Form One Lesson

Notes

Complied by
S. Mandivengerei
T. Fukusirayi
1 Edition T. Fukusirayi
st

N. Chitota
SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
TEACHER(S): MR MANDIVENGEREI (0779008739), MR FUKUSIRAYI (0785905851), MR DZINGIRA
(0776690531) AND MR NDLOVU (0778127910), MR CHITOTA (0773262513)
EXAMINATION STRUCTURE
PAPER 1
Multiple choice (40 questions including 12 Map work practice questions)
PAPER 2

SECTION A B C
TOPICS/QUESTIONS 1. Landforms and 6. Environmental 10. Industry
landscape Management 11. Population and
processes 7. Energy and Settlement
2. Weather and Power 12. Transport and
Climate 8. Minerals and Trade
3. Map work and Mining
Geographical 9. Agriculture
Information and Land
System (GIS) Reform
4. Ecosystems
5. Natural
Resources
SELECTION Choose one question Choose one question Choose one question
CRITERIA
NB Choose the fourth question from the section of your choice

SUBJECT/SYLLABUS STRUCTURE

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY HUMAN AND ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY

1. Landforms and Landscape processes 1. Environmental Management
2. Weather and Climate 2. Energy and Power Development
3. Map work and Geographical 3. Minerals and Mining
Information System (GIS) 4. Agriculture and Land Reform
4. Ecosystems 5. Industry
5. Natural Resources 6. Population and Settlement
7. Transport and Trade

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
1. Two Homeworks per week
2. One exercise per week
3. Two revision tests per month (One test per Fortnight)

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

WHAT IS GEOGRAPHY
 Geography involves the study of the earth and man’s interaction with his environment
Importance of studying Geography
 Enable people to understand their environment
NB: Environment refers to people’s surroundings
 Gives people a chance to understand global issues
 Allows different societies to plan for the future
 Enable people to develop critical thinking skills
Employment Opportunities Associated with Geography
 Teacher/Lecturer
 Land Surveyor
 Urban Planner
 Geopolitical analyst
 Demographer
 Geologist
 GIS Developer
 Environmental Planner
 Environmental Consultant
 Meteorologist
TOPIC 1: WEATHER AND CLIMATE
Objectives
By the end of this topic, l should be able to:
 Distinguish between weather and climate
 Match weather elements with their respective measuring instruments
 Describe the factors affecting the location of a weather station
 Describe and explain features of a Stevenson screen
 Interpret synoptic symbols
 interpret weather data
 Illustrate the formation of relief, frontal and convectional rainfall using diagrams
 Explain the importance of weather forecasting
 Outline various Indigenous Knowledge Systems used in predicting weather
Weather: Refers to the daily condition of the atmosphere in a given place
Climate: Refers to the average conditions of the atmosphere observed over a long period of time
Main differences between weather and climate

WEATHER CLIMATE
Can change anytime during the day Gradually changes over a long period of time eg
30 years
Can be different between places in the same Covers a large area for example Sahara desert
area (eg it can be raining in Mabvuku and dry
in Highfields)

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

 Weather changes can be easily observed Climate change is a complex phenomena

Weather elements and their measuring instruments

WEATHER ELEMENT MEASURING INSTRUMENT MEASURING UNIT

Rainfall Rain gauge Millimeters
Air temperature Six’s thermometer Degrees Celsius
Humidity Hygrometer Percentages
Cloud cover Eye observation/ Ceilometer Oktas
Sunshine Sunshine recorder/ Heliograph Sunshine hours
Wind direction Wind Vane Cardinal Points
Wind speed Cup Anemometer Knots or Km/hour
Atmospheric pressure Mercury/Aneroid Barometer Milibars

Temperature
 Temperature refers to the degree of hotness or coldness of the air
 The highest temperature recorded during the day is called Maximum temperature while the
lowest temperature recorded is called minimum temperature
 Maximum thermometer measures the maximum temperature and it uses mercury
 A minimum thermometer measures minimum temperature and it uses alcohol
 A six’s thermometer is an instrument used to measure both maximum and minimum
temperature
Working mechanism of a six’s thermometer
 This is a U-shaped glass tube that combines the maximum thermometer and the minimum
thermometer
 When temperature rises, mercury expands and pushes the metal index up the left tube
 The metal index is pushed up to the highest temperature point reached on that day
 When temperature falls, alcohol contracts back into the bulb on the right tube, pulling the
metal index
 The metal index is pulled down to the lowest temperature reading for that particular day.
 When reading temperature one should look at one end of the metal index usually in contact
with mercury.

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

Rainfall
 Rain refers to liquid water falling from the atmosphere
 It is one of the examples of precipitation alongside others such as hail, sleet, snow, fog, mist
and drizzle.
 A rain gauge is an instrument used to measure rainfall
 It consists of a 13cm wide funnel that collects rain drops into a collecting cylinder
 When the collecting can overflows, the outer casing collects excess rain water
 Each time, the collecting can is emptied and water is poured into the measuring cylinder for
recording.
Characteristics of a rain gauge
 Has a 13cm wide funnel
 Either made of brass or copper to prevent rust
 It is put next to a measuring cylinder marked in millimeters
 Raised at least one metre from the ground
 It has an overflow can that collects water when the collecting can is full

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

Humidity
 Humidity refers to a measure of the amount of water vapour in the lower atmosphere
 Warm air can hold more water vapor than cold air
 The air is said to be saturated when it can’t hold any more water vapor at the given temperature
 When the air is saturated there is a greater chance that it will rain
 A hygrometer is used to measure humidity
Working principle of a hygrometer

 It consist of a dry bulb thermometer and a wet bulb thermometer

 A wet bulb thermometer is wrapped with a muslin cloth, dipped in distilled water
 Distilled water evaporates through the muslin cloth if the air is dry causing temperature to drop
on the wet bulb thermometer
 The greater the difference between wet bulb temperature and dry bulb temperature, the drier
the air
NB: Evaporation is less likely to occur if the air is saturated.

Calculating Relative Humidity

 Relative humidity refers to the percentage of water vapour held by the air at a given
temperature in relation to its potential capacity
Depression X 100
 RH= 100 - ( 𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑏 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝
)
 A relative humidity closer to 100% shows that the air is moist while a lower relative
humidity indicates that the air is dry
Dry bulb 0c Wet bulb 0c Depression 0c RH % Meaning
26 26 0 100% Air is saturated
30 25 5 83% Air is moist
32 15 17 47% Air is dry

Atmospheric Pressure
 Pressure is the weight of air that is exerted on the earth’s surface
 Air pressure is influenced by temperature, air movement and altitude for example:

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

  Sinking air causes high pressure while rising air causes low pressure
 Warm air is less dense hence it causes low pressure while cold air is denser thus it
causes high pressure
 In valleys pressure tends to be higher but on mountain summits pressure drops
 A mercury barometer and aneroid barometer are used to measure atmospheric pressure
 Pressure is measured in millimeters which are converted to milibars on the basis that
760mm=1013mb
NB: 760mm or 1013mb is the normal atmospheric pressure or barometric pressure.

Working principle of a mercury barometer

 A mercury barometer consists of a glass jar filled with mercury and a marked glass tube
with its open end dipped in mercury
 When pressure increases, mercury rises up the glass tube
 As pressure drops, mercury sinks.
 When pressure is 1013milibars, mercury stays at 760milimeters inside the glass tube.

Wind
 Wind refers to air in motion
 Air moves from the region of high pressure to a region of low pressure and this determines
wind direction
 Pressure gradient influences wind speed.
Wind Speed
 Wind speed is measured by a cup anemometer
 It is measured in knots where 1 knot= 1.85km/hour
 Highest wind speeds are recorded during tropical cyclones
Working principle of a cup anemometer
 It has three horizontal arms fixed to a rotor with little metal cups at each end
 The cups catch the wind and this spins the rotor
 The rotor connects to a digital speedometer which displays how fast wind is moving
 The cup anemometer is placed high above the ground where wind moves freely

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

 rotor

Beaufort Scale
 This scale shows the effects of wind on different surfaces
 It focuses on wind speed
 The strength of the wind of a certain speed is shown by its effects on items such as trees and
buildings

Wind direction
 A wind vane is used to measure wind direction using cardinal points
 On the wind vane, the arrow points the direction from which wind is coming
 Easterly wind refers to wind blowing from the east not wind going to the east and so on.
 Wind that generally blow from the same direction is called prevailing wind while that which
is seasonal is called monsoon wind.
 Wind blowing from one region into another region is called trade wind

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

Recording wind direction
 A graph called a wind rose is used to record wind direction for a given period
 The number of days wind blew from a given direction is indicated by the number of bars
facing that direction
 Calm days are recorded at the centre of the graph
 One can also use a line rose instead.
 The length of a line pointing a given direction shows the length of time wind blew from that
side.

Line rose

Cloud cover
 Clouds are small droplets of condensed or frozen water suspended in the atmosphere
 The dew point is the temperature that makes water vapour condense at the given pressure
 Cloud cover varies from clear to overcast and it is measured in oktas
 When the sky can’t be clearly seen it is said to be obscured
 An instrument called ceilometer is used to measure cloud cover
 However traditionally, people used their naked eyes to estimate cloud cover

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

 Cloud Types
 Clouds are classified according to height, shape and composition for example:
 Some clouds are heaped, wispy or layered
 Some clouds are low level, middle level or high level
 Some clouds are made of liquid water droplets while others are made of ice crystals
 However the main classification is based on height as summarised below
LOW LEVEL CLOUDS MIDDLE LEVEL CLOUDS HIGH LEVEL CLOUDS
EXAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE CHACTERISTICS EXAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS
Stratus  Fog-like and Altocumulus  Made of Cirrostratus  Thin, white
layered water transparent
droplets, flat sheets of
based, clouds
mixture of
white and
grey colors
Nimbostratus  Dark-grey, Altostratus  Flat uniform Cirrocumulus  Composed of ice
thick and texture crystals.
shapeless  Bluish-grey in  Made up of
 Associated color small cloudlets
with prolonged  Can cover the arranged in
rain entire sky. ripples
Stratocumulus  Bumpy-looking, flat Cirrus  Hair-like, wispy
base and grey in white clouds.
color  Whiter than any
other cloud at
daytime
HEIGHT FROM THE GROUND SURFACE
0 to 2km Between 2km and 5 km Between 6km and 12 km
CUMULONIMBUS CLOUD:
 Very tall.
 Extent from low level up to 10km.
 Usually grey at the base indicating water and white at the top indicating ice crystals
 Associated with convectional rainfall (thunderstorms, heavy rains, lightning)
 Usually appears after a hot day or in summer

Appearance of clouds

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

NOTE: Drawing of clouds is not necessary. However facilitators should print out the collage below
and give to each learner. Learners ought to see how these clouds look like and name, as well as
describing them.

Taken from IGCSE Garrett Nagle page 145

Cloud symbols

Recording Sunshine
 A sunshine recorder is used to measure the number of hours of undisturbed sunshine per day
 A sunshine duration describes how many hours a place received sunshine as a percentage of the
total possible
 When an area that normally receives 12 hours of sunshine happen to receive only 6 hours on a
particular day, the sunshine duration will be 50%

Working principle of a sunshine recorder

 The sunshine recorder has a glass sphere that focuses sun’s rays on a waxy-marked card.

