International Baccalaureate

MATHEMATICS
Applications and Interpretation SL (and HL)
Lecture Notes

Christos Nikolaidis

TOPIC 2
FUNCTIONS

2A. Theory of functions

2.1 LINES (or LINEAR FUNCTIONS) ……………………………………………………………. 1

2.2 QUADRATICS (or QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS) ……………………………………….. 7

2.3 FUNCTIONS, DOMAIN, RANGE, GRAPH ……………………………………………… 12

2.4 AN INFORMAL IDEA OF THE INVERSE FUNCTION: f-1 ……………………… 24

2.5 THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION ax ……………………………………………………….. 28

2.6 LOGARITHMS logx AND lnx - THE LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION …………. 32

Only for HL

2.7 COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS: fog ……………………………………………………… 39

2.8 THE INVERSE FUNCTION: f-1 ………………………………………………………………… 44

2.9 TRANSFORMATIONS OF FUNCTIONS …………………………………………………… 50

2.10 SOME DISCUSSION ON ASYMPTOTES ………………………………………………… 57

2.11 LOGARITHMS logax ………………………………………………………………………………… 61

2.12 EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS ………………………………………………………………….. 68

December 2020
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.1 LINES (or LINEAR FUNCTIONS)

 BASIC NOTIONS ON COORDINATE GEOMETRY

Given two points A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2)

y2 B

y1
A

O x1 x2

 The gradient or slope of line segment AB is given by

Δy y2  y1
m= 
Δx x 2  x1

This indicates the inclination of the line segment AB. As we are

moving along the positive direction of the x-axis, if the line
segment is
increasing ( ⁄ ) then m>0
decreasing ( \ ) then m<0
horizontal (— ) then m=0
vertical (| ) then m is not defined

 The distance between A and B is given by

dAB= ( Δx ) 2  ( Δy ) 2 = (x 2 - x 1 ) 2  (y 2  y1 ) 2

 The coordinates of the midpoint M(x,y) of the line segment AB

are given by
x1  x 2 y1  y 2
x y
2 2

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EXAMPLE 1

a) Given two points A(1,4) and B(7,12)

Δy 12 - 4 4
The slope of the line segment AB is m=  
Δx 7 1 3

The distance between them is d  (7 - 1) 2  (12  4) 2  10

1  7 4  12
The midpoint is M( , ) that is M(4,8)
2 2
b) Given two points A(1,8) and B(5,8)

It is not necessary to use the formulas. Since A and B have the

same y-coordinate:

The slope of the line segment AB is m=0 (horizontal)

The distance between them is d=5-1=4

The midpoint is M(3,8)

c) Given two points A(1,5) and B(1,7)

It is not necessary to use the formulas. Since A and B have the

same x-coordinate:

The slope m of the line segment AB is not defined (vertical)

The distance between them is d=7-5=2

The midpoint is M(1,6)

The notion of the function will be formally introduced later on, in

paragraph 2.3. However, we will start by presenting two families of
already known functions

Linear functions: y=mx+c or f(x) = mx+c

Quadratic functions: y=ax2+bx+c or f(x) = ax2+bx+c

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 THE EQUATION OF A LINE

Equation of a (straight) line: y=mx+c

m = gradient or slope c = y-intercept

y=mx+c
c

NOTICE:
A horizontal line has equation y=c (slope m=0)
A vertical line has equation x=c (there is no slope)

(in fact, a vertical line is not a function, that is why the

equation x=0 is not a particular case of y=mx+c)

EXAMPLE 2
Look at the graphs of two lines: L1: y=2x and L2: y=-2x

In fact, the slope shows the rise of the line per each unit
Line L1: slope is 2 (y increases 2 units per each x-unit)
Line L2: slope is -2 (y decreases 2 units per each x-unit)

In both cases c=0 (since the function passes through the origin)

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EXAMPLE 3
Look at the graphs of two lines: L1: y=2x+3 and L2: y=-2x+3

Line L1: slope is 2 Line L2: slope is -2

In both cases the y-intercept is 3

EXAMPLE 4
Look at the graphs of two lines: L1: y=5 and L2: x=5

 PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES

Consider two lines: L1: y=m1x+c1 and L2: y=m2x+c2

Parallel lines: L1 // L2 if m1= m2

Perpendicular lines: L1  L2 if m2=-1/m1

For example,
The lines y=3x+5 and y=3x+8 are parallel
1
The lines y=3x+5 and y=  x+8 are perpendicular
3

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 AN ALTERNATIVE FORMULA FOR A LINE

A more general formula for a line is

Equation of a line: Ax+By=C

If B≠0, we can solve for y and obtain the form y=mx+c

If B=0, we obtain a vertical line of the form x=c
If A=0, we obtain a horizontal line of the form y=c

EXAMPLE 5
 From Ax+By=C into the usual form
The line 2x+3y=5 may be expressed as 3y=-2x+5 and finally
2 5
y x
3 3
 From the usual form into Ax+By=C
a) The line y=-3x+7 may be expressed as
3x+y=7
1 2
b) The line y  x may be expressed as
2 3
1 2
- xy
2 3
We usually require the coefficients A,B,C to be integers.
Multiplying by 6 we obtain
-3x+6y=4
c) The line y=5 may be expressed as 0x+y=5
d) The line x=5 may be expressed as x+0y=5

 GIVEN: A POINT AND A SLOPE

The line which
 passes through point P(x0,y0)
 has slope m
is given by

y-y0 = m(x-x0)

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EXAMPLE 6
The line which passes through point P(1,2), with slope m=3 is
y-2 = 3(x-1)

 Express in the form y=mx+c

y-2 = 3(x-1)  y=3x-3+2  y=3x-1
 Express in the form ax+by=c or ax+by+c=0
y=3x-1  3x-y=1 or 3x-y-1=0

 GIVEN: TWO POINTS

The line which passes through the points P(x1,y1) and Q(x2,y2)
has slope
Δy y2  y1
m= 
Δx x 2  x1

and its equation is again given by the formula

y-y1 = m(x-x1)

EXAMPLE 7
Find the line which passes through the points P(1,2) and Q(4,7).
Express your answer in the form ax+by=c where a,b,cZ (integers).
Solution
Δy 72 5
The slope is m=  
Δx 4 1 3
The equation of the line is
5
y-2 = (x-1)
3
 3y-6 = 5(x-1)
 3y-6 = 5x-5
and finally
-5x+3y = 1

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2.2 QUADRATICS (or QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS)

 THE SIMPLEST QUADRATIC: y=x2

Consider the function y=x2. Let us find some values

x … -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 …

y=x2 … 9 4 1 0 1 4 9 …

Notice that x can take any value in R. We say that

the domain of the function is xR

The result, i.e. the value of y, is always positive or 0. We say that

the range of the function is [0,+) (or simply y≥0).

The curve of this function is known as parabola.

We can easily see that the graph of the function y=-x2 is

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 THE QUADRATIC FUNCTION

A quadratic function has the form

y=ax2+bx+c

The graph of a quadratic is always a parabola. The basic

characteristics of its graph as shown below:

y-intercept

roots

vertex

1) a≠0. The sign of a shows the concavity of the function:

If a>0 the graph looks like If a<0 the graph looks like

(concave up) (concave down)

2) Discriminant: Δ=b2-4ac. It determines the number of roots

Δ>0: 2 roots Δ=0: 1 root Δ<0: No real roots

-b Δ
3) x-intercepts (or roots): x1,2= , (only if Δ≥0)
2a
4) y-intercept: for x=0 we obtain y=c

-b
5) axis of symmetry: x= (it’s also the x-coordinate of the vertex)
2a
x1  x 2
If we know the two roots x1,x2 the vertex is at x=
2

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6) According to Δ, the graph looks like

Δ>0: 2 roots Δ=0: 1 root Δ<0: No real roots

EXAMPLE 1
Consider y=2x2-12x+10

 a=2 (+tive), so the graph looks like U (concave up)

-b Δ
 Δ= b2-4ac = 64>0, thus two roots: x1,2= = 1 and 5
2a
 y-intercept: y=10
-b 15
 Axis of symmetry: x= i.e. x=3. (Or otherwise x= 3)
2a 2
For x=3, we obtain y=-8. Hence, the vertex is V(3,-8)

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NOTICE FOR THE GDC (Casio)

We can find the roots 1 and 5 in

Equation – Polynomial (degree 2)

We can find more characteristics in Graph mode: G-Solv (F5)

Options in our example

F1 (ROOT): for the roots 1 and 5

F2 (MAX) or F3 (MIN): for the vertex (3,-8)

F4 (YCEPT): for y-intercept 10

 THREE FORMS OF A QUADRATIC FUNCTION

A quadratic can take the following 3 equivalent forms:

1) Traditional form: y=ax2+bx+c

2) Factorization form: y=a(x-r1)(x-r2) [r1,r2 roots]
3) Vertex form: y=a(x-h)2+k [V(h,k) vertex]

Let us clarify by the following examples.

EXAMPLE 2
We consider again
y=2x2-12x+10 (1)

We find the roots: 1 and 5. Thus the factorization is

y=2(x-1)(x-5) (2)

We find the vertex: V(3,-8). Thus the vertex form is

y=2(x-3)2-8 (3)

Notice: if you expand (2) or (3) you will obtain (1)

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EXAMPLE 3
Let
y=-3x2-15x+42 (1)
By using the GDC,
we find the roots: -7 and 2. Thus the factorization is

y=-3(x+7)(x-2) (2)

we find the vertex: V(-2.5, 60.75). Thus the vertex form is

y=-3(x+2.5)2+60.75 (3)

Notice: if you expand (2) or (3) you will obtain (1)

EXAMPLE 4
Consider f(x)=3x2+12x. Find both analytically and by GDC
a) the roots and the factorization.
b) the equation of the axis of symmetry
c) the minimum value of y and the coordinates of the vertex.
d) the vertex form of f(x).
Solution
a) Analytically:
The factorization is y = 3x2+12x = 3x(x+4)
So the roots are x=0, x=-4
By using GDC – Graph mode
The roots are x=0 and x=-4
So the factorization is y=3(x-0)(x+4), that is y=3x(x+4)
- b - 12
b) x= = =-2. That is x=-2.
2a 6
c) Analytically:
For x=-2, it is y=3(-2)2+12(-2)=-12. Thus ymin =-12
Thus the vertex is V(-2,-12)
By using GDC - mode: ymin =-12 and V(-2,-12).
d) f(x) = 3(x+2)2-12

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2.3 FUNCTIONS IN GENERAL, DOMAIN, RANGE, GRAPH

 DEFINITION
Let us formally introduce the notion of the function:

f: X → Y

A function f from a set X to a set Y assigns

to each element x of X
a unique element y of Y

We write: We say:
f(x)=y f maps x to y
f: x ֏ y y is the image of x

EXAMPLE 1
Let X={1,2,3} and Y={a,b,c,d}. The following is a function f: X → Y

X Y
a
1
f: b
2
c
3
d

Indeed, each element of X has a unique image in Y.

We say
f maps 1 to a or a is the image of 1
2 to b b is the image of 2
3 to d d is the image of 3
We write
f(1)=a , f(2)=b , f(3)=d
or f: 1 ֏ a f: 2 ֏ b f: 3 ֏ d

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EXAMPLE 2

Let X={1,2,3} and Y={a,b,c,d}

 The following is a function

X Y
a
1
f: b
2
c
3
d

(we do not mind if two elements of X have the same image)

 Notice though that the following is not a function

X Y
a
1
f: b
2
c
3
d

(we said “each x of X”, but here 3 has no image)

 Finally, the following is not a function

X Y
a
1
f: b
2
c
3
d

(we said “unique y of Y”, but 2 has two images)

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 DOMAIN AND RANGE

For a function f: X → Y,

The set of all x’s involved is called DOMAIN

The set of all y’s involved (only the images) is called RANGE

Consider again the function f: X → Y given by

X Y
a
1
f: b
2
c
3
d

Then DOMAIN : xX={1,2,3}

RANGE : y{a,b,d}

We usually denote the domain by Df and the range by R f .

Here, the sets X and Y are subsets of R, the set of real numbers.

Our functions usually have a specific pattern. For example, consider

the function f which maps
1 ֏2 2 ֏4 3 ֏6 4 ֏8 and so on
in other words f maps each value x to its double 2x.

We say that the function f is given by

f: x ֏ 2x
or f(x)=2x
or y=2x

Thus the formula of the function gives any possible result, e.g.

f(1)=2, f(15)=30, f(2.4) = 4.8 etc

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If we restrict the function f from R to the interval X=[0,10], we

still have the function f: X→ R, given by
f(x)=2x, 0≤x≤10
but now
DOMAIN : x[0,10]
RANGE : y[0,20] (why?)

 GRAPH

We know that the pairs (x,y) that satisfy the equation of the
function y=f(x) can be represented as points (x,y) on the Cartesian
plane and form the graph of the function.

The graph clearly shows the DOMAIN and the RANGE of the
function. For example,

x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

DOMAIN: Projection on the x-axis, i.e. Df : x[1,8]

RANGE: Projection on the y-axis, i.e. R f : y[2,6]

We may observe, for example, that the points

(1,2), (5,3), (7,6), (8,5) lie on the curve.

That implies

f(1)=2 f(5)=3 f(7)=6 f(8)=5

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We have already studied the graphs of two families of functions;

linear and quadratic functions. The graphs are straight lines and
parabolas respectively.

