BOARD KO फोड़ DENGE…

)
 NCERT निचोड़
+
PYQs
+
Sample Paper Q
+
Notes
+
Test
Same Will Be Followed For 2025-26
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

CHAPTERS MARKS

Haloalkanes & Haloarenes 6

Alcohols, phenols & ethers 6

Aldehydes ketones & Carboxylic acid 8

Amines 6
Biomolecules 7

Total Marks : 33
Haloalkanes & Haloarenes
 Monohalogen Compound

Halogen attached with Halogen attached with

sp3 Carbon sp2 Carbon

Alkyl Allylic
Benzylic Halide
Halide Halide
Classification of Halogen Compounds
Monohalogen
Compound

Halogen attached
Halogen attached with
with
sp3 Carbon
sp Carbon
2
Classification of Halogen Compounds
Monohalogen Compound
Nomenclature of Halogen Compounds

Nomenclature of alkyl halide

Common Name IUPAC Name

The common names of alkyl halides Alkyl halides are named as halo
are derived by naming the alkyl substituted hydrocarbons in the
group followed by the halide. IUPAC system of nomenclature.
Nomenclature of Halogen Compounds
● The dihaloalkanes having the same type of halogen
atoms are named as alkylidene halide or alkylene
dihalides.
Nomenclature of Halogen Compounds
 Nature of C-X Bond

Bond C-X Bond Dipole

Bond
length/pm enthalpies/kJmol−1 moment/Debye

CH3−F 139 452 1,847

CH3−Cl 178 351 1,860

CH3−Br 193 293 1,830

CH3−I 214 234 1,636

 Preparation of Haloalkanes
❖ From Alcohols
 Preparation of Haloalkanes
❖ From Alcohols
 Preparation of Haloalkanes
❖ From Alkenes
Addition of hydrogen halides: An alkene is converted to corresponding
alkyl halide by reaction with hydrogen chloride, hydrogen bromide or
hydrogen iodide.
Markovnikov's & Anti markovnikov's Rule
 Preparation of Haloalkanes
❏ Addition of halogens:
 Preparation of Haloalkanes

❏ Free Radical Halogenation of Alkanes

● Free radical chlorination or bromination of alkanes gives a

complex mixture of isomeric mono- and poly haloalkanes, which is
difficult to separate as pure compounds. Consequently, the yield of
any single compound is low.
Identify all the possible monochloro structural
isomers expected to be formed on free radical
monochlorination of (CH3)2CHCH2CH3.
In the given molecule, there are four different types of
hydrogen atoms. Replacement of these hydrogen atoms will
give the following.
(CH3)2CHCH₂CH₂CI (CH₃)₂CHCH(CI)CH3
(CH₃)₂C(CI)CH2CH3 CH3CH(CH2CI)CH₂CH3
 Preparation of Haloalkanes

❏ Finkelstein Reaction: Alkyl Iodides are generally prepared

by this method
 Preparation of Haloalkanes
❏ Swarts Reaction: Alkyl Fluorides are generally
prepared by this method.
 Preparation of Haloarenes
❏ From hydrocarbons by electrophilic substitution
 Preparation of Haloarenes
❏ From amines by Sandmeyer’s reaction
 Write the products of the following reactions:

1 2

3
1 2 3
 ❏ Boiling Point:
. ● For isomeric Haloalkanes :
 ❏ Boiling Point:

Order of Boiling point for compounds having same alkyl group:

Boiling points of isomeric dihalobenzenes are very nearly the
same. However, the para-isomers are high melting as compared
to their ortho-and meta-isomers. It is due to symmetry of para-
isomers that fits in crystal lattice better as compared to ortho-
and meta-isomers.
But how to clear Doubts & do
Revision after class
 Launched FREE COURSE for you !

● Practise test

● Doubt

● Daily Motivation

● Handwritten notes
 Reaction with Metals
Preparation of Grignard Reagent (RMgX)
 Reaction with Metals

Preparation of Grignard Reagent (RMgX)

In the Grignard reagent, the carbon-magnesium bond is covalent

but highly polar, with carbon pulling electrons from
electropositive magnesium; the magnesium halogen bond is
essentially ionic.
 Wurtz Reaction

● Alkyl halides on treatment with Sodium metal in dry ether

(free from moisture) solution give higher Alkanes.
 Wurtz Reaction

● Number of C-atoms in alkane is twice of the number of

C-atoms in Alkyl Halide.
 Wurtz Reaction

● Holds good for the formation of Alkane with even number of

C atoms.
● Not preferred for the formation of Alkane with odd number
of C atoms.
Example :

● Mixture of alkanes is formed.

 Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
In this reaction, a nucleophile reacts with a haloalkane and a
substitution reaction takes place and halogen atom (leaving
group) departs as halide ion.

Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction

SN2 Reaction SN1 Reaction

 Ambident Nucleophile
● Nucleophiles that possess two nucleophilic centres
and are called ambident nucleophiles
Retention, Inversion and Racemisation
 Mechanism of SN2 Reaction
● Follows second order kinetics
● Rate of reaction depends upon substrate as well as
Attacking Nucleophile.
Rate of reaction ∝ [Substrate] [Attacking Nucleophile]
● The incoming nucleophile interacts with alkyl halide
causing carbon-halide bond to break and a new bond
is formed between carbon and attacking nucleophile.
 Mechanism of SN2 Reaction
● As the reaction progresses and the bond between the incoming Nu and the
‘C’ atom start forming, the bond between carbon atom and LG weakens.

● The attack only takes place from the backside of the Leaving Group.
● In case of halides, Iodide ion is a better leaving group than Fluoride ion.
● Polar aprotic solvent generally favour SN2 reactions such as
acetone,DMSO etc.
Mechanism of SN2 Reaction
Substitution Nucleophilic Unimolecular (SN1)

● Follows 1st order Kinetics

● Rate of reaction only depends upon substrate i.e

Haloalkanes

Rate of reaction ∝ [Substrate]

● This reaction is carried out in polar protic solvents such as

water, alcohol, acetic acid etc.

● Reaction follows 2 step mechanism.

● Formation of Transition state is the slowest step or rate
determining step.
Substitution Nucleophilic Unimolecular (SN1)

● Order of reactivity of alkyl halide :

1° Alkyl halide < 2° Alkyl halide < 3° Alkyl halide
Comparing SN1 and SN2 Reaction

Related Concepts SN1 Reaction SN2 Reaction

Rate law Unimolecular Bimolecular

Haloalkane 3o > 2o > 1o 3o < 2o < 1o

reactivity

Solvent Polar solvent Polar aprotic

(protic solvent) solvent

Stereochemistry Racemic Inversion

mixture
Nucleophile Weak Strong
 Elimination Reaction
Introduction
● It involves removal of the two groups, generally one being a
proton and other being leaving group to form an unsaturated
compound.
● Leaving group X⊝ = I⊝, Br⊝, Cl⊝, ⊝OTs etc.
Elimination Reaction
 Elimination Reaction
For Example:
 Elimination Reaction
β-elimination:
● When haloalkane with β-hydrogen atom is heated with
ethanolic potassium hydroxide, there is elimination of
hydrogen atom from β-carbon atom and a halogen atom
from 𝛼-carbon atom. As a result, an alkene is formed.
● Since β-hydrogen atom is involved in elimination, it is often
called β-elimination reaction.
Elimination Reaction
 Elimination Reaction
Saytzeff Rule
 Elimination Reaction
Saytzeff Rule

If there is possibility of formation of more than one alkene

due to the availability of more than one β-hydrogen atoms,
usually one alkene is formed as the major product.
According to this rule in dehydrohalogenation reactions,
the preferred product is that alkene which has the greater
number of alkyl groups attached to the double bonded
carbon atoms.
 Elimination Vs Substitution
● An alkyl halide with β-hydrogen atoms when reacted with a
base or a nucleophile has two competing routes
 Elimination Vs Substitution

Which route will be taken up depends upon

Nature of alkyl Strength and size of Reaction conditions

halide base/nucleophile
Elimination Vs Substitution
● A bulkier Nucleophile will prefer to act as a base and
abstracts a proton rather than approach a tetravalent
‘C’ atom (steric reasons) and vice versa.
● A primary alkyl halide will prefer a SN2 reaction, a
secondary halide- SN2 or elimination depending upon
the strength of base/nucleophile.
● A tertiary halide- SN1 or elimination depending upon
the stability of carbocation or the more substituted
alkene.
 Reactions of Haloarenes
Reactions of Haloarenes

Nucleophilic Electrophilic Reactions with

Substitution Substitution Metals

Replacement of Halogenation Wurtz-Fittig

halogen by -OH Reaction
Nitration
Group
Fittig Reaction
Sulphonation

Friedel Craft Alkylation

Friedel Craft Acylation
Aromatic Nucleophilic Substitution
● Haloarenes are extremely less reactive towards
Nucleophilic substitution because:
Aromatic Nucleophilic Substitution
● Haloarenes are extremely less reactive towards
Nucleophilic substitution because:
Aromatic Nucleophilic Substitution

● Haloarenes are extremely less reactive towards

Nucleophilic substitution because:
Aromatic Nucleophilic Substitution
● Haloarenes are extremely less reactive towards
Nucleophilic substitution because:
3. Instability of Phenyl Cation
Aromatic Nucleophilic Substitution

4. Repulsion
Replacement of Halogen by hydroxyl group
❏ Dow’s Process
Replacement of halogen by hydroxyl group
In the presence of e- withdrawing group (NO2)
Replacement of halogen by hydroxyl group
In the presence of e- withdrawing group (NO2)

● The presence of an electron withdrawing group (-NO2 ) at

ortho- and para-positions increases the reactivity of
[Link],no effect is observed in reactivity when
electron withdrawing group is at meta position.
Electrophilic substitution Reaction of Haloarenes

Electrophilic aromatic substitution : Reaction in which an

atom that is attached to an aromatic system (usually
hydrogen) is replaced by an electrophile.
Electrophilic substitution Reaction of Haloarenes