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

 The card is divided into 12 segments covered with sensitive material or waxy
 If the area receives 5 hours of sunshine, five segments of the waxy will be melted and so on.
 If the is no sun, there is no trace on the card.

The Stevenson Screen

 This is a shelter where sensitive weather instruments are kept at the weather station.
 The most sensitive instruments kept in this shelter include Six’s thermometer, hygrometer
and barometer
Characteristics of a Stevenson screen
What it looks like/description Why it looks that way/explanation
It has slatted or louvered sides For free air circulation
Mainly made of wood To prevent heat absorption
Located away from trees and structures To prevent recording of shadow temperature
Painted white To reflect heat from the sun
Raised at least 1.5m from the ground To prevent recording ground temperature
Door faces south To keep sun’s rays away from instruments
Double roofed To regulate inside temperature

The weather station

 This is an open area where weather elements are observed or measured
 Zimbabwe’s main weather station is in Belvedere
Factors considered when siting a weather station
 It is located away from structures and trees for accurate measurements
 It should be fenced or guarded to protect instruments from vandalism and theft
 The ground should be levelled to make accurate readings
 It has a grass covered surface to reduce heat absorption and reflection

Synoptic symbols
 These are shapes and figures used to summarise weather conditions in different places
 Synoptic symbols show the following:
 Precipitation and rainfall types

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

  Cloud types
 Wind speed and direction
 Cloud cover
 The diagram below shows some of the synoptic symbols commonly used in weather studies

Weather Data
 These are calculations done in order to make conclusions, forecasts or precautions about
weather.
Importance of weather data
 Improve the accuracy of weather predictions
 Allows the comparison between weather events
 Facilitate proper planning to reduce weather related hazards
 Helps people to understand weather patterns better

1. Temperature
 The main temperature calculations are

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

 a) Daily temperature Range
 This is the difference between maximum temperature and minimum
temperature for a particular day
 Calculated as: 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 – 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
b) Mean Daily temperature
 Refers to the average temperature for a given day
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝+𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝
 Calculated as: 2
2. Mean Annual Rainfall
 This is the average rainfall received in a year
 It is calculated as a total amount of rainfall received throughout the year divided
by 12 months
NB: Weather data can be summarised on a map by the use of isolines. Isolines are imaginary lines
drawn on a map to connect points or places with the same value. Isolines representing different
data are given different names as follow:
Isoline Weather element represented
Isohyet Rainfall
Isoneph Cloud cover
Isobar Pressure
Isotherm Temperature
Isohume Humidity
Isotach Wind speed
Isohel sunshine

Precipitation
 This refers to water falling from the atmosphere in different forms
 Types of precipitation include the following:
a) Rain- liquid water falling from the atmosphere
b) Hail – ice particles of more than 5mm in diameter that fall in stormy weather
c) Drizzle – small droplets of water, less than 0.5mm in diameter falling in liquid form
d) Sleet – it is when water falls in form of liquid mixed with snow flakes
e) Snow- very small and white ice crystals falling in cold regions such as Alaska and
Russia
f) Fog and Mist- these are small droplets of condensed water vapor suspended in air
near the ground. Fog reduces visibility to just 1km while mist reduces visibility to
2km or longer.
Rain formation process
 Rainfall occurs when liquid water reaches the earth’s surface from the atmosphere
 Evaporation of water from water bodies make the surrounding air moist.
 When moist air rises it condenses to form small droplets of water/ice called clouds
 With time these water droplets join to form bigger and denser water drops which fall to the
ground as rain.

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

Rainfall types
 There are three main types of rainfall namely relief, frontal and convectional
 What causes moist air to rise determines these rainfall types

Relief rainfall
 This is also called orographic rainfall
 It is associated with physical features of the area for example mountains and valleys
 When moist air gets blocked by a physical barrier, it rises, expands and cools to form thick
clouds which eventually forms rain
 The windward side is that which forced air to rise while the leeward side is where air
descends
 The leeward side is usually dry and warm while the windward side is wet and cool

Convectional rainfall
 The intense heating of the air during the day causes it to lighten up, rise and eventually
condense to form cumulonimbus clouds.
 Convectional rainfall is associated with thunderstorms, lightning and strong wind
 This type of rain is usually received in summer due to the high temperatures during this
period

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

 Frontal rainfall
 This is also called cyclonic rainfall
 When warm air and cold air meet, warm moist air is forced to rise above cold air
NB: Warm air is normally lighter and weaker than cold air
 This happens at a low pressure area named a front or depression.

Weather forecasting
 Refers to the prediction of future atmospheric conditions
Importance of weather forecasting
 Weather forecasting is useful to the following categories of people:
Categories Importance of weather forecasting
Educational institutions  Enable schools to plan their trips
 Give teachers time to prepare teaching
aids
Government Ministries and NGOs  Allows the government to prepare for
possible weather hazards to minimize
death and economic losses
 It gives NGOs and Ministry of Social
Welfare amble time to prepare food aid
Tourists  Tourists can plan their visiting dates
according to the predicted weather
Farmers  Allow farmers to draft their farming
calendars in response to anticipated
weather

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

 Community members  It enables the general public to plan
their daily activities accordingly
 Enable households to start planning for
food stocks for livestock and families
Aviation department  Aviation teams can design flight
timetables based on predicted weather

Using Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Weather Forecasting

 Indigenous Knowledge Systems are traditional methods used to understand weather in
different communities.
 People observe, terrestrial objects, animal behaviour and plants to guess the future
weather conditions
 However this information may vary from place to place
 NB: IKSs are known as myths because they cannot be proven nor explained scientifically
Examples of IKSs used in Zimbabwe
 When rock rabbits (mbira) squeak unusually, it signals that rain is imminent
 Appearance of bullfrogs (ma dzetse) in large numbers means a good rain season
 Singing of crickets (nyenze) signals the imminence of rain
 Rain birds (mashuramurove) flying to a certain area is a sign that there will be rain soon
 If Muhacha tree bears many fruits than usual there will be drought
 Blossoming of non-fruit trees such as Musasa means the onset of rain season
 Shedding of leaves by many trees is a sign that winter has started
 Appearance of a rainbow (Murarabungu) in the sky signals the end of a rainfall event
 The hallow around the sun (dziva remvura) is a good sign that more rain is coming
 The Karanga people believe that when wind blows from the south (Masakandikambure) a
heavy rain should be expected.

ASSESSMENT TASKS

1. a) What is Geography? [2]

b) Give 4 reasons for studying geography. [4]
2. Draw a table that shows three differences between weather and climate. [6]
3. The table below is incomplete without weather instruments. Copy and complete the table.
Weather element Weather instrument
Rainfall
Temperature
Humidity
Pressure
Wind speed
Wind direction
Sunshine
Cloud cover
[8]
4. Draw and label a rain gauge. [6]
5. Draw a well labelled diagram of a wind vane. [6]
6. Use the following data to draw a wind rose. [6]

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

 Wind direction Calm days North East South East East South
Number of days 1 10 5 10 5
7. What is humidity? [2]
8. Calculate relative humidity using the information below [6]
Dry bulb temperature Wet bulb temperature Depression
34 28 6
25 24 1

9. Draw synoptic symbols for

1. 2 oktas [2]
2. 5 oktas [2]
3. 7 oktas [2]
10. Name 3 examples of
a) Low level clouds [3]
b) High level clouds [3]
11. List 6 types of precipitation. [6]
12. Draw synoptic symbols for the following
a) Sleet[2]
b) Thunder[2]
c) Showers [2]
13. Draw a well labelled diagram showing relief rainfall. [6]
14. Describe and explain the characteristics of a Stevenson screen. [8]
15. Use the following table to answer questions that follow
Maximum temperature 0C Minimum temperature 0C
Monday 27 19
Tuesday 28 21
a) Calculate daily temperature range for Monday. [2]
b) What was the mean daily temperature on Tuesday? [4]
16. a) What is weather forecasting? [2]
b) Give the importance of weather forecasting to the following groups
i. Tourists [1]
ii. Government [1]
iii. Farmers [1]
iv. General public [1]
17. Outline the indigenous knowledge systems used in predicting weather. [6]

TOPIC 2: LANDFORMS AND LANDSCAPE PROCESSES

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

Objectives
By the end of this topic, I should be able to:
 Identify landforms
 Describe landforms
 Explain the benefits of landforms
 Differentiate between landforms and landscape

Landforms- These are natural features found on the land’s surface. They are also called relief
features

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LANDFORM AND LANDSCAPE

LANDFORMS LANDSCAPES
landform refers to the natural feature of the A landscape is an extensive scenery that can be
land ‘surface seen in a single view
e.g. a hill, waterfall, pass, valley e.g. mountainous landscape, flat landscape,
farming landscape, rural landscape

1. HILL AND MOUNTAINS

2. CONICAL HILLS AND KNOLLS

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

  Conical hills are cone-shaped and rounded features
 A much smaller conical hill is called a knoll or hillock

3. DWALAS/RUWARES

 These are large domes of bare rock which are mostly composed of granite rock.

4. KOPJES/KOPPIES

 These are hills with rocky outcrops on the sides and summit.
 Some kopjes or rock occurs as balancing rocks.
 Matobo hills is a good example of kopjes in Zimbabwe

5. RIDGES

 Ridges are formed where mountains and hills form an elongated highland with steep sides.
 Ridges have several summits
 They may have a sharp top (knife-tipped)

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

 6. PLATEAUS

 These are extensive landforms with flat or undulating surfaces.

 Their sides fall steep on all sides
 A plateau covers an extensive area (large area)
7. BORNHARDTS
 These are tall, steep sided hills made uniformly of bare rock
 The usually have a rounded top with joints and cracks

Learners to sketch this feature in their notebooks

PASSES

 Passes are deep depressions between two peaks of the same mountain
 Passes are used as natural routes through which roads are built
 The Harare- Mutare highway navigated through the Christmas Pass.

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

SADDLES
 Refers to shallow depressions connecting two uplands

Diagram
GAPS
 These are low-lying valleys which pass through a range of hills or mountains
 A large river often occupy the lowest point along the gap
 Roads and railway lines can be constructed along gaps

RIVER FEATURES

UPPER COURSE MIDDLE LOWER COURSE

COURSE

 As rivers flow, the water erodes the soil on the river beds and river bank
 Both erosion and deposition changes the river’s shape from its source to its mouth

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

RIVER FEATURES IN THE UPPER COURSE

1. VALLEYS AND INTERLOCKING SPURS

 Interlocking spurs are uplands or portions of hard rock outcrops which disturb the flow of
the river.
 They are formed where a river is forced to swing from side to side around more resistant
uplands

2. WATERFALLS

Key
A- Overlying
hard rock

B- Underlying
softer rock

C- Plunge pool

D- Gorge

 This is point of sudden break in gradient along the river channel

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

  They form when a softer rock underlying the harder rock is eroded more quickly than the
harder rock
 The harder rock is undercut and it finally collapses to form a water fall.
 The waterfall retreats upstream leaving a gorge eg Batoka gorge.
 The most famous waterfall in Zimbabwe is the Victoria falls (108metres high)

3. RAPIDS

 Rapids are formed on the river bed when hard rocks are exposed in the course of the fast-
flowing river channel
 The water flow over and around the hard rocks.
 Rapids form white water when the water bubbles and rushes, making it look white and
frothy

4. RIVER GORGES AND CANYONS

 Gorges are steep sided river valleys with sharp V- or U-shaped cross section
 Examples in Zimbabwe include Batoka Gorge below the Victoria falls (95km long with
270metres in height), Popoteke Gorge along Mutirikwi river in Masvingo, Kariba Gorge
(25km long)
 Canyons are steep, narrow valleys with a river flowing at the base.
 They are formed when a river erode flat surfaced plateaus
 Canyons are commonly formed in areas with a dry climate such as Arizona in the US and in
Namibia

FEATURES IN THE MIDDLE COURSE

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

1. Meanders (Learners to draw this diagram.)
 Meanders are curved sections along the river channel in which the water flows in a winding
course
 They form due to reduced river speed, gentle slope or presence of obstacles along the river
channel.

