of plants and animals

emerged, old modes like hunting and gathering of food continued.

NEOLITHIC CULTURE

The term ‘Neolithic’ was first used by Sir John Lubbock in his book titled

Prehistoric Times, published in 1865. He was the first Baron of Avebury (b.

1834- d. 1913) in England. By adding the concept of Neolithic Age to the cultural

historical sequence, he sought to refine the Three Age system (Stone Age, Bronze

Age and Iron Age), which had been proposed by C. J. Thomsen in the 1830s.

The term ‘neo’ means new, and ‘lithic’ means stone. Unlike the Palaeolithic (Old

Stone Age) period, people in this period began to use polished stone tools and

axes, often called celts. The Neolithic tools appear more refined than the crude

flaked stone tools of the Palaeolithic period (They needed more diverse variety of tools since they
were involved in different

types of activities. Generally, Palaeolithic tools have rough or finely flaked

surfaces. Sometimes, the natural context (rolled pebble surface) was retained

while flaking. This would serve as a butt end for a more comfortably handling of

the tools during their use. Not much evidence is available for the polishing of

tools in the Palaeolithic period. In the Neolithic period they polished some of the

stone tools. However, they continued to use flaked and unpolished tools as well.

The concept of Neolithic has undergone a lot of change over the years. Now, it

denotes early pastoral and farming village communities that did not use metal

1 The Concept of Neolithic Revolution

The agro-pastoral cultural developments of the early Holocene were labelled as

Chalcolithic cultures were treated as food producing economies by him. The

idea of Neolithic Revolution refers to the origin of agriculture, animal86

domestication and a settled way of life. It indicates the transformation of society

from a food gathering (hunting-gathering) economy to a food producing (agro

pastoral) economy. The idea of revolution pertaining to the Neolithic way of life

signifies a major transformation in human cultural adaptation.

Miles Burkitt identified the Neolithic culture with polished tools, animal and

plant domestication. Thus, the ‘Neolithic’ does not denote the use of new tools

(Figure 4.2) alone, but also new modes of adaptation and ways of life.

The introduction of domestication of plants and animals led to the production of

a large quantity of grains and animal food. The food that they produced had to be

stored and hence, pottery-making emerged. They had to settle in open areas away

from caves and thus, houses were built. Large villages developed and permanent

residences were built. Settlements were fenced since the cattle and sheep had to

be protected. These activities gradually led to food surplus and craft specialization.

Because of the food security more people could settle in the villages. Hence, the

cultural developments of this period are termed as Neolithic Revolution.

The surplus food production was one of the main factors for the development of

early urban cultures at a later context. It allowed for the development of various

crafts, urban formations and early states in the succeeding Bronze Age.

NEOLITHIC CULTURES OF INDIA

The Neolithic cultures mark the end of the Stone Age. Neolithic of India constitutes

an important phase. A Neolithic celt was found in India in 1842 by Le Mesurie in

the Raichur district of Karnataka, and later by John Lubbock in 1867 in the

Brahmaputra valley of upper Assam. Extensive explorations and excavations

have yielded immense amount of material about the Neolithic cultures of India.

One thing to note about Indian Neolithic is that Neolithic cultures in India did

not develop everywhere at the same time, nor did they end simultaneously. There

were regional variations too. For example, there is no evidence of plant cultivation

in the north-east despite the sites yielding ‘Neolithic’ tools. In the Kashmir valley
the Neolithic cultures do not seem to have evolved out of the preceding Mesolithic

cultures like everywhere else. In terms of plant crops, wheat and barley were

predominant in Mehrgarh in Baluchistan, but rice was important in the central

region around Prayagraj. The south Indian Neolithic is unique in the sense that it

has ash mounds, with the evidence of millet cultivation. Thus, each of these

regional Neolithic traditions seem to have been conditioned by local, ecological

conditions and need to be studied separately. Broadly, however, we can say that

the Neolithic of India was a farming and pastoralism based sedentary/semi

sedentary village culture.

Now let us discuss the clusters of Neolithic sites that are found in different parts

of India. The Neolithic sites of the Indian subcontinent or South Asia are divided

into various regional cultural groups. They are:

1) North-western region – The areas of Afghanistan and Pakistan.