EXAMPLE 3
 f(x)=2x, or otherwise y=2x is represented by the graph

x 0 1 2 3

2 y 0 2 4 6

x
0 1 2

Here Df : xR R f : yR

 f(x)=x2, or otherwise y= x2 is represented by the graph

4
x -2 -1 0 1 2

y 4 1 0 1 4

x
-2 -1 1 2

Here Df : xR R f : y[0,+∞)

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EXAMPLE 4
x 2 , 2 x  0
Consider the function f(x)  
x , 1 x 5
The graph is given below

5
4
3
2
1

x
-2 -1 1 2 3 4 5

Clearly, Df : x[-2,0][1,5] and R f : y[0,5]

NOTICE:
The graph also shows if we have a function or not

x
1 2 3 4 5

This is not a function, since f(3) for example is not unique!

Vertical line test:

Any vertical line intersects the graph at most once.

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 AN “AGGREEMENT” FOR THE DOMAIN

Usually, a function is simply given as a formula of the form y=f(x),

where x and y are real variables.

If the domain of the function is not given, we agree that

Df is R
or Df is the largest possible subset of R

For example,

 if f is given by f(x)=2x, we assume that xR

2
 if f is given by f(x)= , we assume that xR-{0} =R*
x
(we may also write Df : x≠0)

We mainly deal with the following cases

1. f(x) is a function with no restrictions on x,

for example a polynomial [say f(x)=2x3+3x2+1], then

Df = R

Α
2. f(x) = , then B cannot be 0, thus
Β

Df = R – {roots of the equation B=0}

3. f(x) = Α , then A  0.

Df = the solution set of the inequality A  0

4. f(x) = logA or f(x)=lnA, then A>0. 1

Df = the solution set of the inequality A>0

5. f(x) = is a combination of all the above.

We find the subset of R where all our restrictions hold.

1
The functions f(x)=logx and f(x)=lnx are not known yet. They will be introduced
later on within this topic.

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EXAMPLE 5

a) f(x) = 3x-9. Clearly, Df : xR

5
b) f(x) = . Restriction: 3x-9  0
3x - 9

Solve: 3x-9=0  3x=9  x = 3

Thus, Df : xR-{3}. We may also write Df : x≠3

c) f(x) = 3x - 9 . Restriction: 3x-9  0

Solve: 3x-9  0  3x  9  x  3

Thus, Df : x[3,+  ). We may also write Df : x  3

d) f(x) = ln(3x - 9) . Restriction: 3x-9>0

Solve: 3x-9>0  3x>9  x > 3

Thus, Df : x(3,+  ). We may also write Df : x>3

x2
e) f(x) = 2
Restriction: x2-3x+2  0
x  3x  2

Solve: x2-3x+2=0  x=1 or x=2

Thus, Df : xR-{1,2}

f) f(x) = x 1 3 2  x Restrictions: x-1  0 and 2-x  0

Solve: x-1  0  x  1

2-x  0  x  2

Thus, Df : x[1,2] We may also write Df : 1  x  2

1  x2
g) f(x) = Restrictions: 1-x2  0 and x  0
x

Solve: 1-x2  0  x2  1  -1  x  1

Thus, Df : x[-1,0)  (0,1]

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 SPECIFIC POINTS ON A GRAPH

y
y-intercept
max

max
x

min

x-intercepts
Roots

For y=f(x)
 y-intercept: We set x=0 and find y
 x-intercepts (roots): We solve the equation f(x)=0
 local max-min: (as shown above)

When we have two graphs y=f(x) and y=g(x), it also useful to know
the intersection points of the two graphs

y
f(x)

g(x)

Intersection points

These points (x,y) can be found by solving the equation f(x)=g(x) to

obtain x and then using either y=f(x) or y=g(x) to obtain y.

All notions above, namely y-intercept, x-intercepts (or roots), max,

min, intersection points can be easily found in GDC – Graph mode.

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EXAMPLE 6

Consider the functions f(x)=(x-3)2-4 and g(x)=x-5.

For f :
y-intercept: for x=0, we obtain y=5
x-intercepts or roots: We solve (x-3)2-4=0
(x-3)2-4=0  (x-3)2= 4  x-3 = ±2  x = 2+3 or x =-2+3
Hence x=5 or x=1
max-min: for this particular function (quadratic), we know that
there is only a minimum.
We have a min at the vertex, i.e. at point (3,-4)
We say: We have a min at x=3. The min value is y=-4

For intersection points of f and g :

f(x)=g(x)  (x-3)2-4=x-5  x2-6x+9-4=x-5  x2-7x+10=0
 x=2 or x=5
By using either f(x) or g(x) we find y=-3, y=0 respectively.
Hence, the curves intersect at points (2,-3) and (5,0)

Indeed, the graphs of f(x) and g(x) are as follows

Remark: Confirm all the results by using GDC – Graph mode.

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 SOVING EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES BY USING GRAPHS

We can solve
 equations of the form f(x)=g(x)
 inequalities of the form f(x)>g(x) or f(x)≥g(x)

by using GDC - graph mode

METHOD A: we find the intersection points of the graphs

y1 = f(x)
y2 = g(x)
Solutions of f(x)=g(x): x-coordinates of intersection points
Solutions of f(x)>g(x): intervals where y1=f(x) is above y2=g(x)

METHOD B: we find the roots of the graph

y1 = f(x)-g(x)

Solutions of f(x)-g(x)=0: the roots of the graph

Solutions of f(x)-g(x)>0: intervals where y1=f(x)-g(x) is positive

EXAMPLE 7
Consider again the functions of Example 6
f(x)=(x-3)2-4 and g(x)=x-5.

a) Solve the equation f(x)=g(x).

METHOD A: Look at the graphs of y1=f(x) and y2=g(x)
(see Example 6). The intersection points occur at x=2, x=5
METHOD B: The equation can be written
f(x)-g(x) = (x-3)2- 4 - (x-5) =0
Look at the graph of y1=f(x)-g(x) (see GDC). Roots: x=2, x=5

b) Solve the inequality f(x)>g(x).

METHOD A:the graph of y1=f(x) is above y2=g(x) (see Example 6)
when x<2 or x>5
METHOD B: the graph of y1=f(x)-g(x) (see GDC) is positive
outside the roots, that is when x<2 or x>5

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EXAMPLE 8
Solve the equation 2x = 2x+3.
(a) by using the function SolveN of your GDC
(b) by considering the graphs of
y1=2x
y2=2x+3.

(c) by considering the graph

y=2x – (2x+3)
Solution
(a) SolveN gives two roots:
x = -1.29643  -1.30
x = 3.24702  3.25

For the following we need the diagrams

diagram 1 (for (b)) diagram 2 (for (c))

(b) Intersection points in diagram 1: x  -1.30 and x  3.25

(c) Roots of the function in diagram 2: x  -1.30 and x  3.25

Further question: (d) Solve the inequality 2x < 2x+3

Solution
According to either diagram 1, or diagram 2

-1.30 < x < 3.25

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2.4 AN INFORMAL IDEA OF THE INVERSE FUNCTION: f-1

 DISCUSSION

Consider the functions f(x)=x+10 and g(x)=x-10

Notice that
f(0) = 10 g(10) = 0
f(1) = 11 g(11) = 1
f(2) = 12 g(12) = 2
f(3) = 13 g(13) = 3 and so on.

In simple words,

the function f ands 10 to any value

the function g does the inverse process, i.e. it subtracts 10.

The inverse function of f, that is g, will be denoted by f-1

f(x)=x+10
f-1(x)=x-10
Mathematically
If f(x)=y then f-1(y)=x.

In fact, f and f-1 are inverse to each other.

Along the same lines

original function inverse function

f(x)=x+3 f-1(x)=x-3

f(x)=2x f-1(x)=x/2

f(x)=10x f-1(x)=x/10

f(x)=x2 (where x≥0) f-1(x)= x

f(x)=ex ?

Notice. In fact, the inverse function of f(x)=ex is f-1(x)=lnx

(known as logarithmic) which we are going to see in a while.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Guess the inverse function of

f(x)=3x+7
Here

I give you x, you multiply by 3 , you add 7, you find y

The inverse process is

you give me y, I subtract 7 I divide by 3 I obtain x

So the inverse function is

y 7
x=
3

But as we usually express functions in terms of x,

x 7
f-1(x)=
3

In a similar way, we can deduce that the inverse function of

f(x)=x3+5

is

f-1(x)= 3
x 5

 GRAPH OF f-1

The graph of f-1 is a reflection of f about the line y=x

y
y=x
f

f-1

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 1

If f(x)=x2 , for x≥0, then f-1(x)= x . Their graphs are

Notice:

 f and f-1 intersect on the line y=x.

 The points of intersection are (0,0) and (1,1)

(they are on the line y=x)

 f(2)=4 and thus f-1(4)=2.

 THE INVERSE FUNCTION IN REAL LIFE PROBLEMS

In real life problems instead of x and y we may have other

parameters.
For example, a square of side a

a
has

Perimeter P=4a (it is the function y=4x)

Area A=a2 (it is the function y=x2)

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

If they give us the perimeter P, then

P
P=4a  a 
4
Now the side is given in terms of the perimeter. This is in fact the
inverse function of P=4a

If they give us the area A, then

A=a2  a  A

Now the side is given in terms of the area. This is in fact the
inverse function of A=a2.

EXAMPLE 2
Let
F denote the temperature in Fahrenheit degrees
C denote the temperature in Celsius degrees

The conversion from Celsius to Fahrenheit is given by

F  1.8C  32

F(30)=86 implies that 30° Celsius is equal to 86° Fahrenheit

If we solve for C then

F  32
C
1.8

C(86)=30 implies that 86° Fahrenheit is equal to 30° Celsius

We can say that
F(30)=86 (Celsius to Fahrenheit
and
F-1(86)=30 (Fahrenheit to Celsius)

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.5 THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION ax

In topic 1 we have discussed the meaning of the power ax as x

moves along the sets N, Z, Q, R.

Consider the function

y=2x

Let us find some values

x … -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 …

y=2x … 1/8 1/4 1/2 0 1 4 8 …

Domain:
Range: y>0

As x can be any real value

the domain of the function is xR

As the result is always a positive number

the range of the function is yR+ (or otherwise y>0).

Notice that as x tends to -  (towards the left)

the value of y tends to 0, but it never touches 0.

To express this behavior we say that the x-axis (i.e. the line y=0) is
a horizontal asymptote of the function.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Consider now the function

y = 2-x [this is the same as y= 0.5 x (why?)]
Let us estimate some values

x … -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 …

y=2x … 8 4 2 0 1/2 1/4 1/8 …

Again

Domain: xR
Range: y>0

NOTICE

In general, for the functions

y=ax and y=a-x (where a>0)

1) The result is always positive (the range is y>0)

2) if a>1, then f(x)=ax increases (the graph looks like that of 2x)
f(x)=a-x decreases (the graph looks like that of 2-x)
3) if a<1, then f(x)=ax decreases while f(x)=a-x increases)
e.g. f(x)=0.5x decreases while f(x)=0.5-x increases)

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 THE EXPONENTIAL function y=ex

The exponential functions y=ex and y=e-x appear in many

applications. The graphs look like those of y=2x and y=2-x.

f(x) = ex f(x)=e-x

1
1

For both, the horizontal asymptote is the line y=0.

The y-intercept is y=1.

Let us now slightly modify y=ex:

y=ex+1 y= ex+2

y=2
y=1

horizontal asymptote: y=1 horizontal asymptote: y=2

y-intercept: y=2 y-intercept: y=3

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 1

Look at the following function in the graph mode of your GDC and
try to understand the information in columns 2 and 3.

To have an idea for the horizontal asymptote,

find the value of y when x=-10

The result will be very close to the horizontal asymptote.

Function Horizontal Asymptote y-intercept

y=2x line y=0 y=1

y=2-x line y=0 y=1

y=ex line y=0 y=1

y=e3x line y=0 y=1

y=3ex line y=0 y=3

y=-3ex line y=0 y=-3

y= ex+5 line y=5 y=6

y=3ex+5 line y=5 y=8

y=ex-2 line y=0 y=e-2

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.6 LOGARITHMS logx AND lnx - THE LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION

 THE LOGARITHM logx

Think the question

10what exponent gives 1000?

The answer is 3

We state this fact by

log1000=3

For each positive real number x we define

log x

which is called logarithm of x to the base 10. It is connected to the

exponential 10x. It is the answer to the question

10what exponent gives x?

The formal definition is

log x = y  10 y =x

For example,

log100 = 2, since 102=100

log1000 = 3, since 103=1000

log10000 = 4, since 104=10000

etc.

Notice: use your GDC to confirm these results

Clearly,
log10=1

log1=0

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

However, for log2, we should think:

10what exponent gives 2?

OK, this is difficult to answer without a GDC!!!

Our GDC gives

log2 = 0.301029…

This implies that

100.301029…=2

EXAMPLE 1
U

 log1000000 = 6,

 log107=7 Notice, in general log10x=x

But also for very small numbers

 log0.1 = -1,

 log0.01 = -2,

 log0.001 = -3,

 log0.000001 = -6,

NOTICE (Just for information)

In some way, log n indicates the size of the number n.

For example, if n is a 3-digit number, then 100≤n<1000.

Since log100=2 and log1000=3,
log n lies in the interval [2,3)

Similarly, any 10-digit number has a logarithm within [9,10)

Any n-digit number has a logarithm between n-1 and n.