2. Ox-bow lakes
 This is an isolated crescent-shaped body of water
 They are formed when lateral erosion cuts off the meander neck creating a straight
channel

RIVER FEATURES IN THE LOWER COURSE

1. RIVER BRAIDS

 These are small islands or sand deposits between adjoining streams.

 They are formed when the main river channel is divided into several streams
 Eventually the islands can be occupied by grass and shrubs or destroyed by floods

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

 2. DELTAS

 Deltas are points where the river split into numerous distributaries which find their way
into the sea
 They are formed as a result of river deposition at the river mouth

3. LEVEES AND FLOOD PLAINS

 Levees are elevated river banks which form when the river is flooded
 Levees are formed due to the deposition of some sediments on the river banks when the
river overflows its bank
 On the other hand, a flood plain refers to a gently sloping surface covered with deposited
alluvium
 They are only covered with water when the river overflows its banks

BENEFITS OF LANDFORMS
a) Uplands are sources of minerals
b) Uplands provide fire wood, fruits and animals for meat
c) Levees protect people from floods
d) Mountain sides are suitable for tea, timber production
e) Uplands facilitate relief rainfall eg Eastern Highlands
f) Waterfalls and rivers themselves can be used for hydroelectricity generation
g) Uplands, gorges, waterfalls are tourist attraction sites
h) Rivers and ox-bow lakes provide irrigation water for farming
i) Levees protect settlements and farmlands from floods
j) Rivers and mountain ranges can be used as political boundaries between countries
k) Passes and gaps allow for the construction of roads to connect places eg Christmas pass
l) Rivers and uplands provide shelter for animals
m) Rapids are used for sporting activities eg white water rafting

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

 n) Rivers provide river sand
o) Etc.

ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. a) Give one difference between landform and landscape. [4]
b) List three landforms found in Zimbabwe. [3]
2. State one place where castle kopjes are found in Zimbabwe. [1]
3. Draw well labelled diagrams for the following features
a) Hill [2]
b) Castle kopje [2]
c) Dwala [2]
4. Differentiate between a hill and a mountain. Use a table to present your answer. [6]

5.
6. List 5 benefits of landforms in Zimbabwe. [5]
7. Draw and label levees and flood plains. [6]

TOPIC 3: ECOSYSTEMS
Objectives
By the end of this topic, I should be able to:
 Describe a system
 Define an ecosystem
 Identify components of an ecosystem
 Draw and interpret food chains, food webs and food pyramids
 Identify the components of micro ecosystems and explain their linkages

Ecosystem
 It is a community of organisms interacting with each other
 It is the interdependence between biotic and abiotic components in an environment
 An ecosystem consists of biotic and abiotic components

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

Components of an Ecosystem
a) Biotic components
 These are living things found in an ecosystem
 Examples of biotic components include plants ,animals ,bacteria, fungi
b) Abiotic components
 These are nonliving things in an ecosystem
 Examples of abiotic components include rocks, water ,sunlight, air, temperature, humidity
humus

Differences between Biotic and Abiotic Components of an Ecosystem

BIOTIC COMPONENTS ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
 These are living things  These are non – living things
 Examples include plants ,animals  Examples include soil, water, rocks
,bacteria ,fungi ,humus ,minerals

Micro ecosystems
 These are smaller environments where organisms interact with each other
 Examples of micro-ecosystem include a garden, pond, rotten tree trunk
 Every ecosystem has inputs ,processes and outputs
Components Of A Micro-Ecosystem
INPUTS (things going into the system)
 Precipitation
 Heat/solar energy
 Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere

PROCESSES (this describes what happens in the system)

 Photosynthesis
 Pollination
 Feeding
 Decomposition
OUTPUTS (things coming out of the system)
 Organic matter
 Precipitation from evapotranspiration
 Plant germination
 Healthy plants from the use of inputs

Interaction of the Components In An Ecosystem

 There are different types of interactions such as symbiotic and parasitic interaction
 Symbiotic interaction - all the organisms interacting will benefit from each other
 Parasitic interaction – one organism takes advantage of the other when interacting eg a tick
feeding on animal blood.

Interaction Of Organisms In An Ecosystem

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

  The sun is the source of energy
 It is used by plants to make food
 Plants are producers or autotrophs
 All animals are consumers in an ecosystem
 These animals can be primary consumers ,secondary consumers and tertiary consumers
 Primary consumers feed on plants directly eg herbivores like goat ,cattle and sheep
 Secondary consumers feed on herbivores eg carnivores like lion
 Tertiary consumers are those that feed on both plants and animals and are also called
omnivores (they eat both primary and secondary consumers
 Decomposers break down and cause the decaying of dead plants and animal matter

Food Chains and Food Webs

 A food chain is a simple diagram showing how energy is transferred from one organism to
another.
 The arrow in a food chain point to an organisms which eats one behind the arrow
 It starts with the producer and ends with decomposers
 Take note that in all cases plants are source of which is then passed to other organisms

Food Web
 Food webs are more complex than food chains
 In reality ,one organism may feed on a number of organisms and is also a prey to a number
of organisms
 This gives a more complex structure of interaction amongst organisms
 A human being ,for example feeds on plants ,birds and other animals
 A lion eat a number of animals including a human being
 Zebra is a prey to a number of carnivores and omnivores
 These interactions are shown clearly using a food web such as shown below

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

Food Pyramids

 Energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next

 Some of the energy is lost through respiration ,decay and heat given off
 From the producer, the next level is primary consumer followed by secondary consumer
 The final level is composed of tertiary which feeds on secondary consumer
 The amount of energy found in this trophic level is very small as compared to other levels
 The amount of energy available decreases at every level and each level.

Assessment Tasks
1. a) Define the term ecosystem [2]
b) Give any two biotic and two abiotic components of an ecosystem [4]
1. Define the term micro-ecosystem [2]
2. 2. Outline components of a micro-ecosystem [3]
3. 3. Outline the importance of animals in an ecosystem [5]
4. State the role of water and micro-organisms in an ecosystem [6]
5. Give an example of the following
i. producer [1]
ii. herbivore [1]
iii. carnivore [1]

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

 iv. Omnivore [1]
v. Insectivore [1]
vi. Decomposer [1]
vii. scavenger [1]
6. Outline the role of sunlight and vegetation in an ecosystem [6]
7. Show the difference between a food web and a food chain [5]
8. Draw a simple food chain [6]
9. Draw a food web [6]
10. Draw and label a food pyramid [6]

TOPIC 4: NATURAL RESOURCES

Objectives
By the end of this topic, I should be able to:
 Define the term natural resources
 Classify resources into renewable and non-renewable
 Describe the sustainable ways of extracting resources

Natural Resource
 It is anything found in nature and is of potential use to man e.g. soil, water and trees.

Types Of Natural Resources

 Natural resources can be classified into renewable and non-renewable resources
Renewable resources
 It is any resource that can be exploited without being finished
 It is constantly replenished
 Examples include waves ,wind power ,animals ,water ,sunlight ,vegetation ,wind
Non-renewable resources
 They form slowly or do not naturally form in the environment
 Once used they deplete/cannot be regenerated
 Examples include soil ,oil ,rocks ,petroleum ,diamond and natural gas
Difference between renewable and non-renewable resources
Renewable resources Non renewable resources
 These resources can be regenerated  These resources may not be
/replenished replenished
 Low carbon emissions  It has high carbon emission
/environmentally friendly /environmentally unfriendly
 These are energy sources which cannot  These are energy sources which can be
be exhausted exhausted

Sustainable use of resources

 It refers to the wise use of the available resources
Water
 This is one of the major natural resources as it support plant and animal life
Uses of water
 Domestic use (cooking /drinking )
 Agricultural (farming )

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

  Industrial (manufacturing /cooling machines )
 Recreation (swimming /rafting)
Conservation of water
 Repair all broken water pipes
 Turn off tap when not in use
 Use of gutters to capture water runoff from roof tops
 Install a water meter
 Construction of dams to store water
Soil
 It is another important natural resource
 Soil is composed of many different particles and nutrients which help plants to grow
Soil conservation methods
 Terracing (method of growing trees on hill sides)
 Crop rotation
 Mulching of crops
 Afforestation
 Paddocking
Forests
 Forests are necessary to preserve the ecology of the world
 Forests play an important role in providing clean air and the timber we use for roofing
houses
Conservation of forests
 Regulated and planned cutting of trees
 Use of fire guards
 Reforestation
 Afforestation
 Educating people on the importance of conserving trees
Fish
 In most communities fish is a source of protein
 For sustainability fish needs to be conserved
Sustainable use of fish resources
 Use of fishing hooks rather than nets
 Catching mature fish only
 Using nets with large holes to enable smaller fish to escape
 Fishing away from breeding grounds
 Police patrols to curb poaching
 Educating people on ways of conserving fish resources

Typical examination questions

1. Define the term natural resource and give any example of such a resource [5]
2. Outline ways that can be done to conserve forests [5]
3. Give any 3 renewable resources and 3 non-renewable resources
4. What is the difference between renewable and non-renewable resources? [4]
5. 2. Explain the term natural resource conservation [2]
6. 3. Outline the measures used to conserve soil in your area [5]

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

 7. 4. Name any 5 ways of conserving water [5]
8. 5. Suggest five benefits of a dam to the local people [5]

TOPIC 5: ENERGY AND POWER

Objectives
By the end of this topic, I should be able to
- List types of energy
- Identify energy uses
- Describe uses of energy
- Distinguish between renewable and non –renewable sources of energy
- State factors affecting siting of power plants
- Describe the siting of power plants
- Explain the environmental impact of different types of energy
- Outline measures to mitigate environmental impacts of different types of energy
Energy
 Is the ability to perform a task
 there are two major power plants which provide energy for both domestic and industrial
use in Zimbabwe
 these include Hwange thermal power station and Kariba hydro-electric power
 Hwange thermal power station uses coal which is a non-renewable resource
 other thermal power stations include Harare, Munyati, Bulawayo
 Kariba hydro-electric power station uses water which is a renewable source of energy
Energy Sources
 Energy sources can be renewable or non- renewable
 Renewable resources can replenish themselves or they can be used more than once
 Nonrenewable resources cannot regenerate; they exhaust once used
Renewable energy sources Non renewable energy sources
Solar Oil
Biogas Coal
Water Petroleum
Wood fuel Natural gas
Wind Uranium
Geothermal Nuclear