● Due to resonance, the electron density increases more at ortho-

and para-positions than at meta-positions(o.p directing)
● Further, the halogen atom because of its -I effect has some
tendency to withdraw electrons from the benzene ring.
● As a result, the ring gets somewhat deactivated as compared to
benzene and hence the electrophilic substitution reactions in
haloarenes occur slowly and require more drastic conditions as
compared to those in benzene.
Electrophilic substitution Reaction of Haloarenes
● Haloarenes undergo the usual electrophilic reactions
of the benzene ring such as :

Halogenation

Nitration

Sulphonation

Friedel - Crafts reactions

Halogenation Reaction
Nitration Reaction
Sulphonation Reaction
Friedel craft Alkylation
Friedel craft Acylation
Reaction with metals
 Poly halogen Compounds
Dichloromethane (methylene Chloride)

1. Solvent as a paint remover,

propellant in aerosols
2. Solvent in the manufacture
Uses
of drugs
3. Metal cleaning and finishing
solvent

1) Harms the human central

nervous system
Draw Backs 2) Can lead to slightly impaired
hearing and vision.
3) Direct contact with the eyes
can burn the cornea.
 Heading
Trichloromethane (chloroform)

1. Today - production of the freon 1) Depresses the central nervous

refrigerant R-22. system
2. Once used- general anaesthetic 2) Breathing short time - dizziness,
in surgery (replaced by-Ether) fatigue, and headache.
3. Metal cleaning and finishing 3) damage to the liver( CCl4 to
solvent Phosgene.

USE Drawback

Oxidised by air in the presence of light to an extremely poisonous gas - phosgene.

Stored in closed dark coloured bottles completely filled so that air is kept out.

USE
 Heading
Triiodomethane (Iodoform)

It was used earlier as an antiseptic but the antiseptic properties

are due to the liberation of free iodine and not due to iodoform
itself
 TetrachloromethaneHeading
(carbon
tetrachloride)

● Use in the manufacture of refrigerants and propellants for aerosol

cans and feedstock
● mid 1960s - widely used as a cleaning fluid, both in industry, as a
degreasing agent, and in the home, as a spot remover and as fire
extinguisher.

● Liver cancer in humans

● Permanent damage to nerve cells
● Depletes the ozone layer
 Freons

● Extremely stable, unreactive, non-toxic, non-corrosive and

easily liquefiable gases
● Produced for aerosol propellants, refrigeration and air
conditioning purposes
● In stratosphere, freon is able to initiate radical chain reactions
that can upset the natural ozone balance
 Heading
p,p - Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane

1. first chlorinated organic

insecticides
Uses 2. World War II - against the
mosquito that spreads malaria

1) insects developed resistance to DDT

2) DDT is not metabolised very rapidly by
Draw Backs
animals; instead, it is deposited and
stored in the fatty tissues
Previous Year
Questions
 CBSE 2024

Draw the structures of major monohalo products in

each of the following reactions:
 CBSE 2024

The correct IUPAC name of (CH3)3 C - CH2Br is:

A 2,2-Dimethyl-2-bromopropane

B 1-Bromo-2,2,2-trimethylethane

C 1-Bromo-2,2,2-trimethylethane

D 1-Bromo-2,2-dimethylpropane
 CBSE 2024

The correct IUPAC name of (CH3)3 C - CH2Br is:

A 2,2-Dimethyl-2-bromopropane

B 1-Bromo-2,2,2-trimethylethane

C 1-Bromo-2,2,2-trimethylethane

D 1-Bromo-2,2-dimethylpropane
 CBSE 2024

(a)Which of the following is an allylic halide ?

(a)Out of chlorobenzene and 2,4,6-

trinitrochlorobenzene, which is more reactive
towards nucleophilic substitution and why?
(b)Which isomer of C4H9Cl has the lowest boiling
point ?
 CBSE 2023

(i) Why do tertiary alkyl halides undergo SN1 reaction

at a faster rate?
(ii) Define Enantiomers.
(iii) Why is chloroform stored in dark coloured air
tight bottles?
 CBSE 2023

(i) Write the major alkene that would be formed by

dehydrohalogenation of 2-Bromopentane.
(ii) Which would undergo SN2 reaction at a faster
rate and why?

(iii) Why is chlorobenzene less reactive towards

nucleophilic substitution reaction?
 CBSE 2023

(i) Write the structure of 1-chloro-4-

ethylcyclohexane.
(ii) Why is sulphuric acid not used during the
reactions of alcohols with KI?
 CBSE 2023

(i) Arrange the following in increasing order of their

boiling points:
1-chloropropane, 2-chloropropane, 1-chlorobutane
(ii) What is an ambident nucleophile? Give one
example.
ALCOHOLS, PHENOLS & ETHERS
 Classification of Alcohol
Primary Alcohols: Hydroxyl group is attached to primary (1o) carbon atom.

R–CH2–OH

Secondary Alcohols: Hydroxyl group is attached to secondary (2o) carbon atom.