Question: how many digits does the number 2100 have?

The GDC gives log2100 = 30.1. Therefore, 2100 has 31 digits!

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 THE LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION y=logx (just a rough idea)

A new function is defined

y = logx

for positive values of x.

Let us estimate some values by using the GDC

x 1 10 20 30 40 …

y=logx 0 1 1.30 1.48 1.60 …

In fact, this is the inverse of the function y =10x

Indeed, if f(x)=10x then f-1(x)=logx since for example

f(3)=103 = 1000,
f-1(1000) = log1000=3

For y = logx
Domain: x>0
Range: yR

The function is not defined at x=0 so the graph does not touch the
vertical line x=0 (y-axis).
As x tends to 0, y tends to -.
We say that
the line x=0 is a vertical asymptote

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 THE NATURAL LOGARITHM lnx (just a rough idea)

In a similar way, y=lnx is the inverse function of y=ex

For example, the GDC gives

ln2=0.69314…

This implies that

e0.69314 = 2

Let us see together the functions of y=ex and y=lnx

y=ex

y=lnx

Observations:

 For y=ex: Domain: xR Range: yR+ (i.e. y>0)

 For y=lnx: Domain: xR+ (i.e. x>0) Range: yR

 The x-axis (y=0) is a horizontal asymptote of y=ex

 The y-axis (x=0) is a vertical asymptote of y=lnx

 The graph of y=ex passes through (0,1)

 The graph of y=lnx passes through (1,0)

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

ONLY FOR

HL

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.7 COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS: fog

 DISCUSSION

Consider the function f(x)=x2

Notice that
f(5) = 52
f(a) = a2
f(3a+5) = (3a+5)2
f(3x+5) = (3x+5)2

In the last case the input value for f is another function of x.

In this way, we combine two functions,

f(x)=x2 and g(x)= 3x+5

and create a new function y=(3x+5)2.

This new function is denoted by fog.

 DEFINITION

For two functions f and g, the composite function fog is a new

function defined by

(fog)(x)=f(g(x))

The operation is called composition.

We say that fog is the composite function of f and g.

For the functions f(x)=x2 and g(x)=3x+5 given above, we find

(fog)(x) as follows

(f0g)(x) = f(g(x))

= f(3x+5)

= (3x+5)2

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

In the same way we can define the composite function (g0f)(x). It is

given by
(g0f)(x) = g(f(x))

= g(x2)

= 3x2+5

That is
(fog)(x)= (3x+5)2 while (g0f)(x)= 3x2+5

NOTICE:
 In general
fog ≠ g0f

 It is not necessary to write the answer so analytically. You can

answer directly. Look again:

f(x)=x2 and g(x)=3x+5

For fog you just plug g into f.

(fog)(x)= (3x+5)2

For gof you just plug f into g.

(g0f)(x)= 3x2+5

 For three functions

f(x)=x2, g(x)=3x+5, h(x)= x

we can define (f0g0h)(x).

We just plug h into g, to obtain

(g0h)(x)= 3 x  5

and the result into f to obtain

(f0g0h)(x)= (3 x  5) 2

We can easily verify that

f0(g0h)=(f0g)0h

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 1

Let f(x)=2x2-1 and g(x)=x+1. Find

(a) (fog)(x) (b) (g0f)(x) (c) (fog)(1) (d) (g0f)(1)

Solution

(a) (fog)(x) = 2(x+1)2-1

(b) (g0f)(x) = (2x2-1)+1 = 2x2

(c) From (a), we have

(fog)(1)=7

(d) From (b), we have

(g0f)(1) = 2

Notice for questions (c) and (d)

For (fog)(1) and (g0f)(1), it is not necessary to find (fog)(x) and

(g0f)(x) first. Alternatively, we can directly apply the definition as
follows

(c) (fog)(1) = f(g(1)) = f(2) = 7 [since g(1)=2]

(d) (g0f)(1) = g(f(1)) = g(1) = 2 [since f(1)=1]

We may also define the function fof in the obvious way:

(fof)(x) = f(f(x))

That is, we plug f into itself.

For example, if f(x)=2x-1, then

(fof)(x) = f(2x-1) = 2(2x-1)-1 = 4x-3

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 2
x 1
Let f(x)= and g(x)= x
2
Find (a) (fog)(x) (b) (gof)(x)

(c) (fof)(x) (d) (gog)(x)

(e) (fofof)(x) in two ways: as fo(fof) and as (fof)of

Solution

x 1 x 1
(a) (fog)(x) = (b) (gof)(x) =
2 2

x 1 x 3
1
x 3
(c) (fof)(x) = 2 = 2 =
2 2 4

(d) (gog)(x) = x= 4
x

x 3 x 7
1
x 7
(e) (fofof)(x) = [fo(fof)](x) = 4 = 4 =
2 2 8

x 1 x 7
3
x 7
Or = [(fof)of](x) = 2 = 2 =
4 4 8

 THE IDENTITY FUNCTION i(x)

It is the simple function that maps x to itself

i(x)=x or i: x ֏ x

Notice that

(foi)(x) = f(i(x)) = f(x)

(iof)(x) = i(f(x)) = f(x)

That is
foi = f and iof = f

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 COMPOSITION IN REAL LIFE PROBLEMS

We know that the area of a square a is A=a2.

What is the area of a square of side 2b+3 ?

The answer is
(2b  3) 2

In fact, we had two functions

A=a2 f(x) = x2

a=2b+3 g(x)=2x+3

and obtained

A (2b  3) 2 (f◦g)(x)=(2b+3)2

EXAMPLE 3
Let
F denote the temperature in Fahrenheit degrees
C denote the temperature in Celsius degrees
K denote the temperature in Kelvin degrees

The conversion from Celsius to Fahrenheit is given by

F  1.8C  32

The conversion from Kelvin to Celsius is given by

C  K  273.15
Therefore, the conversion from Kelvin to Fahrenheit is given by
F  1.8C  32  1.8(K - 273.15)  32

F  1.8K - 459.67
Compare with
f(x)  1.8x  32
g(x)  x  273.15

(f  g)(x)  1.8(x  273.15)  32  1.8x  459.67

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.8 THE INVERSE FUNCTION: f-1

We have seen an informal introduction to the inverse of f.

Let us define it more formally.

 DEFINITION

Let f:R→R

The inverse function f-1 is a new function such that

f(x)=y  f-1(y)=x.

For f(x)=x+10, we have seen that f-1(x)=x-10

 HOW DO WE FIND f-1 ?

Steps Example
f is given f(x) = x+10

1. Set f(x)=y 1. x+10 = y

2. Solve for x 2. x = y-10

3. Keep the solution but replace y by x 3. f-1(x)=x-10

NOTICE:
1. The inverse function of f-1 is f itself. That is

(f-1)-1 = f

2. The domain of f-1 is the range of f and vice-versa:

Df-1 = Rf Rf-1 = Df

3. It holds

(fof-1)(x) = x and (f-1of)(x) = x

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 1

Let f(x)=3x+5.

Find (a) f-1(x)

(b) f-1(11)

Solution
(a) We follow the three steps:
 Set 3x+5=y
y5
 3x+5=y  3x = y-5  x =
3
x 5
 f-1(x)=
3
x 5
(b) Since we know f-1(x)= , it is f-1(11) = 2
3
Alternatively:
It is not necessary to find f-1(x).
If f-1(11)=x then f(x)=11. Hence

3x+5 = 11  3x = 6  x=2.

Thus, f-1(11) =2

Remark:

Verify that
x 5
the inverse function of f-1(x)= is f(x)= 3x+5.
3
x 5
 Set = y
3
x 5
 = y  x-5 = 3y  x = 3y+5
3
 The inverse function is y = 3x+5

In other words f and f-1 are inverse to each other.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 2

Let f(x)=2x2-1 where x≥0. Find (a) f-1(x) (b) f-1(49)

Solution

(a) We follow the three steps:

 Set 2x2-1=y
y1 y1
 2x2-1=y  2x2 = y+1  x2 = x=
2 2
x 1
 f-1(x)=
2
x 1
(b) Since we know f-1(x)= , it is
2

f-1(49) = 25 = 5

[or, f-1(49)=x implies f(x)=49 2x2-1= 49  x2=25  x=5 ]

EXAMPLE 3
x 1
Let f(x)=
x2
2x - 1
(a) Show that f-1(x)=
1x

(b) Verify that fof-1 is the identity function [that is (fof-1)(x)=x]

Solution
x 1
(a) = y  x+1= y(x+2)
x2

 x+1= y(x+2)

 x+1=yx+2y

 x-yx=2y-1

 x(1-y)=2y-1
2y- 1 2x - 1
 x= Hence, f-1(x)=
1y 1x

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2x - 1 2x - 1  1- x x
1
(b) (fof-1)(x) = 1- x = 1- x = 1- x = x
2x - 1 2x - 1  2 - 2x 1
2
1- x 1- x 1- x
That is (fof-1)(x)=x (identity function)

[ In a similar way we can show that (f-1of)(x)=x ]

EXAMPLE 4
1
Let f(x)=1-2x and g(x)= . Find
x
(a) (f0g)(x) (b) (g0f)(x) (c) (g0f-1)(x)

(d) (f0g-1)(x) (e) (f0g)-1(x) (f) (f-10g-1)(x)

Solution
1 1 2
(a) (f0g)(x) = f(g(x)) = f( ) = 1-2 = 1-
x x x
1
(b) (g0f)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(1-2x) =
1- 2x

(c) We firstly need f-1. Since f(x)=1-2x

1- y 1- x
1-2x = y  1-y = 2x  x = . Hence f-1(x)=
2 2
2
Now (g0f-1)(x) =
1- x
1
(d) We firstly need g-1. Since g(x)=
x
1 1 1
= y x = . Hence g-1(x)= [ that is g-1 = g ]
x y x
2
Then, (f0g-1)(x) = 1-
x
2
(e) We are looking for the inverse function of (f0g)(x) = 1-
x
2 2 2 2
1- =y  1-y = x = . Thus , (f0g)-1(x) =
x x 1- y 1- x
1
1-
(f) (f-10g-1)(x) = x = x- 1
2 2x

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

NOTICE:
 Notice that (f0g)-1 ≠ f-10g-1 . In fact it holds

(f0g)-1 = g-10f-1

 A function is called self-iverse if f-1=f.

The graph of such a function is symmetric about y=x.

1 1
The simplest example is f(x)= , since f-1 (x)= .
x x
2x - 6
Another example is f(x)= (please confirm!)
x- 2

 PRESUPPOSITION FOR f-1

Consider the function

X Y
a
1
f: b
2
c
3

The inverse function f-1 doesn’t exist, since f-1(b) is not uniquely
determined (is it 2 or 3?). Hence, for f-1 to exist,

different values of x should map to different values of y:

X Y X Y
f f-1
x1 y1 x1 y1
x2 y2 x2 y2

NOTICE: Remember that any function must satisfy the vertical line
test. If, moreover, f is “1-1” it satisfies the

Horizontal line test

Any horizontal line intersects the graph at most once

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 5

(a) The function f(x)=3x+1 is “1-1” since it is a straight line and

satisfies the horizontal line test.

x- 1
Thus f-1 exists: f-1(x)=
3
(b) The function f(x)=x2 is not “1-1”

Indeed, f does not satisfies the horizontal line test, as two different
values may map to the same image, for example f(-2)=4=f(2).

However, if we consider

f(x)=x2, x≥0

(that is only the curve in the first quadrant) then f is “1-1” as it

satisfies the horizontal line test.

Now f-1 exists:

f-1(x)= x

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.9 TRANSFORMATIONS OF FUNCTIONS

 DISCUSSION

Consider a function f(x).

f(x)

Let’s think of the new function g(x)=f(x)+2

In fact, we add 2 units to any value of y=f(x), thus the whole graph
of f(x) moves 2 units up.

g(x)
+2

f(x)

We say that this is a vertical translation of the graph.

In a similar way we can describe other transformations of f(x), not

only in a vertical direction (applied on y) but also in a horizontal
direction (applied on x).

Let us present the most important transformations in a concise

way!

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 THE BASIC TRANSFORMATIONS

Consider the initial function f(x).

(In the following tables we assume a>0 and b>1)

VERTICAL TRANSFORMATIONS

Function Transformation Example: f(x)=x2

vertical translation
f(x)+a a g(x)=x2+2
a units up 2

vertical translation
f(x)-a a g(x)=x2-2 2
a units down
vertical stretch
bf(x) x b g(x)=2x2 x2

with scale factor b

vertical stretch with
f(x)/b ÷b g(x)=x2/2 ÷2
scale factor 1/b (shrink)
reflection
-f(x) g(x)=-x2
in the x-axis

Now, as far as the horizontal transformations below are concerned,

we obtain, perhaps, the opposite of what we expect!

HORIZONTAL TRANSFORMATIONS

Function Transformation Example: f(x)=x2

horizontal translation
f(x+a) a g(x)=(x+2)2 2
a units to the left
horizontal translation
f(x-a) a g(x)=(x-2)2 2
a units to the right
horizontal stretch with ÷b
f(bx) g(x)=(2x)2 ÷2
scale factor 1/b (shrink)
horizontal stretch x2
f(x/b) b
x
g(x)=(x/2)2
with scale factor b
reflection
f(-x) g(x)=(-x)2
in the y-axis

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 1

Let us observe the basic transformations of the function

f(x) = x2, 0≤x≤2

in connection with the two tables above.