Types of energy and their sources

Energy type Energy source
Solar Sun
Hydro-electric Running water
Biogas Cow dung
Wood fuel Trees
Wind power Air in motion
Fossil fuel Animal and plant remains
Nuclear Uranium

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

Uses of energy
 Used for charging devices eg mobile phones
 For cooling purpose
 For heating purpose
 For powering stoves and refrigerators
 For curing tobacco
 For security purpose eg powering electric fences
 For lighting purpose
Siting of power plants
Factors to consider when siting a hydro-electric power station
 Fast flowing water
 Presence of a waterfall/gorge
 Perennial flow of water
 A narrow valley
 Impermeable bed rock
 Stable geological conditions
How HEP is generated
 Fast flowing water pass through the penstock
 Fast flowing water turns the turbine
 The turbine will then turn on the generator
 The generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy
 Electricity is then transmitted to homes via transmission lines to homes
Hydro-electric power generation diagram

Factors considered when siting a Thermal Power Station

 Nearness to coal
 Huge deposits of coal
 A continuous supply of water to cool machines
 A large flat land

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

How Thermal Power is generated
 Coal is burnt to produce heat
 Heat is used to boil water
 The heated water produce steam
 Steam is used to turn the turbines
 The turbines turn on the generator
 The generator produces electricity
 Electricity is transmitted to homes via transmission lines

Thermal Power Plant Diagram

Nuclear Power
Factors considered when siting a Nuclear power station
 A flat land
 Away from residential areas
 Where there is water for cooling

How Nuclear power is generated

 process called nuclear fission occurs inside a nuclear reactor which produces heat
 this process requires uranium rods and water
 Heating produces steam
 Steam is used to turn the turbines
 The turbines turn on the generator
 The generator converts kinetic energy into electrical energy
 Electricity is transmitted to consumers via transmission lines

Nuclear power plant diagram

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

Geothermal power generation
 This is the energy that is extracted from hot rocks or hot water beneath the earth’s surface
 It is sited in areas near plate boundaries where volcanic activity is common for example
Iceland’s largest source of energy comes from geothermal power.

Diagram showing Geothermal power generation

Solar Power Generation

 Sun hits the solar photovoltaic cells or PV Cells
 Solar panel then converts sunlight energy into electrical energy
 Energy is stored in the battery
 Battery is connected to the inverter which converts DC to AC
 Then electricity is transmitted to the gadgets or connected to the national grid

Environmental impact of different types of energy

 The generation and use of different types of energy can cause environmental damage
 Use of coal and oil causes air pollution
 Cutting down of trees for firewood causes deforestation
 Use of fossil fuels causes global warming

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

  Cutting down of trees leads to soil erosion
 Energy sources that are pollutant cause respiratory diseases
 The use of fossil fuels has also contributed to climate change

Mitigation of environmental impacts of different types of energy

 Reforestation
 Afforestation
 Education
 Legislation
 Punish offenders publicly
 Use of tsotso stoves
 Use of solar energy
 Use of international protocols and conventions
Typical examinations questions
1. Define the term energy [2]
2. Identify the uses of energy in agriculture [4]
3. List any 3 renewable sources of energy and 3 non-renewable sources of energy [6]
4. Give any 4 types of energy and their sources [8]
5. Describe how the following types of energy are generated. [12]
i Hydro-electric power
ii Thermal power
iii Nuclear power
6. Why the use of solar energy has overtaken the energy market in Zimbabwe? [5]

TOPIC 6: MAP WORK AND GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Objectives
By the end of this topic, learners should be able to:
 Define a map
 List the components of a good map
 Outline the characteristics of the major types of maps
 Determine the latitude and longitude of a point in degrees
 Establish the longitude and latitude of a point using metres
 Explain the concept of scale
 Outline the types of scale
 Draw universal symbols
 Interpret universal symbols on maps
 Explain the concept of direction
 Measure the distance using various methods
 Estimate area on maps using grid squares

What is a map?
 This is a representation of an area drawn to scale on a piece of paper
 People who draw maps are called cartographers
 Drawing of maps is called cartography

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

Components of a good map
 A good map has the following components:

1. Title
o The title describes what a map shows
o It also shows the area for which the map was drawn
o It is usually written on top of the map in large font for easy identification
2. Legend
o The legend is also called a key
o It shows what the symbols drawn on a map represent
o On a map features are represented by lines, shapes and different shades and colors
o Without the legend, map readers cannot tell the features shown on the map
3. Scale
o This is a proportion by which real features are reduced to fit on a piece of paper
o A good map should have a scale showing the actual distance of features on the
ground
o Therefore, all good maps are drawn to scale
4. Direction
o A good map should have a north arrow showing the direction of the north
o All the other directions are determined from the north
o The top of the map page is usually the north, thus the right is east, left is west and
bottom is the south
5. Grid
o Maps are divided by latitude and longitude which enable interpreters to determine
the location of features
o These lines form a network called a graticule

Map types
1. Physical Maps
 Physical maps show the natural features such as mountains, plains, rivers and oceans
 On color maps, the texture of color show changes in features for example from valleys,
plains to uplands

2. Road Maps
 Road maps show roads and other human features
 Major roads which connect towns and cities are wider than minor roads
 Dotted line represents gravel roads

3. Political Maps
 These are maps which show the boundaries of states, cities, districts, provinces or
continents
 Different colors are used to show the land area of different areas

4. Economic Maps
 Economic maps show the economic activities in different areas
 They also show resource distribution for example distribution of minerals in a country

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

5. Climatic Maps
 Climatic maps show the average weather conditions of an area
 They show the distribution of elements such as temperature and rainfall
 Color codes or isolines are used to indicate places with the same rainfall, temperature or
pressure

6. Topographic Maps
 These maps show physical features as well as human features
 These maps present 3-dimensional (3-D) surfaces on a 2-dimensional (2-D) plane by the
use of contour lines
 Different features such as mountains, hills, ridges and valleys are distinguished using
contour lines
 Cartographers also make use of symbols to show altitudes for example spot heights and
trigonometrical stations
 Drainage features such as rivers, pans and dams are shown in blue color

7. Sketch Maps
 A sketch map is a simplified representation of the real map or real features
 They are not drawn to scale
 Sketch maps must have some of the components such as direction, key and title

Locating features on map

 Coordinates determine the location of features on a map
 Different types of coordinates are Geographic Coordinate System (GCS) and Universal
Transverse Mercator Grid System (UTM)
1. Geographic Coordinate System (GCS)
 It uses the three dimensional (3-D) spherical surfaces to give location on the earth’s surface
 GCS involves the use longitudes and latitudes.
Longitudes
 Longitudes and latitudes are angles measured in degrees from the centre of the earth to the
point on the surface
 Longitudes are also referred to as north-south imaginary lines because they run from north
to south
 Longitudes are also called meridians and they have x-value between -1800 and +1800
 The central meridian which has a zero value is called the prime meridian or the Greenwich
Meridian because it passes through Greenwich in England

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

 Latitudes
 Latitudes are horizontal imaginary lines dividing the globe from East to West
 Latitudes have a y-value
 The line of latitude central to the poles is called the equator and it has the value of 00
 The latitudes are measured in relation to the equator and they range from 900 at the south
pole to 900 at the north pole

 A point on the earth’s surface is referenced by its longitudes and latitudes values in that
order (longitudes are given first followed by latitudes)
 A graticule’s origin is of 0.0 coordinates that is where the prime meridian and the equator
intersects

2. Universal Transverse Mercator Grid System (UTM)

 The UTM gives the actual location of features using the 2-dimensional coordinates
 It divides the earth into 60 zones called UTM zones
 Each UTM zone is 60 (60 x 60 =3600)
 These zones run from 840N to 800S
 The zones are further divided into quadrats which give the grid squares
 Topographic maps use this coordinate system to locate features
 Using this coordinate system a topographic map is divided by vertical and horizontal lines
 Vertical lines increase to the east therefore they are called eastings

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

  Horizontal lines increase to the north hence they are called northings

13- Figure Grid Reference System

 The UTM coordinate system uses the 13-figure grid reference system to give the actual
location of features on the earth’s system
 The golden rule in grid reference is that eastings are given first before northings
 The first six figures in 13-figure grid reference are eastings and the last seven are northings
 This makes a total of 13 figures

 From the above map extract the grid reference of number 1 is 7180007745000 while that of
number 4 is 7190007744000
Scale
 A scale is the relationship between distance on a map and the corresponding distance on
the actual ground
Importance of scales
 Converts the physical map units into real life units of the place being mapped
 Enable cartographers to prepare accurate maps
 Helps users to measure distance correctly
 It uses simple words to describe a prominent surface feature
 Distances are easily measured
Types of map scales
1. Linear Scale/Line Scale/Divided Scale

 It is a line that appears at the bottom of the map

 It is like a ruler divided into equal parts

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

  Linear scales are given in kilometers but the first segment is subdivided into metres
2. Statement scale
 It is expressed verbally for example 2 cm represents 1km
 This means that 2cm on the map represents 1km on the actual ground
 It is also known as a plain scale
3. Ratio Scale/ Numerical Representative fraction
 This is a mathematical ratio
 Examples are 1:25 000, 1: 50 000. This means 1unit on the map is equivalent to 25 000cm
on the actual ground or 50 000 cm on the actual ground
Universal Symbols
 These are representations of real features on the map
 Symbols are used to tell what the map is all about
 They are used to make the maps easy to read and understand
Examples of universal symbols on the map (Let the learners copy the symbols from the maps)

Feature name Symbol Feature Name Symbol

Bridge, Diptank Dam, rapids, waterfall
Railway, Road, Borehole, Pan, Reservoir
Power Line
Trigonometrical Mine Dump
Station, Spot Height
Huts, Buildings, Cultivation, bush
Church

Direction (Teach the learners the steps taken)

 This is the direction of an object in relation to another
 Cardinal points are used to show direction
 Direction of other objects are determined from the north line
Bearing
 This is the angular direction of one place from another
 It is measured in degrees using a protractor
 Bearing is measured in a clockwise direction from the north line
Distance
 This is the length between two given points
 A scale is used to determine the actual distances on the ground
 Straight lines are measured with a ruler for example power lines and railway lines
 Winding features such as rivers and roads are measured using straight edged paper of a
string

End of Topic Questions and Model Answers

1. Define the following terms
i. Map
ii. Scale
iii. Key
2. State 4 types of maps
3. Given a 1:50 000 scale map, convert 12cm map distance to the actual distances on the ground

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

4. From the figures below underline the eastings
6540007768000

7450004478000

5240005756000

5. Draw universal symbols for the following features

i. Rapid
ii. Powerline
iii. Huts
iv. Spot height

TOPIC 7: MINERALS AND MINING

OBJECTIVES
By the end of this topic I should be able to:
 Define a mineral
 Identify mines and minerals in Zimbabwe
 Describe the distribution of mines and minerals in Zimbabwe
 List precious minerals in Zimbabwe
 Identify ores and mineral groups
 Describe the economic importance of minerals in Zimbabwe
Mining
 This is the extraction of valuable materials (minerals) from underground
Mineral
 Refers to geologically existing materials which have value to human beings
 There are metallic minerals e.g. copper, iron, zinc, gold etc., and non-metallic minerals e.g.
asbestos, coal, limestone, diamond, emerald etc.
 A rock containing a mineral is called an ore e.g. gold ore, iron ore, diamond ore etc.

DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS IN ZIMBABWE

 Most minerals are found along the Great Dyke.

 The Great Dyke is a seam or layer of ore-bearing rock that contains vast mineral resources.

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

  The Great Dyke extends 550km from North to South and it reaches a width of 11km.
 It covers much of Midland province. This explains why Kwekwe, Gweru, Kadoma,
Mberengwa, Zvishavane and Shurugwi have a lot of mineral deposits
 Minerals found along the Great Dyke are gold, tin, diamond, chrome, iron, emerald, asbestos,
platinum, etc.
Minerals and Mines found in Zimbabwe

Mazoe, Shamva, Bindura,Kadoma, Chegutu

Tin Kamativi Kamativi Mining Company

(KMC)

Uses of Minerals
Mineral Uses
Asbestos  To make asbestos sheets
 Make fireman’s clothes
Copper  Soldering and welding
 Make electricity cables
Nickel  Make computer parts
 Steel alloys
 Amour plating
 Make turbine blades and propeller
shafts
Tin  Tin plating
 Canning or coating corrosive metals
Chrome  Car fittings
 Oxidizing agent for tanning leather
 Chrome plating corrosive metals
Coal  Bitumen
 Source of heat energy
Gold  Dentistry
 Jewelry

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

  Aerospace
Iron ore  Farm equipment
 Railway and bus coaches
 Cooking untensils
Platinum  Making jewelry
 Making catalytic converters
 Magnets
Diamond  Jewelry making
 Making drill bits
Granite  Making tombstones
 Cupboards and tables
Lithium  Used in rechargeable batteries
 Grease lubricants
Emerald  Making jewelry
Uranium  Nuclear power generation

Precious Minerals in Zimbabwe

 A precious metal is a rare, naturally occurring chemical element.
 Precious metals include silver, platinum and gold
1. Platinum
 Platinum is a silvery-white metal which does not discolor
 It is the most expensive of the precious metals
 Platinum occurs with five similar metals known as the Platinum group metals (PMGs)
 The PMGs include rhodium, ruthenium, iridium, osmium, palladium
 Platinum is used in catalytic converters of the exhaust system in cars
 It is also used in the production of fibre optic cables and disk drive coatings
2. Gold
 Gold is a chemical element which is bright, slightly reddish yellow
 It is soft, malleable and ductile metal
 Gold is used in dentistry, fillings, crowns, bridges and orthotic appliances
 Some jewelry items are also made from gold e.g. necklesses and rings
3. Silver
 Silver is a chemical element which is also a soft, lustrous metal.
 It perfectly conducts electricity
 Silver is used for jewelry and tableware
 Due to its high reflectivity, silver is also used to make mirrors
 It is also used in dental alloys, soldiering and brazing alloys, electrical contacts and batteries
Ores and Mineral Groups

Mineral Ores
 A mineral ore is a rock that has a sufficient amount of a mineral
 The ores are extracted from the earth through mining
Ore occurs in various from namely:
1. Alluvial deposits- minerals such as gold, chrome, platinum, and diamond are found in sand, clay
and gravel along the river bed

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

2. Beds and seams- Minerals that occur in layers beneath overlying materials are usually mined
using opencast mining for example coal
3. Veins- Minerals occur in cracks, faults and rock joints for example gold ore is usually found in
veins where rocks have to be crushed to remove the mineral

Minerals Groups
 Minerals are classified into eight groups described below
Group Description Example
Native Elements  Contain atoms of only one type of  Diamond
element  Graphite
 Some minerals in this group are rare  Gold
and valuable  Platinum
 Sulfur
 Copper
 Silver
Halides  Salts that form when salt water  Halite
evaporates  Fluorite
Silicate minerals  Constitute 90% of the earth’s crust  Feldspar
 Found in so many rocks  Quartz
 Composed of silicon and oxygen  Olivine mineral
atoms
Oxides  Contain one or two metal elements  Hematite
combined with oxygen  Corundum
 Magnetite
Sulfates  Contain sulfur atoms bonded with  Gypsum
oxygen atoms  Anhydrite
 Form where salt water evaporates
Phosphates  Rare minerals  turquoise
 Similar to silicate minerals
Carbonates  calcium
 copper
 iron
Sulfides  formed when metallic elements combine  pyrite
with sulfur  sphalerite
 do not contain oxygen

Economic Importance of minerals

 creates employment
 develop other industries industries
 uplift living standards of minerals
 develop schools for example school of mines
 lead to development of towns and cities
 lead to infrastructure development eg roads
 provide government revenue through taxes
 brings foreign currency as minerals are exported

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

END OF TOPIC QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. Define the following terms
a) mining
b) mineral ore
2. Name five minerals found along the Great Dyke
3. a) Define the term precious metal
b) State three precious minerals
4. Explain five economic benefits of mining in Zimbabwe
5. Give 3 minerals that fall under carbonates
6. Describe oxides.

TOPIC 8: ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Objectives
By the end of this topic l should be able to:
 Identify the aspects of the environment
 Describe the state of the environment
 Outline the IKSs in environmental management
 Explain the laws used to protect aspects of the environment
What is environment?
 Refers to everything that surrounds people
Aspects of the Environment
 These are natural things that are part of the earth
 The aspects which make up the environment are air, water, land, vegetation and wildlife
1. Air
 Air is the composition of gases found in the atmosphere
 These gases include oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen
 Oxygen makes up 21% enable respiration in humans and animals
 Carbon dioxide is used by plants to make their own food in a process called photosynthesis
 Nitrogen constitutes 78% of the air and is turned into nutrients that make proteins for
plants and animals
 Humans may alter the composition of these gases for example burning of coal, a fossil fuel
increase the amount of carbon dioxide in the air
2. Water
 Water occupies the largest portion of the earth
 Sources of water on earth are oceans, rivers, lakes and dams
 Water is the essential part of human life, animal life and plant survival
 the largest percentage of water on earth is unsuitable for human and plant consumption
because it is saline and polluted
 activities such as farming, open waste dumping and mining makes the water undrinkable
and water sources become breeding grounds for diseases such as typhoid and cholera
3. Land
 land refers to the top part of the earth’s crust
 it is made up of rocks and soil
 the land is where humans build shelter, farm and practice many other activities

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

  humans disturb the land in the following ways
- open waste dumping
- overstocking
- deforestation
- poor farming methods eg stream bank cultivation
- industrial waste disposal
- sewage leakages
 in turn the above activities causes:
- reduce soil fertility
- causes soil erosion
- leads to gully formation
- make the soil saline or salty
- make the land smelly
- leads to outbreak of cholera
4. Vegetation and Plants (Biosphere)
 forests are important to other aspects of the environment because:
- they provide water vapor through evapotranspiration
- animals and humans get oxygen, food and energy from vegetation
- they provide vegetation cover to the soil thus reducing erosion
- trap excess carbon in the air keeping the air composition balanced
 wild animals provide food to the humans and also help to recycle nutrients in an ecosystem
 However people affect wildlife through wars, poaching, veldfires, overhunting and
deforestation.
 This leads to human wildlife conflict and animal extinction

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT

 State of the environment is determined by the quality of the aspects of the environment
 Ways in which humans affect aspects of the environment are as follows:
Aspect Human effect
Water  Dumping of sewage pollutes water
 Oil discharge from industries in rivers and dams
 In Harare Lake Chivero and Mukuvisi River are the most polluted
water bodies
Land  Littering pollutes the land surfaces
 Deforestation increases the chances of soil erosion
 Sewer burst makes the land smelly
Air  Smoke from industries pollutes the air
 Motor vehicles and generators emit carbon which pollutes the land
Wildlife  Poaching of endangered animals such as elephants and rhinos
causes extinction
 Forest destruction caused by farming destroy habitat for animals
 Veldfires started by humans lead to death of many animals

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

Differences between Pristine Environment and Degraded Environment
Criteria Pristine Environment Degraded Environment
Definition  This is an environment which  This is an environment that has
is still in its original form been altered by human activities
Human  There is less human  It has been heavily disturbed by
influence
disturbance humans
Signs  Clean air, land and water,  Polluted water, air or land, reduced
wide biodiversity biodiversity
Value  It is still valuable  It has lost its value

Signs of environmental degradation

(Qn: List the signs of a degraded environment [6])
 Soil exhaustion
 Severe erosion
 Gullies everywhere
 Bare surfaces
 Air pollution
 Smelly environment
 Dirty water
 Animal extinction
 Outbreak of diseases
 Limited plant growth
Ways through Which People Degrade the Environment
 Littering
 Burning fossil fuels
 Discharging dirty water in fresh water bodies
 Deforestation
 Downslope and stream-bank cultivation
 Gold panning (panning in rivers)
 Poaching of wild animals
 Veld fires
The concept of Environmental Management
 Environmental management refers to the process of preserving all aspects of the
environment for future generations.
 Environmental management has become more important because of the following issues:
- Climate change
- Global warming
- Shrinking forests
- Desertification
- Rising sea levels
- Increasing water pollution
- Extinction of animals
- Prevalence of pests and diseases
- Extreme weather events eg heatwaves and floods
- Increasing population

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

ACTS USED TO PROTECT THE ENVIRONMENT IN ZIMBABWE
 An act is a policy put in place by the government in order to protect the environment

The Water Act

 Helps in the management of water in Zimbabwe
 It focuses on the development and use of water in a sustainable manner
 The act ensures that pollution of natural water sources conforms to minimum pollution
standards
 Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA) is responsible for the proper management of
water
The Environmental Management Act
 It brings together laws and measures that protect, conserve and manage the environment
 This law also regulate air pollution, water pollution, hunting, and landuse
 The Environment Management Agency (EMA) is responsible for enforcing environmental
protection laws against deforestation, poaching, pollution, veld fires etc
 EMA was established in 2003
The Parks and Wildlife Act
 This act is responsible for Zimbabwe’s national parks, Safari areas and recreational parks
 This law ensures that these areas are always looked after and wildlife is managed
sustainably
 Besides this act, Zimbabwe has taken other measures to conserve wildlife for example:
i. Setting up national parks
ii. Joining international efforts to conserve wildlife such as Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
iii. Involving communities in wildlife management through the Communal Areas
Management Program for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE)
The Natural Resources Act
 The main aim of this act is to control the use of natural resources
 It control forests, minerals and water so that they do not get used up at a faster rate than
their regeneration rate.
 Some of its functions are also performed by the Environmental Management Act
The Landuse Act
 It was enacted to regulate the use of land including the building of settlements
 Managing the land involves the following:
- Protecting the land from erosion
- Planting trees
- Reclaiming degraded land
- Clean up campaigns
- Encouraging organic farming

INDIGENOUS WAYS OF PROTECTING THE ENVIRONMENT

 Sacred places were set aside and hunting, deforestation, mining etc in those areas was
forbidden. Sacred places include sacred mountains, cemeteries, sacred forests
 Fruit trees such as Muzhanje and Muhacha are not cut

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

  Use of renewable resources such as grass for thatching to reduce overexploitation of
asbestos and iron
 A belief in superstition in order to protect certain animals for example hyenas and Owls are
associated with witchcraft
 Certain animals were meant for the royal family only for example Leopards and pangolins
 Use of totems to protect certain animals and water bodies
 People burn dry grass in winter to allow new grass for animals and control pests

Endangered Animals found in Zimbabwe

 An endangered animal is an animal species whose world demand has increased and is
threated to go extinct.
1. Elephant
- The elephant is hunted for its ivory
- People use poison and guns to kill elephants
2. Black Rhino
- It is poached for its tasks
- The black rhino is protected under CITES
3. Pangolin
- Under Zimbabwe’s culture and tradition, the pangolin is supposed to be eaten by
Chiefs only
- Its meat and scales are highly on demand especially in Asia
- Being found in possession of a Pangolin in Zimbabwe is a serious crime

NB: Other animals that are rapidly disappearing include the leopard and the African wild dog
NB: Natural events that also threaten the abovementioned animals are droughts, natural veldfires,
pests and diseases, predators, floods, heatwaves and landslides.

