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Module – 5
LASER
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
Lasers are devices that produce intense beams of light by stimulated emissionwhich are
monochromatic, coherent, and highly collimated. The wavelength (color) of laser light is
extremely pure (monochromatic) when compared to other sources of light, and all of the
photons (energy) that make up the laser beam have a fixed phase relationship (coherence)
with respect to one another. Light from a laser typically has very low divergence. It can travel
over great distances or can be focused to a very small spot with a brightness which exceeds
that of the sun. Because of these properties, lasers are used in a wide variety of applications in
all walks of life.
Differentiation between the light emitted by conventional sources and LASER sources
Conventional Source LASER source
 Polychromatic (Constitute more than one  Monochromatic (Constitute single
wavelength) wavelength)
 Non-directional (Photons travel in  Highly directional (All photons travel in
different direction and exhibit high same direction and exhibit less divergence)
divergence)  Coherent (All the photons have same
 Incoherent (The photons will not be in phase and frequency)
phase with each other)  High intensity
 Less intensity
There are two types of coherence,
Temporal or Longitudinal coherence
Temporal coherence is the measure of the average correlation between the value of a wave
and itself delayed by τ, at any pair of times. A beam of laser is said to exhibit temporal
coherence if the phase difference of the waves crossing the two points lying on a plane parallel
to the direction of the propagation of beam is independent of time.
Spatial or Transverse coherence

A laser beam is said to possess spatial coherence if the phase

difference of the waves crossing the two points on a plane
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the beam is time
independent. Spatial Coherence is also termed as transverse or
lateral coherence.
Interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter
The interaction of radiation with matter can be explained by considering the light radiation is
made up of discrete packets of energy called photons. The energy will be absorbed or emitted
by an atom takes through these quantum of energy called photons. Each photon has internal
energy determined by the equation
ℎ𝑐 𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝜗 or𝐸 = (∵ 𝜗 = 𝜆 )
𝜆

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Where,𝝑 is frequency (Hz), c is speed of light (3x10 m/s),
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h is Planck’s constant (6.62x10 JS) and 𝝀 is the wavelength (m).
For an atom to absorb light (i.e., for the light energy to cause an electron to move from a lower
energy state E1 to a higher energy state E2), the energy of a single photon must equal, almost
exactly, the energy difference between the two states. Too much energy or too little energy
and the photon will not be absorbed. Therefore the energy of photon must be equal to
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = Δ𝐸 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = (𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒)
𝜆
Three types of interactions are possible, they are as follows
Stimulated Absorption, Spontaneous Emission and Stimulated Emission
[Link] Absorption
Absorption is the process in which atom absorbs a photon of right
frequency (𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝜈) and get excited to the higher energy level.
𝑨 + 𝒉𝝂 → 𝑨∗
The rate of stimulated absorption depends on the density of atoms (N1) in
the ground state (E1) and the photon density, U.
𝑅 ∗12 𝛼 𝑁1 and𝑅 ∗12 𝛼 𝑈𝜈
𝑅 ∗12 𝛼 𝑁1 𝑈𝜈
𝑅 ∗12 = 𝐵12 𝑁1 𝑈𝜈 ---------- (1)
Where, N1is density of atoms in energy level E1,𝑼𝝂 is the photon density
and B12 is the Einstein’s coefficient for stimulated absorption.
2 Spontaneous Emission
Atom in the excited energy level comes back to the lower energy level after
spending relaxation time (10-8 s) by emitting a photon of energy,
𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝜈.
𝑨∗ → 𝑨 + 𝒉𝝂
The rate of spontaneous emission depends only on the density of atoms (N2)
in the higher energy state (E2)
𝑅21 𝛼 𝑁2
𝑅21 = 𝐴21 𝑁2 ------------- (2)
Where, N2is density of atoms in energy level E2and A21 is the
Einstein’s coefficient for spontaneous emission.
[Link] Emission
When a photon of right frequency is allowed to incident on the atom
in the excited state, the atom is forced to come back to the ground
state (E1) by emitting photon of same energy and frequency.
𝑨∗ → 𝑨 + 𝟐𝒉𝝂