Isopropyl alcohol

Tertiary Alcohols: Hydroxyl group is attached with tertiary (3o) carbon atom.
Preparation of Alcohol

1. From Alkenes
(i) By acid catalysed hydration
From Alkenes
(i) By acid catalysed hydration

Step 1 : Protonation of alkene to form carbocation by

electrophilic attack of H3O+

Step 2: Nucleophilic attack of water on carbocation

 Preparation of Alcohol

From Alkenes
(ii) Hydroboration - Oxidation of alkenes
Preparation of Alcohol
 Preparation of Alcohol
2. From Carbonyl Compounds

● By reduction of aldehydes and ketones

○ Aldehyde gives primary alcohols and ketone
gives secondary alcohols
 Preparation of Alcohol

2. From Carbonyl Compounds

Catalyst used for reduction - (1) finally divided Ni, Pt

and Pd

(2) NaBH4 -
 Preparation of Alcohol
❖ From Carbonyl Compounds

(3) LiAlH4 it is a strong, unselective reducing agent it will

reduce aldehydes, ketones, esters, carboxylic acid chlorides,
carboxylic acids and even carboxylate salts to alcohols.

LiAlH4 is an expensive reagent. Commercially, acids are

reduced to alcohols by converting them to the esters
followed by their reduction using hydrogen in the presence
of catalyst
 Preparation of Alcohol

3. From Alkyl halide

 Preparation of Alcohol

4. From Reactions involving Grignard reagent

❖ Reaction with methanal
❖ Reaction with other aldehyde ❖ Reaction with ketone
 Introduction to Phenol
● In Phenols, the OH group is attached to sp2 hybridised
carbon of an aromatic ring.
 Acidity of Phenol
Reaction which show acidic character of phenol
1. Reaction with metal (Na)

2. Reaction with sodium hydroxide

 Acidity of Phenol

Acidic nature of Substituted Phenol

Electron Withdrawing group - (-NO2, -COOH, -CN)

● Enhances the acidic strength of phenol.

● This effect is more pronounced when such a group is

present at ortho and para positions.

Electron donating group - (-OH, -OR, -NH2)

● Decreases the acidic strength of phenol.

 Preparation of Phenol
From haloarenes
● Chlorobenzene is fused with NaOH at 623K and
320 atmospheric pressure. Phenol is obtained by
acidification of sodium phenoxide so produced
 Preparation of Phenol
From benzenesulphonic acid
● Benzene is sulphonated with oleum and benzene
sulphonic acid so formed is converted to sodium
phenoxide on heating with molten sodium hydroxide.
Acidification of the sodium salt gives phenol
 Preparation of Phenol

From diazonium salts

● A diazonium salt is formed by treating an aromatic
primary amine with nitrous acid (NaNO2 + HCl) at 273-
278 K
● When benzene diazonium chloride solution is warmed
with warm water or dilute acids , phenol is formed with
evolution of nitrogen.
 Preparation of Phenol

Cumene Process

● Cumene (isopropylbenzene) is oxidised in the presence

of air to cumene hydroperoxide which is converted to
phenol and acetone by treating with dilute acid
 Preparation of Phenol

Cumene Process

● Cumene (isopropylbenzene) is oxidised in the presence

of air to cumene hydroperoxide which is converted to
phenol and acetone by treating with dilute acid
 Reaction of Phenol

Esterification

The introduction of acetyl (CH3CO) group in alcohols or

phenols is known as acetylation
1. Reaction with Hydrogen Halides 2. Reaction with Phosphorus Trihalides
 3. Dehydration Reaction

● Dehydration means removal of a molecule of

water
● Formation of either alkenes or ethers.
● Dehydration can be carried out either with
protonic acid such as H2SO4
 Dehydration Reaction

● Primary alcohols when heated with conc. H2SO4

at 433 - 443 K, they undergo intramolecular
dehydration to form alkenes.
 Dehydration Reaction
Secondary and tertiary alcohols undergo dehydration
under milder condition
Dehydration Reaction
 4. Oxidation of Alcohol

Oxidation of alcohols involves the formation of a carbon

oxygen double bond with cleavage of an O-H and C-H bonds.

Bond Breaking

Note - Oxidation of alcohols depend upon oxidising agents

Give the structures and IUPAC names of the
products expected from the following reactions:
(a)Catalytic reduction of butanal.
(b)Hydration of propene in the presence of dilute
sulphuric acid.
(c)Reaction of propanone with methylmagnesium
bromide followed by hydrolysis.
 Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution
Bromination

● When the reaction is carried out in solvents of low

polarity such as CHCl3 or CS2 and at low temperature,
monobromo phenols are formed

Br2 in CS2

273 K

Minor

Major
Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution
 Reaction of Benzene Ring
Nitration
● Phenol activates the benzene nucleus towards
electrophilic substitution reactions at ortho and para-
positions.
● With dilute nitric acid at low temperature (298 K), yields
a mixture of ortho and para nitrophenols.

Dilute HNO3

o-Nitrophenol

p-Nitrophenol
 Reaction of Benzene Ring
Nitration
Ortho and para isomer can be separated by steam distillation

Nitration of phenol

O - Nitrophenol P - Nitrophenol

Intramolecular H - bonding Intermolecular H - bonding

Steam volatile less volatile

Low boiling point High boiling point
 Reaction of Benzene Ring

Nitration

● Reaction with concentrated nitric acid.