Let us see the vertical transformations first

VERTICAL TRANSFORMATIONS
f(x)=x2 f(x)=x2+2 f(x)=x2-2
[initial function] [2 units up] [2 units down]

y 6

4 y

2 2

x x x
0 2 2 2

-2

f(x)=2x2 f(x)=x2/2 f(x)=-x2

[vertical stretch, s.f. 2] [vertical stretch s.f. ½ [reflection in x-axis]
That is shrink (÷2)]

y y y

0 2

2
-4
x x
0 2 0 2

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Next, we observe the horizontal transformations

HORIZONTAL TRANSFORMATIONS
f(x)=x2 f(x)=(2x)2
[initial function] [horizontal stretch, s.f. ½
That is shrink (÷2)]

y y

4 4

x x
0 2 0 1

f(x)=(x+2)2 f(x)=(x/2)2
[2 units to the left] [horizontal stretch, s.f. 2]

y y

4 4

x x
-2 0 0 4

f(x)=(x-2)2 f(x)=(-x)2
[2 units to the right] [reflection in y-axis ]

y y

4 4

x x

2 4 -2 0

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

NOTICE:
The horizontal translation by a units (to the right or to the left)
a 
is also denoted by the translation vector  
0
A vertical translation by b units (up or down)
0
is also denoted by the translation vector  
b 
a
The combination of those two translations is denoted by  
b 

Of course we may have a combination of several simple

transformations.

For example, 2f(x-3)+5 implies

a vertical stretch with scale factor 2, followed by

a horizontal translation 3 units to the right, followed by

a vertical translation 5 units up

NOTICE:
It can be shown that a quadratic function can always take the so-
called vertex form

y=a(x-h)2+k

This is a combination of transformations of the simple quadratic

function y=x2
Indeed,

x2 initial function
ax2 vertical stretch by scale factor a
a(x-h)2 horizontal translation by h units
a(x-h)2+k vertical translation by k units

(if a<0, we also have a reflection about x-axis)

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

h 
The two translations by   imply that the initial vertex (0,0) of
k 
the function x2 moves

h units horizontally, and

k units vertically,
thus its new position is (h,k)

vertex

 THE INVERSE FUNCTION TRANSFORMATION

We have already seen that f-1(x) causes a reflection in the line y=x

f(x)=x2 f-1(x)= x
[initial function] [reflection about the line y=x]

y y

x x
0 2 0 4

The image of the point A(2,4) is A΄(4,2).

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 CORRECT ORDER OF TRANSFORMATIONS

Suppose that we are looking for the image of point A(8,8) under a
sequence of transformations. Pay attention to the order!
For two consecutive transformations, we distinguish three cases.

 Case A: vertical – horizontal

One does not affect the other, so any order is correct!

Example order image or order image

f(x) (8,8) f(x) (8,8)
2f(x+3) 2f(x) (8,16) f(x+3) (5,8)
2f(x+3) (5,16) 2f(x+3) (5,16)

 Case Β: vertical – vertical

The order matters! Changes affect, the whole expression

Example 1 order description image

f(x) (8,8)
2f(x)+6 2f(x) we multiply the whole expression by 2 (8,16)
2f(x)+6 we add 6 to the whole expression (8,22)

Example 2 order description image

f(x) (8,8)
2[f(x)+3] f(x)+3 we add 3 to the whole expression (8,11)
2[f(x)+3] we multiply the whole expression by 2 (8,22)

 Case C: horizontal – horizontal

This is the most confusing case! At each step, only x changes

Example 1 order description image

f(x) (8,8)
f(2x+6) f(x+6) x changes to x+6 (2,8)
f(2x+6) x changes to 2x (1,8)

Example 2 order description image

f(x) (8,8)
f(2(x+3)) f(2x) x changes to 2x (4,8)
f(2(x+3)) x changes to x+3 (1,8)

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.10 SOME DISCUSSION ON ASYMPTOTES

1
Look at the graph of the function f(x)=
x

x
- 0 +

Notice: as x tends to + the value of y tends to 0 (the x-axis)

Also as x tends to - the value of y approaches 0 (the x-axis)
We say that
the x-axis (that is the line y=0) is a horizontal asymptote
Moreover,
for values of x near 0 (y-axis), the value of y tends to + or +
We say that
the y-axis (that is the line x=0) is a vertical asymptote

1
Similarly, for g(x)=  2 (f moved 1 unit right and 2 units up).
x- 1

1
x

Now the line y=2 is a horizontal asymptote

the line x=1 is a vertical asymptote

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

In general,

For Vertical Asymptotes: we are looking at points x=a where the

function is not defined

For Horizontal Asymptotes: we observe what happens if x tends to

+ or -. If the function approaches the line y=b we say that y=b is
a horizontal asymptote!

Informally, we can deduce the horizontal asymptotes by using a

GDC if we calculate the value of y for large positive values of x and
large negative values of x.

In the following graph:

2
x
- -4 0 1 +

The function is not defined at x=-4 and x=1, so

the lines x=-4 and x=1 are vertical asymptotes

As x tends to + or - the graph approaches the line y=2, so

the line y=2 is a horizontal asymptote

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 1
2x - 4
Consider the function f(x)=
x- 3

Observations on f(x)
Root: x=2
Vertical asymptote: x=3
Horizontal asymptote: y=2

Indeed, for very large values of x, the value of y approaches 2:

2000 - 4 1996
If x=1000, y=  2
1000 - 3 997

Similarly,
- 2000 - 4 - 2004
If x=-1000, y=  2
- 1000 - 3 - 1003

NOTICE
ax  b
In fact for a function of the form f(x)= (rational function)
cx  d
d d
the vertical asymptote is x=  (since the domain is x   )
c c
a
the horizontal asymptote is y=
c

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Thus until know we know the asymptotes in the following cases

Asymptotes
Function Graph
V.A. H.A

1
y= x = 0 y = 0
x

rational
ax  b d a
y= x=  y =
cx  d c c

y=bx
exponential y= Ae kx -- y = 0
y= Ab x

exponential y=bx + c
c units y= Ae kx  c -- y = c
up or down y= Ab x  c

y=lnx
logarithmic x = 0 --
y=logx

logarithmic
y=ln(x-c)
c units to the x = c --
y=log(x-c)
right or left

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.11 LOGARITHMS logax

We have seen the logarithms log x and ln x. However, we may have

a logarithm to any base (not only 10 or e)

 THE LOGARITHM log2x

This number is called logarithm of x to the base 2. It is connected

to the exponential 2x. The definition is given by

log2x = y  2 y =x

For example,

log28 = 3, since 23=8

log216 = 4, since 24=16

log21024 = 10, since 210=1024

etc.

For log210 our GDC gives log210=3.321928…

This implies that

23.321928…=10

EXAMPLE 1
U

Find log232, log225, log22100, log221453, log22, log21

 log232=5

 log225=5

 log22100=100 Notice, in general log22x=x

 log22=1

 log21=0

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 THE LOGARITHM logax

In exactly the same way, for any base a>0, a≠1 we define

y
logax = y  a =x

NOTICE
U

We have already seen the logarithms logx and lnx.

In fact
we write logx instead of log10x
we write lnx instead of logex

 THE LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION y=logax

A new function is defined

y = logax

In fact, this is the inverse function of the exponential function y=ax

If f(x)=ax then f-1(x)=logax

Indeed, ax=y  x= logay, hence f-1(x)=logax

If a>1 (for example if a=2), the graphs of these two functions look
like
y=ax

y=logax

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Observations:

 For y=ax: Domain: xR Range: y>0

 For y=logax: Domain: x>0 Range: yR

 The line y=0 (x-axis) is a horizontal asymptote of y=ax

 The line x=0 (y-axis) is a vertical asymptote of y=logax

 The graph of y=ax always passes through (0,1)

 The graph of y=logax always passes through (1,0)

 BASIC PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS

For any base a (a>0, a≠1)

 loga1 = 0

 logaa = 1

 logaax = x

 alogax = x

 FOUR ALGEBRAIC LAWS

The following laws hold for any logax

We mention them here for log x

1) log xy = logx + logy  logx + logy = log xy

x x
2) log = logx - logy  logx - logy = log
y or y
3) log xn = nlogx  nlogx = logxn
1 1
4) log =- logx  - logx = log
x x

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

NOTICE
The first two laws can be combined in the following way:

ABD
logA+logB-logC+logD = log
C

If we also have coefficients we can work as follows

2logA+3logB-4logC+5logD = logA2+logB3-logC4+logD5

A 2B 3D 5
= log
C4
Thus

A 2B 3D 5
2logA + 3logB - 4logC + 5logD = log
C4

This is the way we collect many logs into one log.

For example
32 43
2log3 + 3log4 - 4log2 = log = log36
24
or
32 43
2ln3 + 3ln4 - 4ln2 = ln = ln36
24

Look at also the opposite direction

A 2B 3D 5
log = 2logA + 3logB - 4logC + 5logD
C4

This is the way we split one log into many logs.

For example

log72 = log(89) = log 2332 = 3log2 + 2log3

or

ln72 = ln(89) = ln 2332 = 3ln2 + 2ln3

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 2
Suppose lnx=a, lny=b, lnz=c. Express the following in terms of a,b,c.
y x 3y 1
lnxy, lnx2, ln , ln 2
, ln , ln x ,
z z x
Solution

 lnxy = lnx + lny = a+b

 lnx2 = 2lnx = 2a
y
 ln = lny - lnz = b-c
z
x 3y
 ln = 3lnx + lny - 2lnz = 3a+b-2c
z2
1 1
 ln = ln1 – lnx = 0-a = -a [or ln =lnx-1 = -lnx = -a]
x x
1 a
 ln x = lnx1/2 = lnx =
2 2

EXAMPLE 3
Suppose ln2=m, ln5=n. Express the following in terms of m, n.

ln10, ln50, ln2.5

Solution

 ln10 = ln(2×5) = ln2 +ln5 = m+n

 ln50 = ln(2×52) = ln2 + 2ln5 = m+2n

5
 ln2.5 = ln = ln5 - ln2 = n-m
2

 SIMPLE LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS

They have the form

log a x  b

We use the definition to solve them:

x  ab

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 4

Solve the logarithmic equations

(a) log 2 (x  2)  3 (a) log(x  2)  3 (c) ln(x  2)  3

Solution

(a) x  2  23  x  2  8  x  6

(b) x  2  10 3  x  2  1000  x  998

(c) x  2  e3  x  e3  2

Notice

Of course the solutions may be obtained by a GDC.

For (a) and (b), SolveN gives the exact solutions x=6 and x=998
For (c) it gives an approximation x  18.1
(this is not the exact solution, it is the approximate value of e 3  2 ).

Furthermore, if the equation contains a parameter, for example

log 2 (x  a)  3

we cannot use GDC. The solution must be expressed in terms of a

x=8-a

Although we can use our GDC to solve more complicated

logarithmic equations it is worth to see the analytical solution for
some easy examples which involve more than one logarithms.

Our target will be to bring them in one of the forms

 logA = logB so that A = B

 logA=c so that A=10c by definition

(or accordingly with logarithms of base a)

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 5
Solve the equations
(a) logx+log(x+2)= log3
(b) logx+log(x+3)= 1
3
(c) logx+log(x-2)-log(x- )=log3
4
Solution
(a) We obtain log x(x+2) = log3

Hence
x(x+2)=3  x2+2x-3=0

The solutions are x=1 and x=-3

The second solution is rejected since x>0 and x+2>0 by the original
equation. Therefore x=1.

(b) We obtain log x(x+3) = 1

Hence
x(x+3)=101  x2+3x-10=0

The solutions are x=2 and x=-5

The second solution is rejected since x>0. Therefore x=2

x(x - 2)
(c) We obtain log = log3
3
(x - )
4
Hence
x(x - 2) 9 9
=3  x2-2x=3x-  x2-5x+ =0
3 4 4
(x - )
4
The solutions are x=4.5 or x=0.5

The second solution is rejected since x>2. Therefore x=4.5

Notice

Use your GDC - SolveN to confirm the results

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.12 EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS

In these equations the unknown x is in the exponent. The simplest

exponential equation has the form

ax=b

According to the definition of logarithms the solution is

x=logab

We could also apply log( ) or ln( ) to the equation to obtain

different expressions of the solution
logb
ax=b  logax = logb  xloga = logb  x =
loga
lnb
ax=b  lnax = lnb  xlna = lnb  x =
lna
Notice.
Again, all the following equations can be solved directly by a GDC.
The solution will be given as a decimal number.
However, for practice on the laws of logarithms, let us find the
exact values of the solutions.

EXAMPLE 1
loga
Solve the equation 2(5x) = 9. Express the result in the form .
logb
Solution
We first divide by 2 and then apply log
log4.5
5x = 4.5  log5x = log 4.5  xlog5 = log4.5  x =
log5

Notice
ln4.5
 If we use ln( ), the answer will be x =
ln5
 This value according to the GDC is equal to 0.93453…  0.935
Check the solution by using GDC - SolveN

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Whenever we see exponentials of base e, it is preferable to use ln( ).