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The rate of stimulated emission depends on the density of atoms (N2) in the excited state (E2)
and the photon density, 𝑈𝜈
𝑅 ∗ 21 𝛼 𝑁2 and𝑅 ∗ 21 𝛼 𝑈𝜈
𝑅 ∗ 21 𝛼 𝑁2 𝑈𝜈
𝑅 ∗12 = 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝑈𝜈 -------------- (3)
Where, N2is density of atoms in energy level
E2, 𝑼𝝂 is the photon density and B21 is the Einstein’s
coefficient for stimulated emission.
4. Comparison between Absorption, Spontaneous emission and Stimulated emission.
Stimulated Absorption Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission
It is a process in which an It is a process in which an It is a process in which an atom in
atom in the ground state atom in the excited state the excited state is incident by a
absorbs a photon of right spontaneously comes back photon of suitable frequency and
frequency and excite to to ground state after comes back to ground state
higher energy state. relaxation time. emitting photons of same
𝑨 + 𝒉𝝂 → 𝑨∗ 𝑨∗ → 𝑨 + 𝒉𝝂 frequency.
𝑨∗ → 𝑨 + 𝟐𝒉𝝂

Rate equation: Rate equation: Rate equation:

𝑅 ∗12 = 𝐵12 𝑁1 𝑈𝜈 𝑅21 = 𝐴21 𝑁2 𝑅 ∗ 21 = 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝑈𝜈
i. Wavelength, direction i. Wavelength, direction and
and polarization of polarization of emitted photon
emitted photons are is same as that of incident
different compared to photon.
each other. ii. Emitted photon is in phase
ii. The photons emitted (coherent) with the incident
will not be in phase photon.
(incoherent) with each
other.
Expression connecting Energy density and Einstein’s coefficients
The rate of stimulated absorption depends on the density of atom (N1) and the photon density,
𝑈𝜈 .
𝑅 ∗12 = 𝐵12 𝑁1 𝑈𝜈 ------------ (1)
The rate of spontaneous emission depends only on the density of atoms (N2) in the higher
energy state (E2)
𝑅21 = 𝐴21 𝑁2 ------------- (2)

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The rate of stimulated emission depends on the density of atoms (N2) in the excited state (E2)
and the photon density, 𝑈𝜈
𝑅 ∗ 21 = 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝑈𝜈 -------------- (3)
At thermal equilibrium condition for the system,


Rate of Absorption  R 12  Rate of spontaneous emission R21   Rate of stimulated emission  R*21 
*

From equations (1), (2) and (3),

𝐵12 𝑁1 𝑈𝜈 = 𝐴21 𝑁2 + 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝑈𝜈
𝑈𝜈 𝐵12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 𝑁2 = 𝐴21 𝑁2
𝐴21 𝑁2
𝑈𝜈 =
𝐵12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 𝑁2
𝐴21 𝑁2
𝑈𝜈 = 𝐵12 𝑁1
𝐵21 𝑁2 − 1
𝐵21 𝑁2

𝐴 1
𝑈𝜈 = 𝐵21 𝐵 12 𝑁 1 ------- (4)
21 −1
𝐵 21 𝑁 2

From Boltzmann’s law, the Boltzmann’s factor is

ℎ𝑐
𝑁1
= 𝑒 𝜆𝐾𝑇 ----- (5)
𝑁2

Substituting equation (5) in (4),

𝐴 1
𝑈𝜈 = 𝐵21 ℎ𝑐 ---- (6)
21 𝐵 12
𝑒 𝜆𝐾𝑇 − 1
𝐵 21

From Planck’s law of radiation, wkt

8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3 1
𝑈𝜈 = ℎ𝑐 ---- (7)
𝑐3
𝑒 𝜆𝐾𝑇 −1

𝐴 8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3 𝐵12
Comparing equation (6) and (7)𝐵21 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =1
21 𝑐3 𝐵21

𝐴
There fore equation 6 can be written as, 𝑈𝜈 = ℎ𝑐
𝐵 𝑒 𝜆𝐾𝑇 − 1

Ratio of stimulated emission to spontaneous emission

𝑅 ∗ 21 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝑈𝜈 𝐵21
= = 𝑈
𝑅21 𝐴21 𝑁2 𝐴21 𝜈
𝑅 ∗ 21 𝑈𝜈
=
𝑅21 𝐴21 /𝐵21
8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3 1
∗ 𝑐3 ℎ𝑐
𝑅 21 𝑒 𝜆𝐾𝑇 −1 1 1
= 8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3
= ℎ𝑐 𝒐𝒓 𝑁1
𝑅21 −1
𝑐3 𝑒 𝜆𝐾𝑇 −1 𝑁2

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Meta Stable State
In general, the excited atoms stay in that state for about
E3