2) Northern region – The region of Kashmir.

3) The Vindhyan hills and the Ganga valley – Vindhyan region of Prayagraj,

Mirzapur and the Belan river valley.

4) Mid-Eastern Ganga valley region – The area of northern part of Bihar.

5) Central Eastern region – Including the Chotta Nagpur area with Odisha and

Bengal region.

6) North-eastern region – Assam and the sub-Himalayan region.

7) Southern region – Peninsular India, mainly Andhra, Karnataka and parts of

Tamil Nadu.

The Neolithic Culture of North-Western Region

The Neolithic culture of north-western region covers those areas which are now

in Pakistan and Afghanistan. This region has evidence for early domestication of

wheat and barley, and animals. It is one of the earliest regions of the world which

has given combined evidence of plant and animal domestication. On the

peripheries of Central Asia, this region has the natural occurrence of bread wheat

and spelt wheat. Aegilops tauschii, one of the ancestral species of wheat, had its

natural habitat in this region. Thus, the practice of cultivation might have emerged

in this region independently.

exploiting wild sheep, cattle and goat. Wheat cultivation began in Central Asia90

and its adjoining regions. The Kacchi plains are located between the dry mountains

and the Indus plains. The smaller valleys of this region with alluvial deposits

were ideal for cultivation and animal domestication. The important Neolithic

sites of this region are Mehrgarh in the Kacchi plains, Kili Gul Muhammad in

the Quetta valley, Rana Ghundai in the Loralai valley and Anjira in the Surab

valley. All these Neolithic sites are in Pakistan. Other important sites are Gunlan,

Rehman Dheri, Tarakai Qila and Sarai Khola.

Kili Gul Muhammed

The Neolithic site of Kili Gul Muhammed is in the Quetta valley of Pakistan.

This site has revealed three cultural periods. The Neolithic occupation at this

site dates from c. 5500 BCE to 4500 BCE, later than that of Mehrgarh. People

built wattle-and-daub and mud houses. They domesticated cattle, sheep and goat.

Basket marked pottery and black-on-red ware pottery, with painted designs similar

to Mehrgarh, occur in the Periods II and III of this site. This site has evidence of

nomadic pastoralism. Microliths have been recovered.

4.4.2 The Neolithic Culture of Northern Region (Kashmir)

The sites of northern Neolithic culture are found in Kashmir. The Neolithic culture

of Kashmir region was contemporary with the Harappan civilization. Recent

research has placed the beginning of the Neolithic culture in this region around

the late fourth millennium BCE. Excavations at Burzahom, Gufkral and Kanispur

have revealed significant materials belonging to Neolithic culture. Burzahom

and Gufkral have also revealed Megalithic and Early Historic phases.

Burzahom

Burzahom was an important site of this culture. Two cultural periods have been

identified at this site. In the Neolithic period, people lived in pit-houses

(subterranean dwellings, about 4 m in depth) in order to escape from the extreme

cold weather of the Kashmir region. The pit houses were oval in shape, and they

were broader at the bottom and narrower on the top. Post-holes which were used

for constructing a thatched roof structure were found around the pit houses. The
houses were accessed by ladders and steps. They produced coarse handmade

pottery. Storage pits were found near the dwellings. They used tools such as

stone axes, chisels, adzes, pounders, mace-heads, points and picks. They used

scrapers for working on animal skins. Awls were used for stitching the skins into

clothes to adjust to the cold weather. Harpoons, needles and arrow heads made

of bones were used. A stone depicting engraved image of a hunting scene, the

sun and a dog has been found from this site.

These people were involved in hunting, fishing and also limited agriculture.

Evidence of grain storage has been found. A perforated harvester with decoration

has been found at Burzahom. Period II has agate and carnelian beads; Kot Diji

phase pottery depicting a horned deity is an important find. A burial at this site92

produced a wild dog bone and antler horn. Seeds of wheat (Triticum sp.), barley

(Hordeum vulgare), common pea (Pisum arvense L.) and lentil (Lens culinaris)

have been recovered from the excavations. The domesticated animals include

cattle, sheep, goat, pig, dog and fowl. Wild animal bones of red deer, Kashmir

stag, ibex, bear and wolf suggest that they hunted wild animals too for their

subsistence.