● Phenol is converted to 2,4,6-trinitrophenol (picric acid)

 Kolbe’s Reaction
● Reaction of sodium phenoxide with carbon
dioxide (weak electrophile)
● At 130-140°C under pressure of (4-7) atmospheres
followed by acid hydrolysis, salicylic acid (o-
Hydroxybenzoic acid) is formed.
 Kolbe’s Reaction
Kolbe reaction
● Reaction of sodium phenoxide with carbon
dioxide (weak electrophile)
● At 130-140°C under pressure of (4-7) atmospheres
followed by acid hydrolysis, salicylic acid (o-
Hydroxybenzoic acid) is formed.
 Reimer - Tiemann Reaction

Reimer - Tiemann reaction

● Reaction of phenol with chloroform in the presence of

sodium hydroxide.
● A –CHO group is introduced at ortho position of benzene
ring.
 Reimer - Tiemann Reaction

Reimer - Tiemann reaction

● Reaction of phenol with chloroform in the presence of

sodium hydroxide.
● A –CHO group is introduced at ortho position of benzene
ring.
Reaction with zinc

Phenol is converted to benzene on heating with zinc dust

 Preparation of Ether
Dehydration of alcohol
Preparation of Ether
 Preparation of Ether

Williamson synthesis
 Preparation of Ether

Williamson synthesis

● Alkyl halide should be primary and alkoxide should

be secondary or tertiary.
Previous Year
Questions
 CBSE 2024

Williamson's synthesis of preparing dimethyl ether

is a/an:

A electrophilic substitution

B SN1 reaction

C electrophilic addition

D SN2 reaction
 CBSE 2024

Williamson's synthesis of preparing dimethyl ether

is a/an:

A electrophilic substitution

B SN1 reaction

C electrophilic addition

D SN2 reaction
 CBSE 2024

Write the mechanism of the following reaction :

 CBSE 2024

Write the main product in each of the following

reactions :
 CBSE 2024

Draw the structures of major monohalo products in

each of the following reactions:
 CBSE 2024

(i) Grignard reagent should be prepared under

anhydrous conditions.
(ii) Alkyl halides give alcohol with aqueous KOH
whereas in the presence of alcoholic KOH, alkenes
are formed.
 CBSE 2024

The correct order of the ease of dehydration of the

following alcohols by the action of conc. H2SO4 is:

A (CH3)3C-OH > (CH3)2CH - OH > CH3CH2-OH

B (CH3)2CH - OH > CH3CH2-OH > (CH3)3C - OH

C CH3CH2-OH > (CH3)2CH - OH > (CH3)3C - OH

D (CH3)2CH-OH > (CH3)3C - OH > CH3CH2-OH

 CBSE 2024

The correct order of the ease of dehydration of the

following alcohols by the action of conc. H2SO4 is:

A (CH3)3C-OH > (CH3)2CH - OH > CH3CH2-OH

B (CH3)2CH - OH > CH3CH2-OH > (CH3)3C - OH

C CH3CH2-OH > (CH3)2CH - OH > (CH3)3C - OH

D (CH3)2CH-OH > (CH3)3C - OH > CH3CH2-OH

 CBSE 2023

Write the chemical equation for the following:

(a)Oxidation of secondary alcohol to ketone by
chromic anhydride (CrO3).
(b)Reaction of anisole with a mixture of
concentrated sulphuric acid and nitric acid.
(c)Reaction of HI with 1-propoxypropane.
AMINES
 AMINES
Amines are derivatives of ammonia in which one or more hydrogen
atoms are replaced by alkyl groups (s)
Classification of Amines
Examples of Amines
 Structure of Amines

Pyramidal shape of trimethylamine

 Preparation of Amines
Reactions of Nitro Compounds
 Preparation of Amines

Hoffmann Ammonolysis of Alkyl Halide

 Preparation of Amines

Reduction of Nitriles
 Preparation of Amines

Reduction of Amides
Gabriel phthalimide synthesis
 Preparation of Amines

Gabriel phthalimide synthesis

 Preparation of Amines
Hoffmann bromamide Degradation
To prepare 10 Amines
Write chemical equations for the following
conversions:
(i) CH3-CH2-Cl into CH3-CH2-CH2-NH2
(ii) C6H5-CH2-Cl into C6H5-CH2-CH2-NH2
 Physical Properties

Hydrogen Bonding

❖ H-bonding (weaker as compared to H-O-H)

1o Amine 2o Amine

❖ In 3o amine (due to absence of H-atom) H-bonding is not

possible
 Physical Properties

Boiling Point

❖ Order of B.P:
1o amine > 2o amine > 3o amine

❖ Order of volatility:
3o amine > 2o amine > 1o amine
 Physical Properties

Solubility

1o Amine 2o Amine 3o Amine

❖ Order of Solubility:
1o amine > 2o amine > 3o amine
Chemical Reactions of Amines
Basic Character of Amines
 Chemical Reactions of Amines