 10-8s,then comes back to the lower state by emitting a

photon spontaneously. This time is insufficient for the
E2
Metastable State
excited atoms to interact with the photons available to
E1
make stimulated emission. It requires a metastable state
where the excited atoms stay for longer duration  10-3 s, for the excited atoms to get sufficient
time to interact with the available photons. This state plays an important role in lasing action.
Definition:It is the energy state in which the excited atoms remains in the state for longer time
compare to the normal excited state.
In metastable state, atoms stay for the duration of 10-3 to 10-2 second. Therefore the atoms
get sufficient time to interact with the photons and de-excite to lower energy level by
stimulated emission.
Population Inversion
In thermal equilibrium condition, from Boltzmann’s distribution
function, the atoms densities in the lower energy state (N1) will
be more compared to that of higher energy state (N2), i.e.,
N1>>N2
𝑁1 ℎ𝑐
= 𝑒 𝜆𝐾𝑇
𝑁2
It is impossible to achieve stimulated emission in thermal equilibrium condition and hence the
lasing action is impossible. Therefore, the atoms are pumped by using various pumping
technique (optical, electrical, chemical etc.,) with metastable state to create a situation where
density of atoms in N2 is greater than that of the N1. This situation is called population
inversion.
Definition:It is the state of the system at which the number density of atoms in higher energy
level (N2) is greater than that of the lower energy level (N1).
Pumping:
It is the process of exciting atoms from lower energy level to higher energy level. It can be
achieved by different methods.
i) Optical pumping:The process ofexciting atoms using high intensity light or by operating flash
tube. Ex: Ruby Laser.
ii) Electric Discharge:The process ofexciting atoms by applying very high potential between the
plates of discharge tube. Ex: Argon Laser, He-Ne Laser.
iii) Atom-Atom Collision: Excited atoms collide with other types of atom and transfer its energy
to bring other atoms to excited state. Ex: He-Ne Laser.
iv) Using Current: In semiconductor diode laser the tuning of current input brings the charge
carriers to achieve population inversion

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The necessary conditions for lasing action
1. Population inversion- In order to have stimulated emission the population inversion must
be achieved. This is done using external energy to pump atoms from ground state to excited
state.
2. Metastable state -In order to sustain population inversion there should be metastable state.
3. Resonating cavity -This cavity is used to amplify the laser beam.
The resonating cavity consists of two mirrors, one
fully reflecting and the other partially reflecting,
placed parallel to each other outside the resonating
cavity.
The length of the cavity is given by the equation𝑳 =
𝒏𝝀
where L is length of the cavity, 𝝀 is the wavelength
𝟐𝝁
of the beam, n is the number of possible modes
inside the cavity and 𝝁 is the refractive index of the
medium.
He-Ne laser
Schematic diagram

Energy level diagram

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Construction
i. The He-Ne laser consist of a discharge tube of length 1mand diameter 5mm.
ii. The discharge tube is filled with He and Ne gas in the ratio 10:1.
iii. The two ends of the discharge tube are fitted with Brewster’s window.
iv. Two mirrors placed outside the discharge tube forms resonating cavity.
v. The tube is fitted with high voltage battery to create electric discharge.
Active Medium
i. A mixture of He and Ne gases at partial pressure of 1mm and 0.1mm, respectively is
the active medium.
ii. Ne is the lasing atom and He is used to pump the Ne atom to the excited state.
Pumping
This is a two stage process in He-Ne lasers.
i. Electric discharge passed through the gaseous mixture by applying a high voltage excites
He atom.
ii. Heatom collides with Ne atom and excites it to higher energy through atomic collision.
Working
i. Electric discharge produces electrons (e-) with high kinetic energy moving inside the
tube.
ii. He atoms are raised from ground state (1s) to excited state (2s) by collisions with
electron moving with high KE
e-(High KE) + He  He* + e-(Low KE)
iii. Excited He atom collide with Ne atoms and transfer Ne atom to 5s and 4s excited
levels.
He* + Ne(ground) + KE of He  Ne*+He
iv. Population inversion occurs between 5s & 4p, 5s & 3p and 4s & 3p. The corresponding
transitions are
5s to 4p  3.39 µm
5s to 3p 632.8 nm
4s to 3p  1.15 µm
v. Ne atom decays to 1s level by spontaneous emission and decay to ground state by
colliding with the walls of the discharge tube.
vi. The wavelength of 632.8nm is selectively amplified by adjusting the distance between
the mirrors.
vii. The photons moving parallel to the axial direction are reflected back and forth
between the mirrors until sufficient intensity is built to transmit from partially
reflecting mirror.
viii. The output is the plane polarized and continuous laser of wavelength 632.8nm.