Gufkral

The site of Gufkral has evidence of three cultural phases. Settlement started at

this site around 3000 BCE and evidence of pit dwellings has been found. Bones

of sheep, goat, deer, ibex, wolf and bear suggest their dependence on pastoralism

and hunting. Polished stone tools, querns, horn tools and steatite beads reveal

information about the material culture. The site is dated to c.1300 BCE.

The Neolithic culture of Kashmir is considered to have had connections with the

East-Asian Neolithic culture of the Yang Shao phase. Stone knife-harvesters with

perforation recorded at Kashmir valley have parallels in north and central China

with Yang Shao and Lung Shan complexes and the Jomon phase of Japan and

Korea. The Kashmir Neolithic has some distinctive characteristics such as pit

dwellings, use of ‘harvesters’, bone tools made on antlers, dog burials and the

use of red ochre on dead bodies.

4.4.3 The Neolithic Culture of the Vindhyan Hills, the Belan and
the Ganga River Valleys

The Belan river valley witnessed one of the earliest Neolithic occupations in

India. The river Belan flows at the northern edge of the Vindhyan and the Kaimur

hills. This river is a tributary of the river Tons which joins the Ganga near

Prayagaraj (UP). This region has a rich environment, since it falls in the monsoon

area. It has several wild animals and wild rice species. Transition from food

gathering to food production is noticed in this region. The sites of Chopani

Mando, Koldihwa, Lehuradeva and Mahagara in the Ganga valley are the

important excavated sites of this region. These sites have given evidence of wattle

and-daub houses, post-holes, microlithic tools, querns, pestles and underfired

hand-made ceramics. The principal ware is ‘corded ware’ or cord impressed ware

which includes bowls and storage jars. The people were engaged in farming and

animal husbandry. Bones of cattle, sheep, goat, deer, turtles and fish have also

been recovered. At Mahagara, evidence of domesticated rice has been found.

This is in the form of carbonised grains as well as rice husks embedded in the

pottery.

Evidence of rice cultivation from Neolithic sites of Central India is mired in

controversy. While some scholars believe that this evidence from Koldihwa puts

it at par with China in terms of chronology, others believe that the dates need to

be re-examined. One possibility that has been suggested is that rice cultivation

may have travelled along with the migrants from South China to Central India.

Some, however, argue that Central India was an independent centre of rice

cultivation.

4.4.4 The Neolithic Culture of Mid-Eastern Ganga Valley Region

Chirand (on the banks of the river Ghagra in district Saran), Chechar, Senuwar

(near Sasaram) and Taradip have produced evidence for settlements dating from93

The Neolithic Phase

about 2000 BCE. Senuwar has produced evidence of cultivated rice, barley, field

pea (Pisum sativum), lentil and millets. The site of Chirand has produced evidence

of mud floors, pottery, microliths, polished stone axes and terracotta human

figurines. Several bones tools have also been noticed at these sites. People at
Chirand lived in circular and semicircular houses with wattle-and-daub walls;

post holes have been found. Plant remains of rice, wheat, barley, moong and

lentil have been recovered from this site. Perhaps double cropping system existed.

Terracotta figurines of humped bull, birds, and snakes, bangles and beads and

slingstones have been unearthed.

The Neolithic sites of this region also have evidence for transition to the

Chalcolithic as revealed at Sohagaura, Imlidih Khurd, Chirand, Chechar and

Senuwar. The introduction of copper seems to have occurred around the second

half of the third millennium BCE in this region.

4.4.5 The Neolithic Culture of Central-Eastern Region

The Neolithic sites are found at many places in the region of West Bengal and

Odisha. Birbhanpur is an important Neolithic site of this region. The eastern

Indian Neolithic sites have evidence of shouldered axes, pointed-butt celts, and

chisels. Kuchai, Golbaisasan and Sankarjang are some of the important Neolithic

sites of this region. These cultures show similarities with the Neolithic complexes

of east and Southeast Asia. Mace heads, pounders, coarse red ware, cord impressed

pottery, floors, postholes and bones have been found. At Pandu Rajar Dhibi

Neolithic culture had emerged from Mesolithic context.