WAYS TO PROTECT THE ENVIRONMENT

 Clean up campaigns
 Reforestation
 Afforestation
 Constructing 9metres wide fireguards
 Encouraging organic fertilizers
 Replacing fossil fuels with clean energy sources
 Gully filling
 Involving the communities in wildlife conservation
 Use of IKS e.g. totems and sacred places
 Licensed hunting
BENEFITS OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGAMENT
 Reduces human-wildlife conflict
 Reduces depletion of non-renewable resources
 Secure income for the communities
 Reduces waste
 Reduces outbreak of diseases
 Helps to reduce extreme events such floods and droughts

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

  Increases the availability of resources to humans
 It increases environmental awareness among the locals

End of topic questions

1. Define the term environment [2]
2. State any three aspects of the environment. [3]
3. Outline the ways through which humans degrade the natural environment. [5]
4. Suggest measures to restore a degraded environment. [7]
5. What challenges are faced in the management of the environment? [4]
6. Give any three laws enacted to protect the environment. [3]
7. Distinguish between pristine environment and degraded environment. [6]
8. Outline the use of indigenous knowledge systems in environmental management. [5]

TOPIC 9: AGRICULTURE AND LAND REFORM

Objectives
By the end of this topic, I should be able to:
-Define agriculture
-Identify types of agriculture
-Explain factors influencing agriculture
-Name elements of a farm
-Classify inputs into physical, human and economic
-Identify elements of a communal farm
-Justify then need for zoning

 Agriculture refers to the growing of crops and rearing of animals

 it is a primary industry
 Farmers may grow maize or beans or they can keep a herd of cattle for beef or they do both.

Types of agriculture

 These include commercial farming (market gardening, dairying, plantation, irrigation

farming, cattle ranching) and subsistence or communal (shifting cultivation and nomadic
pastoralism)

Communal farming/subsistence farming

 refers to a farming method concerned with producing enough food for family consumption
and surplus for sale
 It is the most common farming type in Zimbabwe
 Crops are grown for family feeding and animals are kept for family meat.

Commercial farming
 Refers to the growing of crops and rearing of animals for sale.
 This farming is conducted for profit making through the sale of the output.
 Small scale farmers usually grow cotton and tobacco as a cash crop in addition to their food
crops

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

  Large scale farmers can be divided into dairying, market gardening, plantations or estates,
cattle ranching and mixed farming.

Shifting cultivation
 Refers to the growing of crops from one area ton another
 It is common in many African countries where there a woodland and where the population
is in smaller groups
 Farmers clear a woodland, burn the wood and make good fertilizers
 They dig mixing ash and soil after planting vegetables and other crops
 After 3 to 5 years the farm yields smaller amounts of food so the farmers clear another
patch of woodland

Nomadic Pastoralism
 This is the movement of farmers with their livestock from one place to another on a
seasonal basis in search of water and pastures for their animals
 Nomadic pastoralism is done in areas of low, unreliable rainfall, mainly in semi-arid and
arid regions
 A good example is the Masai people of Kenya

Types of commercial farming

1. Dairying
 This is the rearing of cows for milk production
 The milk produced is sold directly or indirectly to consumers
 The milk can also be processed into a variety of milk by-products such as cheese
2. Cattle ranching
 Refers to a farming system where large herds of cattle are kept for beef production
 Cattle ranching occurs in all regions in Zimbabwe except in the Zambezi valley and around
the Gonarezhou National park
 This is because the areas are tsetse fly prone
Dairying Cattle Ranching
Cows are kept for milk production Cattle are kept for meat
Located near urban centres Located away from urban centres
Small land is used Large land is used

2. Market gardening
 Vegetables are grown in and around many cities to meet the demand of the people who live
in towns and cities
 The plots are called market gardens and they have to be close to their markets since
vegetables are perishables

3. Plantations
 Farming system which deals with one type of crop and requires a vast inputs on a large
scale.

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

  The crop is grown on one piece of land for a number of years
 the farming type is land-intensive
 Crops grown include wheat, coffee, sugarcane and timber

5. Mixed farming
 Refers to the growing of crops and rearing of animals on the same piece of land
 Cultivated land and pastures can be rotated to give the land the chance to rest

Factors influencing agriculture

Physical factors
 These include temperature, precipitation, wind, soil, pests and diseases

1. Temperature
 The growth of plants requires ideal temperatures for germination, photosynthesis and
ripening of crops
 For example hot, wet tropical areas favour rice while cooler, drier areas favour wheat

2. Precipitation
 This is the prime source of water for plants to grow naturally
 The annual total rainfall determines the type of crops, trees, grass, cereals grown and
animals kept for agricultural purposes
 Excessive rainfall destroy crops and very little rainfall leads to crop failure
 Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe such as Chipinge, Chumanimani and Vumba receives high
rainfall suitable for coffee, tea and timber production

3. Wind
 Moderate winds promote pollination but very strong winds such as cyclones and hurricanes
destroys crops and cause high rate of transpiration
 Winds can also dry the soils and increases the potential of soil erosion

4. Soil
 Farming depends on soil depth, soil fertility and water holding capacity, aeration, structure
and texture
 Soils with poor structure are easily leached and promotes soil moisture evaporation
 Sandy soils lack nutrients and hold moisture for short periods
 Clay soils are heavy to work with, poorly drained and cause water logging
 Sandy soils are good for tobacco
 Loam soils are good for maize and potatoes
 For example the Chivhu and Buhera soils are rich in potassium since they are derived from
granite rocks

5. Pests and diseases

 Pests and diseases affect crops, humans and animals

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

  For example malaria, anthrax and army worms
 Less risks and le4ss prone areas are good for production and productivity
 Tsetsefly cause nagana in animals or Tripanosomiasis
 They can also cause sleeping sickness in humans

Social factors
 The type of faring and crops grown reflects the culture of the people
 In some societies food production is solely the responsibility of women and children
 Some crops are considered to be grown by women for example groundnuts and vegetables
 Keeping large herds of cattle brings prestige to African farmers
 Land ownership or inheritance can affect the type of farming and crops grown

Economic factors
1. Transport
 It determines the time taken to carry inputs and outputs to and from the market
 Some outputs are perishable s and needs fast and quick delivery mode to the market
2. Market
 Size of population and needs determines the farming system
 Low prices on the market discourages the continued practice of farming, for example cotton
and tobacco farming
3. Capital
 More economically developed countries have capitalized their robust banking systems from
private investments and government investments through subsidies which encourage
capital intensive farming.

Political factors
 The state intervention and government policy have negative and positive effects on
agriculture
 Government help through subsidies for guaranteeing farmers products and production

Elements of a farm
-These include inputs, processes and outputs
Inputs Processes Outputs
Labour Spraying Money
Capital Rearing Meat products
Machinery Planting Manure
Knowledge Milking Money
Transport Storing
Seeds Harvesting
Chemicals Transporting
Land Weeding
Climate Ploughing

 All farming systems consist of inputs

 Physical inputs are naturally occurring things such as water, raw materials and land
 Human inputs are those which come from people such as labour and knowledge

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

  Economic inputs include fertilizers, equipment, transport and money

Physical inputs
a. Seeds
 When the farming season begins, farmers buy different types of seeds such as maize seeds
for example mbizi, tsoko and shumba
 Farmers purchase seeds according to their regions
b. Climate
 This refers to rainfall and temperature\
 Most crops require abundant rainfall for them to do well.
 In Zimbabwe regions 1 and 2 with annual rainfall between 700mm-1200mm are suitable
for maize and tobacco production
 Areas in regions 3 and 4 are more suitable for drought resistant crops like cotton, millet and
sorghum
 Areas with temperatures below 10 degrees Celsius discourage crop production

c. Soil/Land
 Crops grow best ion deep, fertile and well-drained while less fertile soils like sands are best
used for livestock production as in Mangwe district in Plumtree

Human and economic inputs

a. Capital
 Availability of sources of loans for farmers encourage agriculture
 The profit a farmer makes affects the amount that can be invested in machinery, fertilizers
and seeds as well as to pay for workers
b. Transport
 Availability of a good transport network encourages agriculture as produce can easily be
transported to the market
c. Labor
 Certain types of farming still need large numbers of seasonal workers, for example cotton
farming
d. Technology
 Modern improvements in technology like tractors and refrigerator trucks have improved
farming and increased agricultural output

Processes and throughputs

 These are the actions within the farm that allow the inputs to turn into outputs
 Processes include milking, harvesting and shearing

Outputs
 Can be negative or positive
 Negative outputs include waste products and soil erosion
 Positive outputs are finished products such as meat, milk and eggs
Communal farming
 This is a form of sedentary farming where farmers are fixed within given pieces of land

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

  They practice both animal husbandry and arable farming
 Crops and animals are produced to feed the family and surplus production is meant for sale
 Both food crops such as groundnuts and maize and cash crops such as tobacco and cotton
are grown
 Most farmers in Zimbabwe are communal farmers
Characteristics of communal farming
 Farmers depend on natural rainfall
 Use of family labor
 Farmers produce both livestock and traditional crops
 Low capital investment
 Simple machines are used eg ox-drawn ploughs and hoes
 Farmers use seeds from previous harvest
 Traditional farming methods are used
Elements of a communal farm
Inputs Processes Outputs
 Seeds (maize,  Land preparation  Grains(sorghum, cow
vegetables, tobacco)  Ploughing peas, rapoko etc),
 Seeds from previous  Weeding  Meat
harvests eg pumkins,  Harvesting  tobacco or cotton for
water melons, cow  Milking sale
peas, rapoko  Slaughtering  milk for the family
 Organic fertilizers eg  Feeding  manure
cow manure  Herding  cattle hides
 Hoes, axes, ploughs  spraying
 Road runner chickens,
cattle, goats, donkeys

Challenges faced by communal farmers

 Lack of finance to buy inputs
 Poor marketing of their cash crops eg cotton and tobacco
 Shortage of land
 Poor farming knowledge
 Poorly maintained road infrastructure
 Frequent droughts
 Pests and diseases

Landuse Zones
 These are different portions of land dedicated for specific uses
 Within a farm, a farmer may dedicate certain portions of land towards certain uses
 Land use zones commonly found in rural areas are as follows:
i. Arable land: is the land which is used for growing crops
ii. Grazing land: this land is used for pastures where animal feed
iii. Residential: houses where people live are found in this zone
iv. Transport: this land is occupied by roads and railway lines

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

 v. Permanent crops: in this zone, orchards and plantations of tea, and forestry are
found.
Importance of landuse zoning
 It ensure that a given land is used for its appropriate use
 It ensures that farmers are well planned to ensure efficiency
 It enables proper environmental management
 It increases productivity
 It creates a balance in landuse zones

Relationship between farming type and location

 The nature of farm output also determines the location of farms.
 Dairy farms and market gardens are found closer to urban areas where a larger market is
found and also because milk and vegetables are perishable.
 Dairy farms and market gardens also require very small pieces of land hence they can be
practiced near cities where land is expensive
 On the other hand, cattle ranches and plantations are found far away from the city were
land is cheaper because they require large tracts of land.