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Semiconductors
Energy band diagrams of p and n type semiconductors and p-n junction

Direct and indirect band gap semiconductors

Direct Band Gap Indirect Band Gap

Energy is liberated as photon Energy is liberated as both phonon and

photon
Ex:GaAs, InP Ex: Ge, Si
Can be used for light emittion purpose Cannot be used for light emittion purpose

Semiconductor laser:
A Semiconductor diode laser is a specially fabricated p-n junction device that emits coherent
light when it is forward biased. In the case of germanium and silicon based diodes, this energy
is released in the form of heat because of recombination of carriers take place through
interaction with the atoms of the crystal. But in the case of GaAs, the energy is released in the
form of photons as the atoms of the crystal are not involved in the release of energy. The
wavelength of the emitted photon depends upon the activation energy of the crystal.
Construction: A schematic diagram of
semiconductor laser is as shown in the
figure. The diode is very small size with
sides of the order of 1mm. The junction
lies in a horizontal plane. The top and
bottom surfaces are metalized and
ohmic contacts are provided for external connection. The front and rear faces are polished.
The polished faces constitute the Fabry-perot resonator. The other two faces are roughened to
prevent lasing action in that direction. The active region consists of about 1m thickness.
The emitted photon stimulates the recombination of the other carriers.
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Working: The energy band diagram
(Fig a) of heavily doped p-n junction in
unbiased condition is as shown. At
thermal equilibrium, the Fermi level is
uniform across the junction. Because
of very high doping on n-side, Fermi
level is pushed into the conduction (a)
band and electrons occupy the
portion of the conduction band lying
below the Fermi level. On p-side, the
Fermi level lies within the valence
band and holes occupy the portion of
the valence band that lies above the
Fermi level.
(b)
When the junction is forward biased Energy level diagram of p-n junction diode laser
(a) Before biasing (b) After biasing
electrons and holes are injected into
the junction region in high concentrations. At low forward current, the electron-holes
recombination results in spontaneous emission of photons and the junction acts as a LED. As
the forward current is increased gradually and when it reaches a threshold value the carrier
concentration in the junction region there will be large concentrations of electrons within the
band. As a result condition of population inversion is attained in the narrow region. This
narrow zone in which population inversion occurs is called as an active region, at that stage a
photon emitted spontaneously triggers stimulated emission. This stimulated electron-hole
recombination produces coherent radiation.
Since the energy band gap of GaAs is 1.41 eV, the wavelength of emitted light is ~840 nm.
Applications of LASER
LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) in atmospheric pollutant studies
 A pulsed laser source is used to
direct the laser beam into the Atmosphere
atmosphere
Concave mirror
 Due to the presence of particulate
matter in the atmosphere, Photo detector Narrow Band Filter
scattering will occur.
 The amplitude and direction and
wavelength of the scattered beam
Data Processor
depends on the concentration,
composition and dimension of the pollutants
 The backscattered beam is collected by a detector and analyzed by a processor.
 As a general rule, more the aerosols present in the atmosphere more will be
thebackscattering.
 Using multiple wavelengths one can tell about the size distribution of aerosols, and
depolarization data can be used to determine the shape.

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Laser Isotope Separation (LIS)
Uranium ore consists of99.25% of 238 U and 0.72% of 235 U. 235U
is the fissile isotope which is needed as fuel for the nuclear
reactors. Therefore it is important to enrich 235 U.
 LIS is a two stage process
o In First stage 235U is selectively excited to thelevel E2 using a
laser beam of frequency ν1 = (E2- E1)/h.
o A second laser of frequency ν2 =(E3- E2)/h is used to ionize the
235
U and these ions are collected by collector (negatively
charged collector).
 Since the E2 energy state of 238 U is at a lower energy compared
to E2energy state of 235U, the atoms of 238U will remain in the ground state.

Laser Induce Fusion (LIF)

• When two light nuclei fuse together to form a
heavier nucleus enormous energy is produced.
This process occurs in the sun and the stars. It
is the most abundant and pure form of energy
in nature.
• Plenty of fusion fuel is found in both seawater
and the Earth’s crust.
• A Fusion process requires very high
temperature (~108 K) and pressure(~1012atm)
• Laser beams are focused confined area to
achieve very high temperature (~108 K) and
pressure (~1012ATM) to have a new fusion
system in the laboratory. Laser fusion is based
on internal confinement
• The main lasers used in these systems are CO2 or Nd:YAGlaser.
• Fuel pellet is simultaneously irradiated with large number of short pulse laser beams and it
will heat the pellet in short time
• This causes vaporization of the outer surface of the pellet to form plasma. The rapid
heating causes the solid boundary to leave the rest of the pellet with high speed and this
initiates the fusion.
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