4.4.6 The Neolithic Culture of North-Eastern India

The hills of Assam and North Chachar, the Garo and Naga hills are high rainfall

areas. Marakdola, Daojali Hading and Sarutaru are the Neolithic sites of Assam

region. Shouldered celts, ground axes of round type and cord-impressed or paddle

impressed pottery with quartz inclusions are the common finds.

In north-eastern India, the Neolithic culture belongs to a slightly later period.

This region today has evidence for shifting cultivation, cultivation of yams and

taro, building stone and wooden memorials for the dead, and the presence of

Austro-Asiatic languages. This region shows cultural affinities with Southeast

Asia.

4.4.7 The Neolithic Culture of South India

The Neolithic cultures of South India are found mainly in Andhra Pradesh,

Karnataka and north-western part of Tamil Nadu. Kupgal, Budihal, Kodekal,

South India. In Tamil Nadu the site of Paiyyampalli has produced evidence of

Neolithic culture. More than 200 Neolithic sites have been identified as part of

the Neolithic complex of South India. The sites are found near the granite hills

with water sources. They occur in the river valleys of Godavari, Krishna, Penneru,

Tungabhadra and Kaveri. Sanganakallu, Kodekal, Budihal, Tekkalakota,

Brahmagiri, Maski, [Link], Piklihal, Watkal, Hemmige and Hallur in

Karnataka; Utnur, Pallavoy, Nagarjunakonda, Ramapuram and Veerapuram in

Andhra Pradesh; and Paiyyampalli in Tamil Nadu are the notable sites.94

Some of the early Neolithic sites have ash mounds. Cow dung was periodically

burnt for a long period of time. These sites might have acted as cattle pens and

the cow dung was burnt periodically for various reasons. Utnur and Pallvoy in

Andhra Pradesh; Kodekal, Kupgal and Budihal in Karnataka are the ash mound

sites. Since the cow dung was burnt repeatedly, the ash is vitrified and looks like

volcanic ash. Soft ash and decomposed cow dung layers are also noticed. The

evidence of habitation in the form of houses and burials are found around the ash

mounds. They buried the dead people within the houses.

The Neolithic people of South India had an agro-pastoral economy. They had

domesticated cattle (Bos indicus), buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), sheep (Ovis aries),

goat (Capra hircus aegagrus), pig (Sus scrofa cristatus), dog (Canis familiaris)

and fowls (Gallus sp.). Cattle were their main source of economy. Terracotta

figurines of cattle have also been found.

The Neolithic people cultivated plants mainly millets, pulses and legumes.

Evidence of the cultivation of finger millet (Eleusine coracana), kodo millet

(Paspalum scrobiculatum), horse gram (Dolichos biflorus), green gram (Vigna

radiata), black gram (Phaseolus mungo) and hyacinth bean (Dolichos lablab) is

present. Barley (Hordeum vulgare) and rice (Oryza sativa) have been found at

very few sites.

The Neolithic people mainly used polished stone axes and lithic blades, choppers,

knives, scrapers and other tools. Copper and bronze artefacts are found in the

later context. They used querns for grinding grains, built thatched houses, and
used handmade grey and brown burnished ware. A few of the pottery had painted

designs, but they are very limited in number.

The site of Budihal (Hunsgi valley) is in Karnataka. This ash mound settlement

site has given evidence of child burial, cattle butchering place, houses and human

burials. Evidence of water harvesting has been identified.

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND BELIEF

SYSTEM

The evidence for understanding the social organization of the Neolithic people

is very limited. People began to live in sedentary and semi sedentary settlements.

They perhaps had tribe level social organization. The idea of land and plant

ownership emerged, as they domesticated plants and animals. The presence of

small houses may suggest nuclear families. The ceramics and beads suggest the

improvement in material cultural production. People had demarcated certain

territories. The dead were buried within the houses and sometimes, animal burials

are also found. They suggest the adoption of certain rituals and the worship of

the dead. They may have worshipped the natural forces. Evidence of art objects

is limited; the terracotta images of cattle suggest some fertility cult.