EXAMPLE 2

Solve the equation 10e2x = 85

Solution

We first divide by 10:

ln8.5
10e2x = 85  e2x = 8.5  lne2x =ln8.5  2x =ln8.5 x=
2

EXAMPLE 3
lna
Solve the equation 5x = 2x+1. Express the result in the form .
lnb
Solution
Method A: Let us apply ln on both sides

5x = 2x+1  ln5x = ln2x+1

 xln5 = (x+1)ln2

 xln5 = xln2+ln2

 xln5 - xln2 = ln2

 x(ln5-ln2) = ln2
ln2 ln2
 x =  x =
ln5 - ln2 5
ln
2

Method B: Simplify the equation to the form ax=b; then apply ln

5x = 2x+1  5x = (2x) 2
x
5x 5 
 x
= 2    = 2
2 2
5  ln2
 xln  = ln2 x =
2 5
ln
2
Remark
 This is the exact answer. If we are looking for an answer to
3sf, the calculator gives x=0.756.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 4
Solve the equation
6x7x-1 = 3x-2
lna
Express the result in the form
lnb
Solution
Although we can apply ln( ) on both sides and obtain

xln6 + (x-1)ln7 = (x-2)ln3

which is a linear equation and can be solved as usual, I will

recommend the quicker method: to simplify first the equation to
the form ax=b;
6 x7 x 3 x
6x7x-1 = 3x-2   2
7 3
6 x7 x 7
 x
 2
3 3
7
 14 x 
9
7
(now apply ln)  xln14  ln
9
ln(7/9)
 x =
ln14

Remark: Check the solution by GDC - SolveN

Notice:
Mind the following (common mistake)
A B  C does not imply logA  logB = logC
it implies log(A  B) = logC

If an equation contains a sum of exponentials, it doesn’t help to

apply a logarithm, as log(a x  b x ) cannot be simplified.

In such an equation we usually substitute an exponential by a new

variable y.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 5
Solve the equations:
12
(a) 6e x  x  17 (b) 6(102x)+12=17(10x)
e
Solution
(a) Let y=ex. Then
12
6y   17  6y2-17y+12=0
y

3 4
There are two solutions: y= , y=
2 3
3 3 3
 For y= , ex =  x=ln
2 2 2
4 4 4
 For y= , ex =  x=ln
3 3 3
(b) Let y=10x. Then
6y2-17y+12=0
3 4
There are two solutions: y= , y=
2 3
3 3 3
 For y= , 10x =  x=log
2 2 2
4 4 4
 For y= , 10x =  x=log
3 3 3

EXAMPLE 6
Solve the system of equations
1 y
2(3x)-3(2y)=-22 and 5(3x)+ (2 )=9
2
Solution
Let A=3x and B=2y. Then
1
2A-3B=-22 and 5A+ B=9
2

The solution is A=1, B=8. Hence,

3x=1  x=log31  x=0 and 2y=8  y=log28  y=3

71
 International Baccalaureate

MATHEMATICS
Applications and Interpretation SL (and HL)
Lecture Notes

Christos Nikolaidis

TOPIC 2
FUNCTIONS

2B. Modelling with functions

2.13 LINEAR MODEL ..……………………….…………………………………………………………… 1

2.14 QUADRATIC AND CUBIC MODELS …………………………………………….………… 6

2.15 POWER FUNCTION MODEL – DIRECT/INVERSE VARIATION ……….….. 13

2.16 EXPONENTIAL MODEL ..………………………………………………………………………… 20

2.17 SINUSOIDAL MODEL .………….……………………..….……….……………………….…..…. 30

2.18 AN APPLICATION OF LINES – VORONOI DIAGRAMS ………………..………. 36

2.19 PERCENTAGE CHANGE – FINANCIAL APPLICATIONS ………………………. 40

Only for HL

2.20 LOGISTIC MODEL ……………………………………………………………………………………. 55

2.21 NATURAL LOGARITHMIC MODEL …………………………………………………….…... 58

2.22 LINEARISATION OF THREE MODELS …………………………………………………… 61

2.23 PIECEWISE MODEL ………………………………………………………………………………… 65

April 2024
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.13 LINEAR MODEL

 CONNECTION WITH ARITHMETIC SEQUENCES

Consider the arithmetic sequence with first term u1  9 and
common difference d  3
9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, …

Let us represent the terms of this sequence in the Cartesian plane.

We observe that the points lie on a line. This is not an accident.

The n-th term of the sequence is given by
un  9  (n- 1)  3
that is
u n  3n  6
which is a linear expression. In fact the points lie on the line
y  3x  6

The gradient m of the line is equal to the common difference d=3.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 A POINT SERIES ON A LINE

Consider the following data

x 1 2 5 7 10 12
y 6.1 7.2 10.5 12.7 16 18.2

Let us place the points (x,y) on the Cartesian plane

It seems that the points lie on a line. Indeed,

The gradient of the line segment AB is

Δy 1.1
m AB    1.1
Δx 1

The gradient of the line segment BC is

Δy 3.3
m BC    1.1
Δx 3

Even for non-consecutive points, for example C and F,

Δy 7.7
m CF    1.1
Δx 7

In fact, any pair of points gives the same gradient, and this is the
gradient of the line in question.

What is the equation of this line?

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Two points are enough to find the line passing through them.

Let us select the endpoints A(1,6.1) and F(12,18.2).

First approach

The gradient of the line segment AF is

Δy 12.1
m AF    1.1
Δx 11

Thus, the equation of the line (in point-gradient form) is

y-y1 = m(x-x1)

 y-6.1 = 1.1(x-1)

We carry on finding the gradient-intercept form:

y-6.1 = 1.1x-1.1

 y = 1.1x+5

Second approach

The equation of the line has the form

y = ax+b

We need to find the coefficients a and b:

By substituting A(1,6.1) we obtain a+b=6.1

By substituting F(12,18.2) we obtain 12a+b=18.2

The solution of the system is a=1.1 and b=5.

Therefore, the line is

y = 1.1x+5

Notice: any pair of points would give the same result (check!)

Confirm
If we pick another point among our data, say E(10,16), it satisfies
the equation: For x=10,

10+5 = 11+5 = 16
1.1x+5 = 1.1

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 1
The relation between Celsius degrees (°C) and Fahrenheit (°F) is
linear. That is
°F = a °C+ b
We are told that
4°C correspond to 39.2 °F
10°C correspond to 50 °F
Thus
39.2 = 4a+b
50 = 10a+b
The solution is a=1.8 and b=32. Therefore the formula is
°F = 1.8 °C+ 32
In other words in order to convert temperatures in degrees Celsius
to Fahrenheit, multiply by 1.8 (or 9/5) and add 32.

 A POINT SERIES ALMOST ON A LINE

Sometimes in real life the data seem to almost lie on a line. For
example,

Q 10 13 15 20 25
P 15 20 25 33 45

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

A first thought to model this linear relation could be to pick two

representative points, say (10,15) and (25,45).
If
P = aQ +b
then
(10,15) gives 10a+b=15
(25,45) gives 25a+b=45

The solution is a=2, b=-5, hence

P = 2Q - 5

If we add the line y=2x-5 on the graph above we obtain

Our model seems to fit quite well to the given points.

 REGRESSION – BEST FIT LINE BY USING GDC

Later, in Statistics (Topic 4), we will discuss in further detain the

method of regression. At the moment we simply present the best
fit line that our GDC gives. For our data above:

MENU: Statistics: Enter List 1: Q-values List 2: P-values

CALC: REG: X [F1]: ax+b [F1]

The best fit line is

P = 1.98Q - 5.22

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.14 QUADRATIC AND CUBIC MODELS

 POLYNOMIALS AND GRAPHS

Remember the following functions

Linear function y=ax+b

Quadratic function y=ax2+bx+c

We also say called them polynomials of degree 1 and 2 respectively.

The degree is the largest exponent of x in this expression (all the
exponents are positive integers; we may have a constant term as
well.

Along the same lines we define the polynomial of degree 3 which

also called

Cubic function y=ax3+bx2+cx+d

The simplest polynomials up to degree 3 are the following

Line quadratic cubic

y=x y=x2 y=x3

y=-x y=-x2 y=-x3

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

For any linear function y=ax+b with a≠0

 There are 2 parameters a and b; so we need two points to
determine the values of a and b (by solving a system).
 The graph is a straight line
increasing if a>0

decreasing if a<0

For any quadratic function y=ax2+bx+c with a≠0

 There are 3 parameters a, b, c; so we need three points to
determine the values of a, b and c.
 The graph is a parabola
concave up if a>0

concave down if a<0

For any cubic function y=ax3+bx2+cx+d with a≠0

 There are 4 parameters a, b, c, d; so we need four points
to determine the values of a, b, c and d.
 The graph has an S-shape.
it looks like if a>0

it looks like if a<0

For example, the graph of the cubic function

y  x 3  6x 2  11x  6
Is

Notice: As x→+∞ (going to the right), y tends to +∞, since a>0.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 QUADRATIC MODEL

If they give us three points on a parabola y=ax2+bx+c

Points : (1,-3) (3,-1) and (4,6)

we can find the parameters a, b and c by substituting the

coordinate of the points:

(1,-3) gives a+b+c = -3

(3,-1) gives 9a+3b+c = -1

(4,6) gives 16a+4b+c = 6

We solve the system by GDC: a=2, b=-7, c=2

Hence, the quadratic function is

y=2x2-7x+2

If we have a number of points which form a U-shape with certain

properties, for example

 There seems to exist a vertical axis of symmetry

 There is a vertex
 The points increase or decrease in a “smooth” way
which is not exponential

we may assume that the U-shape is a parabola. This will be our

model. Of course we are not certain that the assumption is correct
but it is a practical approach if we cannot find an analytic solution.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 1

The perimeter of a rectangular region is 100m. What is the area?

Is it always the same? If not, what is the maximum possible area?

A model approach
Suppose that the length of one side is x. Choose some values for x:

one side (x) the other side Perimeter Area (A)

5 45 100 225
10 40 100 400
20 30 100 600
25 25 100 625
30 20 100 600
37 13 100 481

Let us observe the points (x,A) on the Cartesian plane

x 5 10 20 25 30 37
A 225 400 600 625 600 481

It seems that the points lie on a parabola with axis of symmetry

x=25. Let us pick 3 representative points,

the first point (5,225)

the last point (37,481)
and the point (25,625) which seems to be the vertex.

9
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

If A=ax2+bx+c then

point (5,225) gives: 5 2a + 5b + c = 225

point (37,481) gives: 372a + 37b + c = 481

point (25,625) gives: 252a + 25b + c = 625

The GDC gives the solution a=-1, b=50, c=0.

That is
A=-x2+50x

Indeed, the remaining points satisfy the equation, for example let
us check the point (10,400):

A=-102+5010 = 400

The analytic approach

Let x be the length of one side and y the length of the other side.
Then
Perimeter = 100
 2x+2y = 100
 x+y = 50
 y = 50-x

Hence, the area is

A = xy = x(50-x)
i.e. A = 50x–x2

The maximum possible area is obtained at x=25 (vertex), so

Amax = 625 m2

Notice: Here the analytic approach is easy. But this is not always
the case and sometimes the model approach is our only option.
We chose this example to demonstrate the two different
approaches.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

In general, for the quadratic

f(x) =-x2+50x the domain is xR.

But for our particular problem x can be between 0 and 50. So our
model is
A=-x2+50x, 0<x<50

 A POINT SERIES ALMOST ON A PARABOLA - REGRESSION

If the points do not perfectly fit into a parabola, we can pick three
representative points and find a quadratic model that describes
quite well our data.

Again, a better solution could be found by using regression.

For our example,

x 5 10 20 25 30 37
A 225 400 600 625 600 481

the points, of course, perfectly fit into a parabola, so the GDC will
give the exact solution. But let us try it just for practice:

MENU: Statistics: Enter List 1: x-values List 2: A-values

CALC: REG: X2 [F3].

The (best fit) quadratic model is

A=-x2+50x

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 CUBIC MODEL - REGRESSION

Similarly, if we observe that our data form an S-shape

we can assume that our model is a cubic function of the form

y=ax3+bx2+cx+d

To find a, b, c, d, we can follow either of these methods:

METHOD A
 select 4 points
 substitute each point into the model to derive 4 linear equations
for a, b, c, d
 solve the system of 4 equations (GDC: equation-simultaneous).

METHOD B
use regression

MENU: Statistics: Enter List 1: x-values List 2: y-values

CALC: REG: X3 [F4].

Note:
 If the points exactly fit a cubic function, both methods will
produce the correct cubic model.

 If the points approximately fit a cubic function,

o Method A provides a good but not the optimal cubic model
o Method B provides the best possible cubic model

12
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.15 POWER FUNCTION MODEL – DIRECT/INVERSE VARIATION

Let us concentrate on the functions of the simple form

y  xn

We have already seen the graphs of the functions y  x 2 , y  x 3 but

less us investigate more powers (i.e. values of n).

Use your GDC to verify all the results below:

when n is positive when n is negative

(n  1) ( n  1 )
1
yx y
x

( n  2 )
(n  2)
1
y  x2 y
x2

(n  3) ( n  3 )
1
y  x3 y
x3

(n  4) ( n  4 )
1
y  x4 y
x4

y-axis is a vertical asympote

13
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

We observe that when n is even, i.e. 2, 4, 6, …

the graph is symmetric about y-axis

or

when n is odd, i.e. 1, 3, 5, …

the graph is symmetric about the origin (0,0)

or

 POWER MODELS
In real life applications we meet models of the form
k
y  kx n or y n
x
where x is takes only positive values.
For positive exponents the models look like as follows

14
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

For negative exponents the models look as follows

 DIRECT AND INVERSE VARIATION

The relation
y  kx n

shows a direct variation between (a power of) x and y:

when x increases then y increases as well

Notice:

If y = kx we say y is (directly) proportional to x

If y = kx 2 we say y is (directly) proportional to the square of x

The relation
k
y
xn
shows an inverse variation between (a power of) x and y:

when x increases then y decreases

Notice:
k
If y = we say y is inversely proportional to x
x
k
If y = we say y is inversely proportional to the square of x
x2

15
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 1
Consider the relation
P = 5Q 2

Q 1 2 3 4 …
P 5 20 45 80 …

The quantity P is proportional to the square of Q.