End of Topic questions

1. Agriculture is also referred to as
A. Horticulture
B. Farming
C. Animal husbandry
D. Market gardening
2. Which of the following is not made from farm produce?
A. Winter jersey
B. Cheese
C. A watch
D. Shoes
3. In the Zambezi valley farming is difficult because of
A. Pests and diseases
B. Altitude
C. Government legislation
D. Poor soils
4. Why is farming referred to as a system?
A. It requires knowledge
B. It links with other industries
C. It is well organized with inputs, processes and outputs
D. It leads to the production of many products
5. Which of the following is more likely to be found near urban areas?
A. Cattle ranches
B. Estate farms
C. Tobacco farms
D. Dairy farms
6. What are the characteristics of
a) Plantation farming? [4]

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

 b) Communal farming? [6]
7. a) What id landuse zoning? [2]
b) Give three landuse zones found in rural areas

8. Suggest the challenges faced by communal farmers in Zimbabwe. [5]

TOPIC 10: INDUSTRY

Objectives
By the end of this topic, I should be able to:
 Define an industry
 Identify types of industries
 Explain the importance of industry
 Describe and explain the distribution of industries in Zimbabwe.
Industry
 Refers to economic activities involved in the chain of production of goods and services
 When producing goods the following activities are involved in their respective order:
1) Extraction of raw materials from the earth
2) Processing of raw materials to remove unwanted materials
3) Manufacturing of goods
4) Provision of support services in the extraction stage, processing stage and
manufacturing stage eg transportation, insurance etc
5) Research and development to make every stage of production easier, cheaper and
competitive
 Stages 4 and 5 are support stages involved in every sector of production

Types of industry

Primary industry
 It involves the extraction of raw materials from nature
 Raw materials are unprocessed goods for example fish, minerals, wood, meat, cattle hides,
crops, rubber
 Examples of primary activities are mining, fishing, crop cultivation, animal husbandry,
forestry,
 Products from this sector are of low cost and they have to undergo processing and
assembling to increase their value. This happens in the secondary industry and is known as
value addition
Importance of the primary industry
 Creates employment
 Provides raw materials to the factories
 Brings foreign currency
 Develops infrastructure in rural
 Improves the quality of life for locals
 Increases the country’s GDP
Secondary industry

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

  It is concerned with conversion of raw materials into semi-finished or finished goods
 Raw materials from the primary sector are the inputs in this sector
 It involves, construction, car assembly, steel production, carpentry, bakery, jewelry making,
electronics manufacturing, textiles manufacturing, sugar milling etc
 Secondary industry is divided into heavy industry and light industry
Importance of secondary industry
 Creates employment
 Brings more income as finished goods are sold
 Brings foreign currency
 Develops infrastructure
 Uplifts people’s livelihoods
 Leads to economic stability and development
 Improves the country’s balance of trade
 Provides a market for goods from the primary sector
Tertiary industry
 It provides services to both primary, secondary and quaternary industries
 Such services enable other sectors to function well
 For example all other sectors require, transportation, trained workers, and banks to borrow
loans, insurance to insure their goods, warehouses, marketing and communication.
 Other services are required by everyone at individual level for example tourism,
entertainment, nursing, accommodation, money transfer services, life assurance services
etc
 Banks, hotels, universities, warehouses, music companies, advertising agents, transport and
logistics companies, communication companies, online marketing companies etc are all
example of tertiary industry
Importance of tertiary industry
 Brings foreign currency
 Provide knowledge and skills required in other sectors
 Leads to infrastructure development eg roads, electricity and communication network
 Improves living standards of people
 Improves a country’s balance of payment through invisible trade
Quaternary Industry
 Is an industry that deals with information generation and sharing as well as research and
development (R&D)
 These industries are high technology industries which developed rapidly in the last 25
years
 In developed countries much of the laborforce is employed in this sector
 Information technology (IT), Research and development, media, consultancy, financial
planning, data analysis, software developers, artificial intelligence (AI), pharmaceuticals,
biotechnology etc are the examples of quaternary industry.
Importance of the quaternary industry
 Ensure that secondary industries operate competitively
 Enable companies to share information with ease
 Interconnect businesses
 Makes global marketing possible

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

  Facilitate discovery of natural resources such as mineral deposits
 Improves education, health and other vital sectors
 Improve efficiency in production and service delivery
 Promote innovation
 Creates employment
 Improves lifestyle and wellbeing
Distribution of Industries in Zimbabwe
 This refers to how and where industries are located
 Factors determining the location of industries are as follows:
o Power supply
- Power-based industries need to be located where there is good power
supply for example aluminium smelting requires a lot power hence it is
located near power stations
o Transport and communication
- These two make industries accessible
- Industries need to locate closer to railway lines, roads or sea ports to enable
easy reach of raw material and easy delivery of finished goods
- Heavy industries and those that require bulky raw materials locate
themselves closer to railways
- Light industries and those that produce perishable goods are located closer
to roads and airports
o Labour supply
- Availability of cheap or skilled labour attracts more industries
- It is cheap for industries to operate in a county where there is huge supply of
cheap labour
- Quaternary industries tend to locate near universities and colleges where
they easily intercept graduating skilled workers
- Industries whose located is dictated by availability of labor are called
labour-based industries
o Market
- Some industries’ location is determined by availability of the products they
produce
- These industries are known as market-based industries
- These industries tend to locate closer to places where demand for the
products is always high eg bakeries, breweries and electronics
o Raw materials
- Some industries need to locate near the source of raw materials due to the
nature of those industries
- Some raw materials are expensive to transport when unprocessed hence it’s
cheaper to process them before transportation for example sugar milling is
located closer to the sugar plantations because sugarcane is bulky
- On the other hand some products are weight-gaining hence they are located
closer to the market because they become bulky after processing
- Other industries are not tied to the source of raw materials hence they are
called footloose
o Government policy

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

 - Governments put policies which determine the location of industries
- For example siting of Export Processing Zones (EPZs) creates a better
operation conditions which attract industries
- Governments also put subsidies, tax exemptions and other financial
incentives to encourage location of industries in certain areas
Major industries in Zimbabwe

The clothing and textile industry

 This is a secondary industry were both processing and manufacturing are done
 It is located in Kadoma and Chegutu because this is where cotton is mainly grown
 These places are also not far away from the major markets such as Harare city and other
towns
 The clothing industry can operate on a low scale
 However large capital is required due to many activities involved in the production
process
 The following processes are involved in the textile industry
i. Spinning
ii. Dying
iii. Printing
iv. Sewing (clothes making)
 Most small scale industries are into cloth making than textile industry
 Large companies that were involved in textile industry for example David Whitehead
were forced to close down in Zimbabwe due to the following factors:
i. Use of outdated machinery
ii. Competition from cheap imports from China
iii. Importation of second hand cloth known as mabhero
iv. Frequent power cuts
v. Inflation
vi. Shortage of foreign currency to import machinery
vii. Lack of foreign direct investment
viii. Economic sanctions imposed by the Western countries and the EU
ix. Shortage of skilled labour
The Timber Industry
 This is a processing industry that falls in the secondary sector
 It is a raw material based industry, located where forestry is practiced
 Forestry is practiced in Manicaland in the Eastern Highlands.
 Mutare attracts more timber industries due to its proximity to raw materials from forestry
plantations
 Major industries in Mutare are Mutare Border Timbers and Allied Timbers
 These two major sawmills have also attracted furniture making industries in the cottage
industry for example Green Market.
 Industries which depend on each other tend to locate closer to each other to reduce
transportation and communication costs

Tourism Industry

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

  This is a tertiary industry
 This industry’s location is determined by the location of tourist attractions
 An area with many tourist attractions has the potential to develop into a tourist resort if
properly marketed
 Factors that affect tourism industry are:
i. Climate(dry and clear weather attract many tourists)
ii. Transport (areas with better road infrastructure are easily accessible)
iii. Political stability (tourists prefer to visit areas without long history of political
persecution)
iv. Labour (a well-motivated workforce attract many tourists)
v. Cost (affordable prices attract both domestic and international tourists)
 Other support industries will also locate near tourist resorts to benefits each other for
example hotels, restaurants, golf courses, cultural exhibits, transport operators,
entertainers etc.
 Major tourist resorts are in Victoria Falls, Great Zimbabwe, Kariba, Nyanga, Chirundu, and
Bulawayo.

Iron and Steel Industry (Case Study)

Importance of Manufacturing Industry

 Creates employment
 Brings foreign currency
 Increases the country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
 Provides a market for other industries
 Enable infrastructure development
 Boosts the economy
 Improved living standards of people
 Strengthens the country’s local currency
Problems faced in the Manufacturing Industry

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

  High inflation
 Lack of capital
 Corruption
 High unemployment
 Shortage of skilled labourforce
 Poor road infrastructure
 Frequent power cuts
 Competition is stiff due to importation of goods from other Countries
 Outdated machinery

End Of Topic Questions

1. Which of the following activities belongs to the secondary sector?
A. Fishing
B. Nursing
C. Forestry
D. Baking
2. Which of the following is not a raw material based industry?
A. Car assembly
B. Paper industry
C. Sugar milling
D. Iron and steel
3. The processing, generation and sharing of information is in which sector?
A. Secondary
B. Primary
C. Tertiary
D. Quaternary
4. Explain the importance of the primary sector to Zimbabwe’s economy. [7]
5. Suggest solutions to solve problems faced by industries in Zimbabwe. [research work]
6. Outline the factors affecting the distribution of industries in Zimbabwe. [5]
7. List any four examples of quaternary industries. [4]

TOPIC 11: SETTLEMENT AND POPULATION

Objectives
By the end of this topic, I should be able to:
 Define the term settlement
 Identify types of settlement
 Distinguish between site and situation of a settlement
 Outline the general site factors of settlements
 Identify rural settlement patterns
 List the laws governing rural and urban landuse in Zimbabwe.
 Settlement refers to a place where people live
 A settlement can range from being an isolated building, hamlets, villages, business centre,
growth point, town, city or even conurbation
Types of settlements

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

  Settlements are classified according to size, structure and functions into rural and urban
1. Rural settlements

 They are mainly concerned with primary activities such as agriculture, mining, fishing,
forestry.
 Population density is small and settlement size is large
2. Urban settlement

 These are nodal in character and have secondary and tertiary activities
 Activities include industry. trade and services
 Population density is high and the settlement size is high
Functions of rural settlements

 Rural settlements are mostly agrarian and concentrate on extraction of raw materials
 The functions include :
-Residential
-Farming
-Mining- Dorowa in Buhera, Bikita, Marange, Gwanda
- Forestry- Chimanimani, Mutasa, Nyanga
-Social and religious services –Apostolic church in Marange, Johane masowein
Gandanzara
-Retailing –small shops
- Recreation
Functions of urban settlements

 Residential
 Health
 Recreation
 Transport and communication
 Military defensive needs
 Social and religious services
Interaction between rural and urban settlements
Rural
 Rural areas provide raw materials for urban settlements such as timber
 -Rural areas are a source of labour
 Rural areas act as markets for goods and services from urban areas
 Rural areas provide food
 Rural areas act as recreation centres for the urban people

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

 Factors influencing settlement
1. Wet point sites

 Water supply is a key factor

 Many settlements are located near water sources such as rivers
2. Dry points –are found in areas of higher ground away from marshy areas or areas prone to
flooding
3. Defensive sites –often found on higher grounds so that enemies could be seen from a
distance, for example Great Zimbabwe
4. Resources –important for industry, for example towns such as Hwange and Shurugwi
5. Good farming land –was essential to produce food. Many villages develop on fertile soils
6. Accessibility -Villages usually develop at bridging points
6. Trading centres -Often settlements grow where natural route ways and rivers meet, which
enable the development of roads, railways and canals
Rural settlement patterns

 These include linear, radial, nucleated or compact and dispersed or haphazard

1. Linear settlement pattern

 Consists of lines of huts or houses following a road, river or cultivated areas

 Such patterns can also develop along watershed or a mountain range

Radial settlement

 The pattern usually develops at road junctions or nodal points.