Basic Character of Amines

 Basic Character of Amines

In Terms of Kb & pKb values

Larger Kb value Smaller pKb value

Stronger Base
 Order of Basic Strength

In Gaseous Phase

BASIC +I
STRENGTH ∝ Effect
 Order of Basic Strength

In Aqueous Medium

∴ Experimentally determined order of basicity is

R ⇒ CH3 : 2° > 1° > 3° > NH3

R ⇒ C2H5 : 2° > 3° > 1° > NH3

 Order of Basic Strength

“Aromatic Amine are less basic than

Aliphatic Amine”

“∵ Due to Resonance Lone Pair is

not easily available for protonation”
 Chemical Reactions of Amines

Acylation
“Given by 1° & 2° Amines”
 Chemical Reactions of Amines

Acylation
“Given by 1° & 2° Amines”

Ethanamine N-Ethylethanamide
(1° Amine)
 Chemical Reactions of Amines
Acylation

N-Ethylethanamine N,N-Diethylethanamide
(2° Amine)
 Chemical Reactions of Amines
Carbylamine Reaction

Given by 10 Aliphatic & Aromatic Amines

Heisenberg’s test for Amines
 Electrophilic substitution of Aniline

Bromination
 Bromination

To form para product

Nitration
 Nitration

To form para product

Sulphonation
Sulphonation
 Diazonium Salt

N2+ group is called diazonium group

 Methods of preparation of Diazonium Salt

The conversion of primary aromatic amines into diazonium salts is

known as diazotization
Reactions involving retention of diazo group coupling reactions
Arrange the following in decreasing order of their
basic strength: C6H5NH2, C2H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH, NH3
How will you convert 4-nitrotoluene to 2-
bromobenzoic acid?
Previous Year
Questions
 CBSE 2024

Give plausible explanation for the following:

(a) Diazonium salts of aromatic amines are stable.
(b) Aniline does not undergo Friedel-Crafts
reaction.
Aniline on nitration gives a substantial amount of
meta product.
 CBSE 2024

The chemical test which can be used to distinguish

between ethanamine and aniline is:

A Haloform test

B Tollens' test

C Azo dye test

D Hinsberg test
 CBSE 2024

The chemical test which can be used to distinguish

between ethanamine and aniline is:

A Haloform test

B Tollens' test

C Azo dye test

D Hinsberg test
 CBSE 2024

(a)N,N-diethyl-benzenesulphonamide is insoluble
in alkali. Give reason.
(b)Aniline does not undergo Friedel-Crafts
reaction. Why?
(c)Write a simple chemical test to distinguish
between methylamine and aniline.
 CBSE 2024

(d) Write the chemical reaction involved in Gabriel

phthalimide synthesis.
 CBSE 2024

(e) How will you convert aniline to p-bromoaniline?

(f) Complete the following reaction:

(g) Write the structures of A and B in the following

reaction:
 CBSE 2023
Three compounds are given below :
C2H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH,
(C2H5)3N

I II
III
The correct decreasing order of their basic strength
in an aqueous solution is:
A II > III > I

B III > II > I

C I > II > III

D I > III > II

 CBSE 2023
Three compounds are given below :
C2H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH,
(C2H5)3N

I II
III
The correct decreasing order of their basic strength
in an aqueous solution is:
A II > III > I

B III > II > I

C I > II > III

D I > III > II

 CBSE 2023 SA 3

Give reasons for the following:

(a)Acylation of –NH2 group is done in aniline before
preparing its ortho and para compounds.
(b)Solubility of amines decreases with increase in
molar mass of amines.
(c)Aniline does not undergo Friedel-Crafts
reaction.
(d)Primary amines have higher boiling points than
tertiary amines.
 CBSE 2023

Hoffmann Bromamide Degradation reaction is given

by:

D
 CBSE 2023

Hoffmann Bromamide Degradation reaction is given

by:

D
Biomolecules
 Carbohydrates
The polyhydroxy carbonyl compounds are called as
carbohydrates.
 Classification of Carbohydrates
Based on number of units

Monosaccharides : Oligosaccharides : Polysaccharides :

Simplest units which cannot be 2 to 10 units of Greater than 10 units of
hydrolysed further. monosaccharides. monosaccharides (very high
Example : Example of 2 units : units : sometimes 1000)
Example :
 Classification of biomolecules
Based on reducing property
Carbohydrates

Reducing Sugar Non-reducing sugar

● Those which can reduce ● Those which cannot reduce

Tollen’s reagent, fehling’s tollen’s reagent, fehling’s
reagent & Benedict’s reagent. reagent & Benedict’s reagent.
Ex : ● Ex : Starch, cellulose,
● Mono-Glucose , Fructose, Sucrose
Galactose etc.
● Disac-Maltose, Lactose etc.
 Monosaccharides
Those simple carbohydrates which cannot be further simplified.

Monosaccharides

Aldoses Ketoses

● Monosaccharide that ● Monosaccharide that

contains an aldehyde contains an (C=O)
group (-CHO) and rest group and rest other -
other -OH group OH group
 GLUCOSE (C6H12O6)

● Glucose is an aldohexose. The reactions of glucose indicate that its

molecule contains one primary (–CH2OH)
● It is the monomer of many of the larger and four secondary (>CHOH) hydroxyl
carbohydrates such as starch, cellulose. groups.
● It is also known as blood sugar/grape
sugar.