EXAMPLE 2
Consider the relation
5
P =
Q2

Q 1 2 3 4 …
5 5 5
P 5 …
4 9 16

The quantity P is inversely proportional to the square of Q.

EXAMPLE 3
(a) P is proportional to the cube of Q (i.e. P =kQ3).
Find the relation if we know that P = 5 when Q = 2.

(b) Suppose that P =kQn. Find the relation if we know that

P = 6.4 when Q = 2, P = 48.6 when Q = 3.

Solution
5
(a) 23k=5  8k = 5  k = = 0.625. Hence P = 0.625Q3
8
(b) 2nk=6.4 and 3nk=48.6. If we divide the two relations
n
3 n k 48.6 3
n
     7.59375 . Hence n = 5.
2 k 6.4 2
The first relation gives: 25k=6.4. Hence k = 0.2.

Therefore, P = 0.2Q5

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Notice also that the relation

BC 2
A =k
D3

between the quantities A, B, C, D (k constant) implies that:

A is proportional to B
A is proportional to the square of C
A is inversely proportional to the cube of D

(when the remaining quantities stay constant).

 AREA vs LENGTH
Look at the area A for several shapes below

Shape Area

Square
A  x2
of side length x
x

Rectangle x
A  2x 2
of sides x and 2x
2x

Right-angled triangle 1 2
a A a
of equal vertical sides a 2
a

Circle r
A  πr 2
of radius r

In all these relations we observe that the area A is proportional

to the square of a length (side, radius, etc).

For a rectangle of sides x and y, since A =xy

 A is proportional to x (if y remains constant)

 A is proportional to y (if x remains constant)
 y is inversely proportional to x (if A remains constant). Why?

17
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 4
Consider all rectangles of area 50 with side lengths x and y
(a) Describe the relation between the x and y.
(b) Express the perimeter of the rectangle in terms of x.
Solution
50
(a) xy =50  y  . Thus y is inversely proportional to x.
x
100
(b) P = 2x+2y = 2x 
x

 VOLUME vs LENGTH
Look at the volume V for several shapes below

Shape Volumes

Cube of edge length x V  x3

Cuboid of square base of side x and height 2x V  2x 3

4
Sphere of radius r V πr 3
3

Cylinder with radius of base r and height also r V  πr 3

1
Cone with radius of base r and height also r V πr 3
3

In all these relations we observe that the area V is proportional

to the cube of a length (side, radius, etc).
1
For a cone of radius r and height h, since V  πr 2 h
3
 V is proportional to h (if r remains constant)
 V is proportional to the square of r (if h remains constant)

When V remains constant, say V = 100, then

1 300
πr 2 h  100  πr 2 h  300  h 
3 πr 2
Hence,
 h is inversely proportional to the square of radius r.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 A POINT SERIES ALMOST ON A POWER MODEL

Consider
x 1 2 3 4 …
y 2 15 50 120 …

Given that the points are well described by a power function model
of the form

y  ax n

the best power model can be obtained by using regression

MENU: Statistics: Enter List 1: x-values List 2: y-values

CALC: REG: [F6]: Power [F3].

y  1.98x 2.95

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.16 EXPONENTIAL MODEL

 CONNECTION WITH GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES

Consider the geometric sequence with first term u 1  30 and
common ratio r  3
30, 90, 270, 810, …

Let us represent the terms of this sequence in the Cartesian plane.

The n-th term of the sequence is given by

3n
u n  30  3 n-1  30 
3
that is
u n  10  3 n
which is an exponential expression. In fact the points lie on the line

y  10  3 x

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 THE FORM OF AN EXPONENTIAL MODEL

A simple exponential model may have the form

y  A bx if y is increasing
y  A  b-x If y is decreasing.

(assuming that b>1).

We have to determine two parameters, A and b.

Very often the model is given in the form:

y  Ae kx
According to k
y increases if k>0
y decreases if k<0

Still, we have to determine two parameters, A and k.

EXAMPLE 1

Suppose that the graph of an exponential function

y  A bx

passes through the points (1,30) and (4,810).

Then
point (1,30) gives: A  b 1  30 (1)

point (4,810) gives: A  b 4  810 (2)

If we divide (2) by (1) we obtain

A  b 4 810
  b 3  27  b  3
A  b1 30

Then (1) gives

A  3 1  30  A  10

Thus, the function is

y  10  3 x

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Things are even better if we know the y-intercept of the function

(corresponding to x=0).

EXAMPLE 2
Suppose that the exponential function
y  Ae kx
has y-intercept (0,25) and passes through the point (5,100).

Then
point (0,25) gives: Ae 0  25  A  25

Now point (5,100) gives: Ae 5k  100

 25e 5k  100
 e 5k  4
We can use the natural logarithm ln (or directly GDC):

 5k  ln4
ln4
k  0.277
5
Hence
y  25e 0.277x

 EXPONENTIAL GROWTH OF A POPULATION

In many applications a quantity increases or decreases

exponentially according to time. For example:

The population P at time t (let’s say in years) is given by

P=Poekt

 If k>0, the population increases

 If k<0, the population decreases

For t=0, then P = Poe0 = Po

So the coefficient Po is always the initial value of P.

22
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 3

The number n of some particles at time t hours is given by

n=1000e0.2t

(a) What is the initial number of particles?

(b) What is the number of particles after 3 hours?

(c) The number of particles is 2500 after t hours. Find t.

(d) The number of particles doubles after t hours. Find t.

Solution

(a) For t=0, n=1000

(b) For t=3, n=1000e0.23=1822

(c) If n=2500 then 2500 = 1000e0.2t

GDC gives t = 4.58 hours.

Otherwise,

2500 = 1000e0.2t 2.5 = e0.2t

 ln2.5 = lne0.2t
 ln2.5 = 0.2t
ln2.5
t = = 4.58 hours
0.2
(d) It’s a similar question to (c). We let n=2000 and find t.

[even if we don’t know the initial value no or we let n=2n0]

2n0 = n0e0.2t  2 = e0.2t

 ln2 = lne0.2t
 ln2 = 0.2t
ln2
t = = 3.47 hours
0.2

We can also use the graph mode of GDC to answer the questions

23
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Solving EXAMPLE 3 by using GDC-graph

The function
n=1000e0.2t
has the following graph

For question (a) we find the y-intecept: y=1000

For question (b) we use GSolv-Y calc: x=3 then y=1822

For questions (c) and (d) we use GSolv-X calc: y=2500 then x=4.58
y=2000 then x=3.47

Sometimes the constant k is not known. But we are given some

information to estimate it.

EXAMPLE 3

Suppose n=n0ekt. If the number of particles doubles every 4 hours

find the value of k.

For t=4, 2n0 = n0ek4  2 = e4k

 ln2 = ln e4k
 ln2 = 4k
ln2
 k = = 0.173
4

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 4
The mass m of a radio-active substance at time t hours is given by
m = 4e–kt
(a) The mass is 1 kg after 5 hours. Find k.
(b) What is the mass after 3 hours?
(c) The mass reduces to a half after t hours. Find t.

Solution

(a) For t=5, m=1, thus 1 = 4e–k5

GDC-SolveN gives: k = 0.277

m = 4e–0.277t
(b) For t=3,
m = 4e-0.2773 = 1.74

(c) For m=2, 2 = 4e–0.277t

Either by GDC-SolveN: t=2.50 hours

or by using ln:

 e–0.28t = 0.5  lne–0.277t = ln0.5  –0.277t = ln0.5

ln0.5
t = = 2.50 hours
- 0.277

This time is known as half-life time.

Again, we can answer the questions (b) and (c) above by using the
graph of m = 4e–0.277t

25
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 THE EXPONENTIAL MODELS y  Ab x  c , y  Ae kx  c

If we add a constant number c to our simple exponential models
they take the form
y  Ab x  c if y increases
y  Ab -x  c if y decreases
or
y  Ae kx  c with k>o if y increases – k<0 if y decreases

We simply shift the graph c units above.

If the function is increasing it looks like

In either case:
The horizontal line y=c is a horizontal asymptote to the graph.
For x=0, the y-intercept is y = A+c

26
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 5

The population P after t years is given by

P  1000e -0.2t  500

The graph of this function is

The initial population is

P  1000e 0  500  1500

The population after 5 years is

P  1000e -1  500  867.87...  868

The population drops below 600 when P  600 .

Either by GDC-GSolv-X Calc: t = 11.51
Or by solving the equation
1000e -0.2t  500  600
 1000e -0.2t  100
 e-0.2t  0.1
 0.2t  ln0.1
ln0.1
t =11.51
 0.2

As t →+ the value of P approaches 500. It never drops below 500

(in mathematical terms the line P=500 is a horizontal asymptote)

27
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 6 (mainly for HL)

Consider the following table of data.

t 1 2 3
P 20 30 50

It is given that the points lie on the exponential function of the

form
P  Ab t  c
There are three parameters to be determined, namely A, b and c.

Let us substitute the coordinates of the given points:

The point (1,20) gives: Ab  c  20 (1)

The point (2,30) gives: Ab 2  c  30 (2)

The point (3,50) gives: Ab 3  c  50 (3)

We firstly eliminate c:

(2) – (1) gives Ab 2  Ab  10 (4)

(3) – (2) gives Ab 3  Ab 2  20 (5)

Now we divide (5) by (4) to obtain

Ab 3  Ab 2 20

Ab 2  Ab 10

Ab 2 (b  1)
 2 b2
Ab(b- 1)

Then (4) gives: 4A  2A  10  2A  10  A  5

Finally (1) gives: 10+c=20  c  10

Therefore, the model is

P  5  2 t  10

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 A POINT SERIES ALMOST EXPONENTIAL - REGRESSION

Consider the example of the previous paragraph (where we found a

power function model.

x 1 2 3 4 …
y 2 15 50 120 …

Mind the difference between

Power model: y  ax n
bx
Exponential model: y  ab x (or y  ae )
2.95
The power function model we found was y  1.98x

Let us find an exponential model

either in the form y  aebx

or in the form y  ab x

The GDC, regression gives

MENU: Statistics: Enter List 1: x-values List 2: y-values

CALC: REG: [F6]: EXP [F2]: [F1] or [F2]

[F1] gives
y  0.707e1.35x
[F2] gives
y  0.707  3.85 x

29
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.17 SINUSOIDAL MODEL

This paragraph presupposes the study of the trigonometric

numbers sine and cosine : see Topic 3 (Trigonometry).

For our purpose we only present some basic notions of the functions
f(x)=sinx, f(x)=cosx and certain modifications of them.

 f(x) = sinx°
Look at the graph of the function f(x) = sinx° on your GDC by using
the following settings

Set up: Angle: degrees

Set V-Window: x from -360° to 720°

y from -2 to 2

We obtain

The following table contains some values of the function which are
also shown on the graph above.

x 0° 90° 180° 270° 360° …

y=sinx° 0 1 0 -1 0

We have:
Domain: x R
Range: y  [-1,1] [since ymin=-1 and ymax=1]

We also observe that the curve is repeated every 360°

30
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Furthermore, we define

Central axis: y = 0 (the average between ymax and ymin)

Amplitude = 1 (distance between ymax and central line)
Period: T= 360° (the length of a complete cycle)

 f(x) = cosx°

A similar curve is obtained for the function f(x) = cosx°

x 0° 90° 180° 270° 360° …

y=cosx° 1 0 -1 0 1

Again Domain: x R
Range: y  [-1,1] [ymin=-1 and ymax=1]
Central axis: y = 0
Amplitude = 1
Period: T= 360°

NOTICE:
 For both functions y=sinx and y=cosx, the horizontal distance

between two consecutive xmax = 360° (one period)

between two consecutive xmin = 360° (one period)
between consecutive xmax and xmin = 180° (half a period)

 The central axis is also known as principal axis.

31
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

We distinguish four basic types of trigonometric functions:

sinx -sinx cosx -cosx

y-intercept y-intercept y-intercept y-intercept

central/going up central/going down max min

Notice that the amplitude for all these functions is 1 (positive)

 SINGLE TRANSFORMATIONS OF sinx

Compare the original function f(x)=sinx (in black) with the following
three transformations of sinx (in red)

f(x)=sinx + 2 f(x)=2sinx f(x)=sin2x

The curve is shifted 2 The curve is stretched The curve is shrinked

untis up vertically (by 2) horizontally (by 2)

Characteristic that changed:

new new new

Central axis: y=2 Amplitude = 2 Period: T = 180°

Notice that the amplitude of f(x)=-2sinx is still 2.

32
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 THE MODELING FUNCTION f(x) = AsinBx + C

For the function

f(x) = AsinBx + C

we have

The central axis is y=C

The amplitude is |A|

360
The period is T=
B

Notice:
 f(x) ranges between the values C-|A| and C+|A|
 Similar observations apply for f(x) = AcosBx +C

For example, for the function f(x) = 3sin4x+5

The central axis is y=5

The amplitude is 3

360
The period is T=  90
4

and the graph is

33
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 1
The graph of f(x) = Asin(Bx°) + C is given below. Find A, B, C.