 They radiate out from a central point like the spokes of a bicycle wheel going outwards in all
directions.
 These nodal points include rural service centres for example District Council Offices or
Growth points

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

 Nucleated or compact settlements

 Settlements in a rural area can be nucleated or gathered around market places,

commercial farming areas or camps.
 Such settlements tend to be arranged in much the same manner on electrons in an atom

Circular settlement pattern

 This is a common pattern on desert nomadic camps, around dwalas, volcanic hills or
wells and watering holes in semi-arid areas.
 They live in outer houses and the central house is the meeting place

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

 Dispersed and haphazard settlement patterns

 Settlements can also be dispersed especially in areas with fewer resources that cannot
support dense populations.
 This is a common pattern in commercial farming, communal areas with rugged terrain
and poor soils

Rural and urban land use legislation

 This refers to regulations pertaining to the use and development of public and private
estates
 These regulations include:
1. Urban Council Act

 Governs the administration of cities and towns

 It empowers urban council to manage the use of land in urban area.
 They sell residential and commercial stands and earn revenue.
 They develop the land and come up with land use plans
2. Council by-laws

 The law that regulates to protect cities.

 Some by-laws include anti-litter laws, building by-laws and fire by-laws
 These by-laws enable the council to effectively deliver services
3. Rural District Council Act

 Regulates the management of about 59 rural areas in the country.

 They also manage growth points and rural settlements by offering residential and
commercial stands in growth points and shopping centres.
 They manage natural resources within the jurisdiction such as forest, water, fish and the
environment.
3. The Provincial Council and Administration Act

 These are councils that manage all local authorities within a given province.
 They plan for the development within the province
End of topic questions

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

 1. Define settlements [2]
2. Identify two types of settlements [2]
3. Outline the relationship between urban and rural settlements [4]
4. Define settlement pattern [2]
5. State 3 settlement patterns [3]
6. Outline the functions of rural settlements [4]

TOPIC 12: TRANSPORT AND TRADE

Objectives
By the end of this topic, I should be able to:

 Identify modes of transport

 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of modes of transport
 Explain changes in modes of transport in recent times
 Explain the different transport networks in Zimbabwe, region and Africa.
 Draw transport networks
 Calculate transport indices
 Interpret transport indices
 Outline the transport problems
 Suggest solutions to transport challenges
Modes Of Transport
 Transport refers to a system of conveying people or goods from one place to the other.
 Modes of transport include road, railway, water, air, and pipeline.
Road Transport
 Road transport is mainly used to carry both small and large loads of goods within the
country
 It includes the use of haulages, lorries, small trucks, buses and commuter omnibuses

Air Transport

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

  Air transport is widely used in international trade especially in transporting light, valuable
goods and perishables

Rail Transport
 Rail transport is commonly used to move heavy and bulky goods over long distances
 Due to high maintenance costs, most rail transport systems are state-owned

Pipeline Transport
 This is a mode of transport limited to the transportation of fluids such as liquids and
condensed gases
 It is mainly used to move natural gas and oil from ports to inland depots and water from
dams to reservoirs and then residential areas

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

Sea Transport
 Landlocked countries like Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Botswana have no direct access to sea
transport.
 Sea transport has a variety of vessels to move goods and people
 These vessels include
 Tramps- vessels meant for hire
 Liners- they operate on fixed routes with fixed timetables
 Roll-on-Roll-off Ships (RoRo)- these are designed to carry vehicles with their cargoes
 Oil bulk ore ships (OBO)- These are designed to carry large quantities of goods such as
oil, ores and other bulky goods

Recent Technological Developments (Changes) In Transport

 The world has experienced some changes since industrial revolution.
 In the past decades there was use of steam engines in locomotives which polluted the air
 There was limited technology which caused many accidents in the past
 It was also difficult to navigate through hilly areas and valleys. However technological
improvements made it possible to make roads on hill sides and passes
 It would take weeks for a train to reach its closest destination because the locomotives were
very slow.
 Transport was scarce in many areas due to limited production of vehicles and limited
number of roads.
Technological developments however facilitated some improvements in transport for example the
following:
1. Use of electric trains and cars reduced air pollution
2. Invention of fast trains and vehicles
3. Upgrading of railway lines, bridges and roads reduced accidents
4. Introduction of remote sensing in transport enabled track monitoring using GPS

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

 5. Substitution of coal powered engines with diesel and petrol engines reduced pollution to a
certain extent
6. Sharing of knowledge and information over the internet educated most drivers which
reduced traffic accidents
7. ICT development reduced accidents due to broadened communication around the world
8. Mechanization enabled construction of railway lines and roads in difficult topographical
terrains such as hilly areas
9. Technological developments also enabled invention of large vessels, haulages, trains and
plane which carry large quantities and many people
10. There was also development of refrigerated vehicles which substituted the need for air
transport to carry perishables.
11. Automation and mechanization reduced the cost of transport and production in the
automobile factory.
12. Introduction of containerization and pipeline transport improved handling of goods in
transit
Transport Networks
 A transport network is a spatial pattern of transportation facilities in a given region
 It shows the pattern of transportation facilities that cover a given area eg a country, region
or a continent
 Topological maps and graphs are often used to analyze transport networks
 Various terms are used when analyzing transport networks
 These terms include
1) Route- refers to a pathway followed by transport type.
A route is shown by a solid line linking nodes
It is also called an edge or a link
2) Node- is any settlement through which a route passes or ends
 Transport routes link or connect nodes which may be homes, villages, towns, mines or cities
 All routes begin and end at different types of nodes (for example it can begin in a town and
end at the mine)
 Edges and nodes are used to calculate the beta index of a transport

BETA INDEX (B.I)

 This is a figure that reflects how linked settlements or places in a given region are
𝐸𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝐵𝑒𝑡𝑎 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 =
𝑁𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠
 The larger the beta index the better the connectivity of settlements in an area
 As transport networks develop and become more efficient, the value of the B.I rises.
 A Beta Index of 0.5 (two nodes and one route) indicates that only two points are linked
while 0.8 and above shows a stronger transport network.
Transport Networks In Zimbabwe
 In Zimbabwe, transport networks are dominated by road networks.
 Both major cities and small towns are connected together through road networks
 However major cities and mine towns are connected through a railway network system as
well.

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

  The network system is stronger in urban areas and weaker in rural areas. This is because
the efficiency of the transport network and the importance of different points (nodes)
determine the strength of connection
Factors Influencing Transport Networks
1. Physical features (topographical features)
 Flat areas are easy to construct roads and railway lines while hilly areas are difficult to
navigate.
 Thus areas with a uniform gradient tend to have a relatively higher B.I.

2. Economic importance of the area

 Mine towns, farms, tourist resorts and commercial towns are heavily connected by a
network of roads than areas with no economic activity at all.
 Once a valuable mineral is discovered in a remote area, roads and railway lines develop in
order to access that area.
3. Development of the area
 Rural areas are less connected because they lack important economic activities.
4. Political factors
 The administration of the country determines the transport maps of the country.
 Trade agreements between countries also determines transport networks between
countries across the world
 Currently there is no direct connection between Zimbabwe and European Airlines due to
lack of trade ties.
 However both railway networks and air networks are stronger in the SADC region due to
trade connections.
5. Population of the area
 Densely populated areas such as large cities have a greater transport connection than lowly
populated areas such as farms, rural areas and growth points.
6. Trade
 Trade plays a larger part in the connectivity of the region, continent and world at large
 Countries which trade together such as SADC, OPEC, or E.U have strong connectivity in
terms of railway, sea and air networks.
7. Economic Development of the country
 Developed countries have a high Beta Index as compared to developing countries.
 In developing countries such as Zimbabwe there are fewer roads and abandoned railway
lines and three functional airports (R.G Mugabe International airport, Victoria Falls and
Bulawayo)
 South Africa is flooded by roads, railway lines and airports due to its developed economy

PRACTICE
Study map 2.0 below and attempt questions that follow.

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

1. a) On the map below draw the road transport network.[8]
b) Using the road network drawn above, calculate the Beta Index of the area. [4]
c) Is the area an urban or a rural and why? [2]

RESPONSE
 Make sure all nodes are connected (all cities and towns are connected to each other).
 Your road network should have 15 routes (edges) and 8 nodes.
 This translates to a Beta Index of 1.9 (15/8=1.87 or 1.9)
 A high Beta Index like this can never be found in rural areas because they are less
developed.
 Hence this area is an urban area.
Transport Challenges
 Fuel shortages and price inflation
 Poor infrastructure (poor roads)
 Traffic congestion
 Accidents
 Rising transport costs
 Corruption
 Lack of regulations against bad vehicles
 Poor road law enforcement
 Air pollution
Solutions to the Problems
 Dualizing highways
 Re-enforcing road laws and regulations
 Construction of fly-overs in busy areas
 Construction of ring roads
 Installing streets lights
 Building roundabouts
 One-way traffic
 Legislation against use of bad vehicles, unauthorized drivers etc

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY

  Reclamation of potholed roads
 Decentralizing the management of roads to district level
 Sub-contracting private road construction companies
 Awareness campaigns
 Implementing road technology eg speed checks and GPS tracking
 Use of robots at busy intersections
 Employing police checks

End of Topic Questions

1. Define the term transport.
2. State three modes of transport
3. Identify any three goods that can be transported using pipeline transport.
4. Suggest the disadvantages of pipeline transport.
5. Outline the advantages and disadvantages of public transport
6. Propose measures to reduce traffic congestion in Zimbabwe’s major cities
7. Explain the advantages of using air transport.

FIRST CHOICE COLLEGE-GEOGRAPHY