● It naturally occurs in D- form, so also

named as ‘dextrose’.
Structure of Glucose
Preparation of Glucose
● Reaction of carbohydrate with HI
● Reaction of carbohydrate with NH2OH

● Reaction of carbohydrate with HCN

● Reaction of carbohydrate with Br2

● Example
● Reaction of carbohydrate with Ac2O
● Reaction of carbohydrate with HNO3

● Example
 Cyclic Structure of Glucose
The above facts about glucose can be explained in terms
of cyclic structure of glucose. The cyclic Structure of
glucose is formed through intramolecular hemiacetal
formation which leads to cyclisation.
 Biomolecules

Glucose

OH H
H OH
OH H

2-D , 3-L , 4-D , 5-D 2-L , 3-D , 4-L , 5-L

2,3,4,5,6-pentahydroxyhexanal 2,3,4,5,6-pentahydroxyhexanal

D- L-
 Fructose
Fructose (Laevulose), C6H12O6
Fructose is a reducing sugar & ketohexose. It is obtained
along with glucose by the hydrolysis of sucrose.
Structure of fructose
● Fructose has the molecular formula C6H12O6
● Contain a ketonic functional group at C-2 and six
carbon atoms in straight chain as in case of glucose.
● It belongs to D-series and is a laevorotatory
compound.
 Disaccharides

To form a Disaccharide we need to condense two Monosaccharides

Monosaccharide 1 + Monosaccharide 2 = Disaccharide

Disaccharides

Sucrose α-D-Glucose + β-D-Fructose

Lactose β-D-Galactose + β-D-Glucose

Maltose α-D-Glucose + α-D-Glucose

 Sucrose
Sucrose, commonly known as “table sugar” or “cane
sugar”, is a carbohydrate formed from the combination of
glucose and fructose.

Molecular formula = C12H22O11

 Structure of Sucrose

𝛂 - D (+) glucose

(1 , 2) 𝛂 - glycosidic
linkage
𝛃 - D (-) fructose
 Maltose (Malt sugar)
Maltose is a sweet disaccharide carbohydrate consisting of two
glucose units.
H2O
C12H22O11 C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

𝛂 -D⊕ glucose
 Structure of maltose
Maltose is a very rich source of glucose.
It is a reducing sugar.
 Lactose
Lactose is a large sugar molecule that is made up of two smaller
sugar molecules, glucose and galactose.

C12H22O1 H2O
C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
1
𝛃 -D⊕ galactose 𝛃 -D⊕ glucose
 Structure of lactose
It is also a reducing sugar.
Polysaccharides
 1. Starch

It is the mixture of two polysaccharides

Amylose (15-20 %) Amylopectin (80-85 %)

 Amylose

● Linear polymer of 𝛂-D⊕ glucose unit (200 -1000)

● (1, 4) 𝛂 glycosidic linkage
● Water soluble
Structure of Amylose

(1, 4) 𝛂 glycosidic linkage

 Amylopectin
● Cross Linked polymer of 𝛂-D⊕ glucose
● (1, 4) 𝛂 glycosidic linkage, (1, 6) cross link
● Water insoluble
Structure of Amylopectin
(1, 6) glycosidic linkage
(cross link)

(1, 4) 𝛂 glycosidic linkage

 2. Cellulose
● It is a linear polymer of 𝛃 - ⊕ glucose.
● It has (1, 4) 𝛃 glycosidic linkage
Structure of Cellulose
3. Glycogen
 Amino acids

𝞪-Amino acids

If in a correct fischer formula , -NH2 is on right side , then it is D

configuration and if it is on left side , it is L configuration.
 Types of amino acids

Neutral 𝞪-amino Acidic 𝞪-amino Basic 𝞪-amino

acids acids acids

One -NH2 group and One -NH2 group and Two -NH2 group and
one -COOH group two -COOH group one -COOH group
 Neutral 𝞪-amino acids
General formula :
Example :