The curve is of type +sinx (since y-int central/up)

 Central axis at y=15, so C=15

 Amplitude = 5, so A=5
360 360
 Period T= 8, hence B  = = 45
T 8
Therefore, the equation of the function is f(x) = 5sin(45x°) + 15

EXAMPLE 2
The graph of f(x) = AcosBx +C is given below. Find A, B, C.

90 180

The curve is of type +cosx (since y-int maximum)

ymax  ymin
 Central axis at =5, so C=5
2
 Amplitude = ymax-C =15, so A=15
360
 Period Τ= 180, hence B  2
180
Therefore, the equation of the function is f(x) = 15cos(2x°) + 5

34
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Notice that the amplitude is always positive but the coefficient A of

sinx or cosx can be positive or negative.

EXAMPLE 3
Express the following graph as a trigonometric function.

-90 90 180

The curve is of type -sinx (since y-int central/going down)

 Central axis: y=5 hence C=5
 Amplitude = 15 hence A=-15
360
 Period Τ= 180, hence B  2
180
Therefore, the equation of the function is f(x) = -15sin(2x°) + 5

 A POINT SERIES ALMOST SINUSOIDAL

If we are given a series of points with a periodical behavior, for
example,

we can estimate (approximately) a central axis, an amplitude and

a period, so we can find a sinusoidal model function for our data.

NOTICE: The GDC-Regression provides a sinusoidal model of the

form f(x) = a sin(bx+c) + d, but only when x is measured in radians.
So it is not appropriate for the SL syllabus.

35
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.18 VORONOI DIAGRAMS - AN APPLICATION OF LINES

Consider the following simple scenario.

A region contains two sites A and B.

We wish to separate the region into two smaller regions:

 the region of A: all the points which are closest to the site A

 the region of B: all the points which are closest to the site A

It is pretty obvious that the border of the two regions will be the
perpendicular bisector of the line segment AB.

This is perhaps the simplest Voronoi diagram! The two regions are
called cells. The line between the two cells is called an edge.

Well, there is an even simpler case: The trivial Voronoi diagram

with only one site and one cell (which is the whole region).

36
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Suppose we have three sites, A, B and C.

If the three sites are collinear (they lie on the same line) the
Voronoi diagram is pretty obvious:

The three edges are parallel.

If, otherwise, the three sites form a triangle, the Voronoi diagram
looks like

Particularly for this case of three sites, we know that the edges
between the three cells are the perpendicular bisectors of the sides.
We know form Geometry that the three edges meet at the same
point. The point P where the edges meet is called a vertex.

We know that all points in cell A all closer to A than to B or C.

37
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Let us add one more site D (see below). We obtain four cells and
the edges meet at the two vertices P and Q.

Usually, the sites are given by Cartesian coordinates.

EXAMPLE 1
Suppose that the four sites in the diagram above have coordinates
A(2,3), B(8,3), C(6,7) and D(10,5).

Edge L1 between A and B: it has equation x = 5 (easy!)

Edge L2 between A and C: we find the perpendicular bisector:
6- 2
m AC = = 1 . Hence m  =-1
7- 3
Midpoint AC is M(4,5)
Equation L2: y- 5 =-1(x- 4) , that is y =-x +9

Vertex P: the intersection between L1 and L2. This is P(5,4).

In a similar way, we find:

1 3
Edge L3 between B and C: y = x+
2 2
Edge L4 between B and D: y =-x + 13
23 16
Edge L5 between C and D: y = 2x- 10 , Vertex Q ( , )
3 3

38
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Let us have an idea how a more complicated Voronoi diagram looks

like:

Some apparent properties:

 Any point within cell F is closest to F.

 Any point on the edge between cells C and F is equidistant to
sites C and F (and these are the closest sites).
 The vertex between cells C, F and D is equidistant to sites C, F
and D (and these are the closest sites). If we draw a circle with
centre at this vertex, it touches D, F, and D and all other sites
are outside the circle.
 Any vertex connects at least three edges.

39
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.19 PERCENTAGE CHANGE – FINANCIAL APPLICATIONS

In problems with

Interest rates r%

Population growth r%, etc

where

some initial quantity (present value PV)

increases by r% (per year, per month or per any period)

the future value FV after n periods is given by

n
 r 
FV=PV  1  
 100 

If the present value PV decreases by r% per period, the formula

takes the form
n
 r 
FV=PV  1  
 100 

EXAMPLE 1
(a) An amount of 2000 euros is invested at 8% per year. What is
the amount returned after 10 years?

(b) An amount of 2000 euros is depreciated by 8% every year.

What is the amount returned after 10 years?

Solution

For both problems PV=2000, r=8, n=10

n 10
 r   8 
(a) FV=PV  1   =2000  1   =2000(1.08)10  4317.85
 100   100 
n 10
 r   8 
(b) FV=PV  1   =2000  1   =2000(0.92)10  868.78
 100   100 

Remark: In financial mathematics we usually answer in 2dp.

40
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Notice: Using GDC (Casio) for Exercise 1

MENU - Financial - F2: [Compound Interest]
n = 10
I% = 8
PV = -2000 (use “-” because we pay)

[leave PMT=0, P/Y=1, C/Y=1]

Press F5: [FV] and you obtain FV=4317.85

For question (b), set I% =-8. You obtain FV=868.78

r
In fact, this is a geometric sequence with common ratio R=1+
100

Explanation for the common ratio R

Suppose we invest an amount PV for r% per year.

In our example: PV = 2000 r = 8%

In our example In general

Present Value 2000 PV
8 r
Interest 2000× PV×
100 100
Present value + interest
8 r
2000+2000× PV+PV
After 1 year 100 100
 8   r 
2000  1   = PV  1  
 100   100 

r
That is, if an amount increases by r%, we multiply by R=1+
100
2
 r 
After two years we multiply again by R. Thus FV=PV  1  
 100 
n
 r 
Thus after n years: FV=PV  1  
 100 

41
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

For example, r% is translated into a common ratio as follows:

(increasing ratio) (decreasing ratio)

r% r r
R=1+ R=1-
100 100
12% R = 1.12 R = 0.88
20% R = 1.20 R = 0.80
5% R = 1.05 R = 0.95
7.2% R = 1.072 R = 0.928

Mind the following slight difference:

Is the initial amount given in “year 1” or “today”?

PROBLEM 1 PROBLEM 2

Rate of increase 12% Rate of increase 12%

Amount in year 1: u1 =1000. Present value: PV=1000.
Find the amount in year 10. Find the amount after 10 years.
Then Then

 In year 2 u 2 =1000×(1.12)  After 1 year 1000×(1.12)

 In year 3 u3 =1000×(1.12)2  After 2 years 1000×(1.12)2

 In year n un =1000×(1.12)n-1  After n years FV=1000×(1.12)n

(Mind that the exponent in Problem 2 is n and not n-1)

In both cases the growth is exponential (geometric sequence)

EXAMPLE 2
There are ten boxes in a row. The first box contains 100€ and any
subsequent box contains 10% more that the previous one. What is
the amount in the 10th box?
Solution
Here u1 =100 and r = 1.10. Thus u10 =100(1.10)9  235.8

This is in fact the FV formula, but say that after 9 boxes FV=100(1.10)9

42
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 3 (if the question is about the number of years n)

An amount of 2000 euros is invested at 8% per year. The

investment exceeds 5000 after n complete years. Find n.

Solution
n
 8 
FV=2000  1   >5000
 100 

Method A (trial and error): We check several values for n by GDC

and realize that

for n=11 FV = 4663.27

for n=12 FV = 5036.34

Therefore, n = 12

Method B (by using GDC-Financial mode):

Set I% = 8
PV = -2000
FV = 5000 [keep PMT=0, P/Y=1, C/Y=1]

Press F1: [n] and you obtain n=11.9

Since we are looking for complete years we accept the first integer
above 11.9, that is n = 12

Method C (by using SolveN in the GDC):

We can solve the corresponding equation FV = 5000, that is

2000(1.08)n = 5000

The solution is n  11.9. Thus n = 12

Method D (by using logarithms: come back after you learn logs!)

We solve the exponential equation 2000(1.08)n = 5000 by using

logs! The solution is n = log 2.5  11.9.
log 1.08

Thus n = 12

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 4
The current population of a city is 800,000. The population
increases by 5.2% every year. Find

(a) the population of the city after 7 years;

(b) the population of the city 7 years ago;
(c) after how many complete years the population of the city
doubles.

Solution

(a) We have an exponential growth with PV=800,000 and r=8%

The population of the city after 7 years is

7
 5.2 
FV=800,000  1    1,140,775
 100 
(b) The formula works for the past as well!

The population of the city 7 years ago was

-7
 5.2 
FV=800,000  1    561,022
 100 

[short explanation:
for the future we multiply by 1.052 every year
for the past we divide by 1.052 every year, or otherwise we
1
multiply by  1.052-1 every year]
1.052
(c) we solve the equation
FV=2×800,000
n
 5.2 
800,000  1   = 1,600,000
 100 

By using a GDC we find n=13.7

Therefore, the population doubles after 14 complete years.

44
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 INTEREST COMPOUNDED IN k TIME PERIODS

Suppose that an initial amount PV=1000€ is invested with an

interest rate 12% per year. We have seen what happens if the
amount is compounded yearly.

However, the interest may be compounded in k periods per year:

Semiannually (half-yearly): k=2

Quarterly: k=4
Monthly: k=12

For example, if the interest is compounded twice per year

(semiannually), the interest rate for the 6-month period is 6% and

Amount after 1 year = 1000×(1.06)2 (1 year = 2 time periods)

In general, the FV formula takes the form

kn
 r 
FV=PV  1  
 100k 
For our example of PV = 1000:

Compounded After 5 years

5
 12 
yearly (k=1) FV=1000  1   = 1762
 100 
25
 12 
half-yearly (k=2) FV=1000  1   = 1791
 100  2 
45
 12 
quarterly (k=4) FV=1000  1   = 1806
 100  4 
125
 12 
monthly (k=12) FV=1000  1   = 1817
 100  12 

NOTICE for GDC-Financial mode

C/Y stands for the number of periods per year. Check FV for
n = 5 PMT=0
I% = 12 P/Y =1
PV = -1000 C/Y = 1, 2, 4, 12 respectively

45
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 INVESTMENT WITH EXTRA REGULAR PAYMENTS

PV is invested with an annual interest rate r% .

An extra payment (PMT) is added at the end of each year

In this case we mainly use GDC-Financial mode.

Insert PMT as a negative value [we pay]

EXAMPLE 5
An amount of 1000€ is invested with an interest rate 12%
compounded yearly. An extra payment of 300€ is added at the
end of each year. Find the value of the investment after 7 years.
By using GDC–Financial mode
n = 7 PMT= -300
I% = 12 P/Y =1
PV = -1000 C/Y = 1
FV gives 5237.38.
------------------
Remark: if the last payment is not included we subtract one PMT:
Value = FV-PMT = 5237.38-300 = 4937.38

EXAMPLE 6
An initial amount of 1000€ and then an extra amount of 1000€
at the end of each year are invested with an interest rate 12%
compounded yearly. Find the value of the investment after 7 years.
By using GDC–Financial mode
n = 7 PMT= -1000
I% = 12 P/Y =1
PV = -1000 C/Y = 1
FV gives 12299.69.
------------------
Remark: if the last payment is not included we subtract one PMT:
Value = FV-PMT = 12299.69-1000 = 11299.69

46
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 7
An amount of 1000€ is invested with an interest rate 12%
compounded monthly. An extra payment of 300€ is added at the
end of each year. Find the value of the investment after 7 years.
By using GDC–Financial mode
n = 7 PMT= -300
I% = 12 P/Y =1
PV = -1000 C/Y = 12
FV gives 5397.73.
------------------
Remark: if the last payment is not included we subtract one PMT:
Value = FV-PMT = 5397.73-300 = 5097.73

NOTICE.
If the annual interest rate r% is compounded in k periods and the
regular payments also take place in k periods then
P/Y = k, C/Y = k
But now n is the total number of periods, i.e. n=k(years).

EXAMPLE 8
An amount of 1000€ is invested with an interest rate 12%
compounded monthly. An extra payment of 300€ is added at the
end of each month. Find the value of the investment after 7 years.
By using GDC–Financial mode
n = 712 = 84 PMT= -300
I% = 12 P/Y =12
PV = -1000 C/Y = 12
FV gives 41508.41.
------------------
Remark: if the last payment is not included, we subtract one PMT:
Value = FV-PMT = 41508.41-300 = 41208.41

47
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Explanation (mainly for HL)

It is worth to know how the results are derived.

If the annual interest rate is r%, the ratio of the geom. sequence is:
r
R 1
100
The value of the investment after n years is given by

 Rn  1 
FV  PV  R n  PMT   

 R 1 
Indeed,
n
 r 
- PV is invested for n years: PV  1    PV  R
n
[1st box]
 100 

- 1st PMT is invested for n-1 years: PMT  R n-1

- 2nd PMT is invested for n-2 years: PMT  R n- 2
… …
- last but one PMT is invested for 1 year: PMT  R
- the last payment is PMT PMT

The sum of the last n terms is a G.S. with u 1  PMT , ratio=R

n
R 1 
Thus S n = PMT    [2nd box].

 R 1 

If each payment is equal to the present value (PMT=PV) we obtain

in fact a G.S. of n+1 terms:
 Rn  1   R n 1  1 
FV  PMT  R n  PMT     PMT  
  R 1 

 R 1   

NOTICE
 If we don’t wish to include the last payment in our calculations
we just subtract one payment (PMT)

Let us revisit the examples of this paragraph.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

In EXAMPLE 5
PV = 1000€,
PMT = 300€ at the end of each year
r=12% compounded yearly (so R=1.12).
The value of the investment after 7 years is

 1.127  1 
FV  1000  1.127  300     5237.38

 1.12  1 

In EXAMPLE 6
PV = 1000€,
PMT = 1000€ at the end of each year
r=12% compounded yearly (so R=1.12).
The value of the investment after 7 years is

 1.128  1 
FV  1000     12299.69

 1.12  1 

NOTICE. If
 the annual interest rate r% is compounded in k periods
 the payments occur yearly
k
 r 
then the ratio for 1 year is: R  1  
 100k 

In EXAMPLE 7
PV = 1000€,
PMT = 300€ at the end of each year
r=12% compounded monthly. Now the ratio for 1 year is
12
 12 
R  1   =1.0112
 100  12 

The value of the investment after 7 years is

 R7  1 
FV  1000  R 7  300     5397.73

 R 1 

49
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

NOTICE. If
 the annual interest rate r% is compounded in k periods
 the payments also occur in k periods
 r 
then the ratio for 1 period is: R   1  
 100k 
But now n is the total number of periods, i.e. n=k(years).

In EXAMPLE 8
PV = 1000€,
PMT = 300€ at the end of each month.
r=12% compounded monthly. Now the ratio for 1 month is
 12 
R  1   =1.01
 100  12 
The value of the investment after 7 years (so n=712=84) is

 1.0184  1 
FV  1000  1.0184  300     41508.41

 1.01  1 

 ANNUITY – AMORTIZATION
We invest PV but now, we regularly withdraw an amount PMT.
Notice for GDC–Financial mode
 We insert the payment PMT as a positive value [we receive]
 Here, the last payment is always included.

EXAMPLE 9
An amount of 1000€ euros is invested with an interest rate 12%
compounded monthly. A withdrawal of 150€ is made at the end
of each year. Find the value of the investment after 7 years.
By using GDC–Financial mode
n = 7 PMT= 150
I% = 12 P/Y =1
PV = -1000 C/Y = 12
FV gives 761.22.

50
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

We can easily check that in our example,

(annual withdrawal) > (the annual interest)

Thus, FV will be zeroed out after a certain time.

Amortization refers to the time needed for this to occur.

By using GDC–Financial mode in our example above:

Set FV =0 and press n.
We obtain n=15.64, so n=16
For n=15, the GDC gives FV=87.11
For n=16, the GDC gives FV=-51.84
Therefore, the amount left for the last withdrawal is

150-51.84=98.16 euros.

Explanation (mainly for HL)

The only difference is that we subtract the part of the payments
Now
 Rn  1 
FV  PV  R n  PMT   

 R 1 

In EXAMPLE 9
The ratio for 1 year is
12
 12 
R  1   =1.0112
 100  12 

The value of the investment after 7 years is

 R7  1 
FV  1000  R 7  150    761.22

 R 1 

For Amortization we solve for n the equation FV=0, i.e.

 Rn  1 
1000  R n  150  

 R 1 
The solution is 15.64 so the last withdrawal will take place after
16 years.

51
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 INFLATION – REAL VALUE OF THE INVESTEMENT

In some problems the inflation is also taken into account. Apart
from the interest rate r% they also give us the inflation rate a%.
Then
the future value (FV) of the investment
is translated into

the real value (RV) of the investment

Method 1 (the simplistic one):

We subtract the rates: r ' = r – a
n
 r' 
Real value: RV = PV   1 + 
 100 
But this is an approximation, (IB sometimes accepts it!!)

Method 2 (the correct one!):

n
 r 
 We find the future value as usual: FV = PV   1 + 
 100 
n
 a 
 For the real value RV, we divide the FV by  1 +  .
 100 

EXAMPLE 10
An amount of 1000€ euros is invested with
 an interest rate 5% per year (r = 5%)
 an inflation rate 2% per year. (a = 2%)
Find the real value of the investment after 10 years.

Method 1: r ' = 5%-2% = 3%

10
 3 
Real value: RV = 1000   1 +  = 1343.92
 100 
Method 2: We find FV first
10
 5 
FV = 1000   1 +  = 1628.89
 100 
FV 1628.89
Real value: RV = 10
= 10
= 1336.26
 2   1.02 
1+ 
 100 

52
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

ONLY FOR

HL

53
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

54
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.20 LOGISTIC MODEL

The function of this model (called logistic) has the form

L
f(x) 
1  Ce kx

The three parameters L, C k are all positive.

Consider for example the function

100
y
1  4e  2x

Look at the graph of this function on your GDC with V-window:

5<x<5 and -20<y<70

It looks like exponential. But it is not!

If you increase the upper bound for y you will realise that the
behaviour of graph changes dramatically!

After a while this S-shape curve tends to be constant. In fact it has

a horizontal asymptote at y=100.

55
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

This function is called logistic and it is the model in many real life
situations.

The spread of a virus in earth is usually exponential in early stages.

Theoretically it tends to + as the time goes by. However, the
population in earth is not infinite, so there is an upper limit for
this spread.

The graph of a logistic model

L
y
1  Ce kx
looks like

The 3 parameters of the function determine the following

it determines the upper bound of the growth

L
horizontal asymptote: y=L
L
C it determines the y-intercept. For x=0, y 
1C
k it determines the growth rate or the steepness of the curve

In our example
100
y
1  4e  2x

 the horizontal asymptote is y=100. Indeed,

x tends to +  e 2x tends to 0  y tends to 100

100
 The y intercept (for x=0) is y   20
14

56
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 1
L
The logistic model P  has a limiting value P=1000.
1  Ce kt
We also know the data
t 0 4
P 160 500

Clearly L=1000.
For t=0, P=160:
L 1000
 160   160  1+C = 6.25  C = 5.25
1C 1C
For t=4, P=500:
1000
 500  1000  1  5.25e  4k  5.25e 4k  1
1  5.25e- 4k 500
ln5.25
 e 4k  5.25  4k  ln5.25  k   0.415
4
Therefore,
1000
P
1  5.25e 0.415t
The value of P exceeds 800 when t = 7.34 (use GDC to confirm).

 A POINT SERIES WHICH IS ALMOST LOGISTIC - REGRESSION

Well, consider the two points of EXAMPLE 1 above and the point
(100,1000) [as a limiting value]. Use GDC: REG: Logistic, to find
the values of L, C and k of the logistic model!

57
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.21 NATURAL LOGARITHMIC MODEL

This model has the form

y  a  blnx

It has two parameters to be determined, a and b.

The graph of such a function has the form

The y-axis (line x=0) is a vertical assympote.

As x increases the value of y also increases but in a slow (and
concave down) way.
So a series of data as follows

seems to follow a natural logarithmic model.

If they give us two points we are able to find the parameters a, b.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 1

Let P  a  blnQ be a model with

Q 4 8

P 15 18

Then
a+bln4=15 (1)
a+bln8=18 (2)
This is in fact a system of two linear equations.

Method A: Directly by GDC-Equation-Simultaneous, with entries

1 ln4 15 
 
1 ln8 18 

we obtain a= 9 and b=4.33. Thus

P  9  4.33lnQ

Method B: Manually (up to a certain point!)

3
(2)-(1) gives: b(ln8-ln4) = 3  bln2 =3  b =
ln2
3ln4
(1) gives: a = 15-  a = 15- 6  a = 9
ln2
Thus
3
P 9 lnQ [which is P  9  4.33lnQ as above]
ln2

 A POINT SERIES ALMOST LOGARITHMIC - REGRESSION

Given a series of points where the trend looks like a natural

logarithmic model, we may use GDC: REG: log to find the model.

For practice, use the two points above to find the model
P  9  4.33lnQ

[Again, for two points only the model is perfect! But given a series
of more points, regression provides the best possible log model]

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 A COMPARISON OF THREE MODELS

Mind the differences:
An exponential model increases very rapidly.

A power function model increases rapidly but less than exponential.

A natural logarithmic increases slowly.

For example, look at the graphs of the functions

y  ex (exponential)
3
yx (power)
y  20  100lnx (logarithmic)

As you can see the graphs of the exponential and power models
look alike. Thus if we are given some series of points as follows

We can assume that the first model is logarithmic (as it grows

slowly) but for the second one it is not clear at first glance if it is
an exponential or a power function model.

The following paragraph will help.

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2.22 LINEARISATION OF THREE MODELS

 LINEARISATION OF THE LOGARITHMIC MODEL

Consider the logarithmic model: y  a  blnx

If we set X=lnx, the model takes the form: y  a  bX [linear]

EXAMPLE 1
the function y  3  5lnx
takes the form y  3  5X [where X=lnx]

which is linear!

Let us select some points of y  3  5lnx :

x 2 3 5 10
y 6.47 8.49 11.0 14.5

If X=lnx then

X=lnx 0.693 1.10 1.61 2.30

y 6.47 8.49 11.0 14.5

Observe the corresponding scatter diagrams (i.e. only points)

y in terms of x y in terms of lnx

You see that the points on the second diagram lie on a line.

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 LINEARISATION OF THE EXPONENTIAL MODEL

Consider the exponential model: y  Ae kx

Apply ln( ): lny = lnA + kx

If we set Y=lny the model takes the form: Y  lnA  bx [linear]

EXAMPLE 2
the function y  3e 2x
takes the form Y  ln3  2X [where Y=lny]
which is linear!
2x
Let us select some points of y  3e :

x 1 2 3 5
y 22.2 163.8 1210.3 66079.4

If Y=lny then

x 1 2 3 5
Y=lny 3.1 5.1 7.1 11.1

Observe the corresponding scatter diagrams:

You see that the points on the second diagram lie on a line.

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 LINEARISATION OF THE POWER FUNCTION MODEL

Consider the power function model: y  kx n

Apply ln( ): lny = lnk + nlnx

If we set X=lnx and Y=lny it takes the form: Y  lnk  nX [linear]

EXAMPLE 3
the function y  3x 5
takes the form Y  ln3  5X [X=lnx, Y=lny]
which is linear!
5
Let us select some points of y  3x :

x 1 2 3 5
y 3 96 729 9375

If X=lnx, and Y=lny then

X=lnx 0 0.693 1.10 1.61

Y=lny 1.10 4.56 6.59 9.15

Observe the corresponding scatter diagrams:

You see that the points on the second diagram lie on a line.

So now, if we are given a series of points we can investigate by

using linearization which model is the appropriate.

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EXAMPLE 4
Consider the data

t 3 6 10 12
P 109.417 119.722 134.986 143.333

Investigate by using linearization an appropriate model.

Solution
 We find the corresponding values of lnt and Y=lnP:

t 3 6 10 12
lnt ln3 ln6 ln10 ln12
P 109.417 119.722 135.986 143.333
lnP ln(109.417) ln(119.722) ln(135.986) ln(143.333)

 We check by GDC the graphs of

(P vs lnt) (lnP vs t ) (lnP vs lnt)

 We observe that the diagram (lnP vs t) looks linear.

 Hence we are looking for a relation lnP = at+b

Let us find the values of the parameters a and b by selecting the

first two points:

t 3 6
lnP ln(109.417) ln(119.722)

 We obtain:
3a + b = ln109.417
6a + b = ln119.722
The solution is (by GDC): a = 0.03 b = 4.60516
 Therefore,
lnP = 0.03t+4.60516

P  e 0.03t  4.60516  e 0.03t e 4.60516  100e 0.03t

P  100e 0.03t (exponential model)

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2.23 PIECEWISE MODEL

A piecewise function has different expressions in different intervals.

For example,

 -x + 6, 0x<2
 2
f(x) =  x , 2x<4
 256  2-x , 4  x  10


which is linear in the 1st interval, quadratic in the 2nd interval and
exponential in the 3rd interval.

Usually, we require such a function to be continuous, that is the

right endpoint of each interval coincides with the left endpoint of
the next interval.

For example, for the function above:

At x=2: -x+6 gives 4 x 2 also gives 4

At x=4: x 2 gives 16 256  2-x also gives 16

Indeed, the curve of the function seems to be “continuous”:

Therefore, given some data with a different behaviour in different

intervals we can constract a piecewise model function to describe
this varying behavior.

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EXAMPLE 1
Peter investigated a series of data (x,y) and observed that
between x=0 and x=10, y is proportional to x
i.e data follow a model of the form ax
between x=10 and x=30, y decreases linearly in rate 2
i.e data follow a model of the form -2x+b
between x=30 and x=50, data follow the quadratic model
0.1(x- 30)2  10,

(a) Write down a piecewise function f(x) that describes the data.
(b) Find the values of a and b given that f(x) is continuous.
(c) Sketch the graph of the function.

Solution
 ax, if 0  x  10

(a) f(x)   -2x + b, if 10  x  30
 0.1(x- 30)2  10, if 30  x  50

(b) At x=10: ax =-2x + b  10a=-20+b
At x=30: -2x + b = 0.1(x- 30)2  10  60+b=10

The solution of the system isis b=70 and a=5.

 5x, if 0  x  10

(c) f takes the form f(x)   -2x +70, if 10  x  30
 0.1(x- 30)2  10, if 30  x  50

and the graph is

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