S.N Neutral amino acids Name Symbol

1 Glycine gly

2 Alanine Ala

3 Valine Val

4 Leucine Leu

5 Phenylalanine Phe
 Acidic 𝞪-amino acids
General formula :
Example :

n Acidic amino acids Name Symbol

n=1 Aspartic acid asp

n=2 Glutamic acid glu

 Basic 𝞪-amino acids
General formula :
Example :
n Basic amino acids Name Symbol

n=3 Arginine Arg

n=4 Lysine Lys

V : Valine
I : Isoleucine
P : Phenylalanine A :
Alanine
H : Histidine A
: Aspartic
A : Arginine A
: Asparagine
L : Leucine P
: Proline
L : Lysine T
: Tyroine
 Zwitter ion
The amino acids contain both an acidic group (–COOH)
and a basic group (–NH2). So, they are amphoteric. They
undergo intramolecular acid–base reaction to from an
internal salt having a dipolar ion called a zwitter ion.
 Zwitter ion
Isoelectric point (pI)
It is equal to the pH at which maximum concentration of amino
acid remains in the form of zwitter ion.
 Proteins
Proteins are the polymers of a-amino acids and they are connected to
each other by peptide bond or peptide linkage. Chemically, peptide
linkage is an amide formed between –COOH group and –NH2 group.
 Vitamins
Vitamins are classified into two groups depending upon
their solubility in water or fat.
(i) Fat soluble vitamins: Vitamins which are soluble in fat
and oils but insoluble in water are kept in this group.
These are vitamins A, D, E and K. They are stored in liver
and adipose (fat storing) tissues.
 Vitamins
(ii) Water soluble vitamins: B group vitamins and vitamin
C are soluble in water so they are grouped together.
Water soluble vitamins must be supplied regularly in diet
because they are readily excreted in urine and cannot be
stored (except vitamin B12) in our body.
 Nucleic Acid
These are special type of acids that are present in nucleus and
cytoplasm.
Types of nucleic acid ⟶ These are of two types
(I) DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
(II) RNA (Ribonucleic acid)
 Deoxyribonucleic Acid (D.N.A.)
(a) It is found in nucleus.
(b) DNA made up of 3 units
DNA contains four bases viz. adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C)
and thymine (T). RNA also contains four bases, the first three bases
are same as in DNA but the fourth one is uracil (U).
A (A)-(III), (B)-(I), (C)-(IV), (D)-(II)

B (A)-(I), (B)-(II), (C)-(III), (D)-(IV)

C (A)-(II), (B)-(IV), (C)-(III), (D)-(I)

D (A)-(IV), (B)-(II), (C)-(I), (D)-(III)

Solution: A
 Match List - I with List - II. JEE Main 2025 | 24th Jan S2

Choose the
correct answer
from the options
A (A)-(IV), (B)-(III), (C)-(II), (D)-(I) given below :

B (A)-(III), (B)-(IV), (C)-(II), (D)-(I)

C (A)-(III), (B)-(I), (C)-(IV), (D)-(II)

D (A)-(III), (B)-(IV), (C)-(I), (D)-(II)

Solution: B
 We are the Cations !
BOARD KO फोड़ DENGE…
)
Previous Year
Questions
 CBSE 2024

The particles in the nucleus of the cell, responsible for heredity, are
called chromosomes which are made up of proteins and another type
of biomolecules called nucleic acids. These are mainly of two types,
DNA and RNA. Nucleic acids on hydrolysis yield a pentose sugar,
phosphoric acid and nitrogen containing heterocyclic compound.
Nucleic acids have a very diverse set of functions, such as cell
creation, the storage and processing of genetic information, protein
synthesis and the generation of energy cells. Although their functions
may differ, the structure of DNA and RNA are very similar, with only a
few fundamental differences in their molecular make-up.
 CBSE 2024

Based on the above information, answer the following questions:

(a) Write two functions of DNA.
(b) What products will be formed when a nucleotide from DNA
containing Adenine is hydrolyzed?
(c) What are nucleic acids? What is the difference between
nucleotide and nucleoside ?
 CBSE 2024

(a) What is peptide linkage?

(b) What type of bonds hold a DNA double helix together?
(c) Which one of the following is a polysaccharide ?
Sucrose, Glucose, Starch, Fructose
(a) Give one example each for water-soluble vitamins and
fat-soluble vitamins.
 CBSE 2024

What happens when D-glucose is treated with the

following reagents?
(a) HI (b) Conc. HNO3
 CBSE 2024

Two among the three components of DNA are β-D-

2-deoxyribose and a heterocyclic base. The third
component is :

A Adenine

B Phosphoric acid

C Sulphuric acid

D Uracil
 CBSE 2024

Two among the three components of DNA are β-D-

2-deoxyribose and a heterocyclic base. The third
component is :

A Adenine

B Phosphoric acid

C Sulphuric acid

D Uracil
 CBSE 2023

Carbohydrates are the major components of all living organisms. Sugars

are carbohydrates. The major types of sugars include monosaccharides and
disaccharides. The main difference between monosaccharides,
disaccharides and polysaccharides is that monosaccharides are monomer
of sugars and disaccharides are composed of two monomers, whereas
polysaccharides are composed of a large number of monomers.
Monosaccharides are single sugar molecules which act as the building
blocks of disaccharides and polysaccharides. Disaccharides are also simple
sugars. Disaccharides are classified into two groups according to their
reducing strength: Reducing and Non-reducing sugars. When a polymer is
formed from a monomer, a condensation reaction occurs that forms a
glycosidic bond and water molecule is lost. Starch, glycogen and cellulose
are examples of polysaccharides. Starch is found in many parts of plant cell
and consists of amylose and amylopectin. Glycogen is the major
carbohydrate storage product found in humans. It is present in liver,
muscles and brain.
Cellulose is the most abundant organic molecule on Earth. It makes up
around 50% of all organic carbon.
 CBSE 2023
Answer the following questions:
(a)Name the linkage which connects
monosaccharide units in polysaccharides.
(b)Carbohydrates are classified on the basis of
their behaviour on hydrolysis. Write the
hydrolysis products of sucrose.
(c)Write two differences between Amylose and
Amylopectin.