CHAPTER Motion in One Dimension 2.1 Position, Velocity, and Speed 2.2 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed 2.3 Analysis Model: Particle Under Constant Velocity 2.4 eceleration 2.5 Motion Diagrams 2.6 Analysis Model: Particle Under Constant Acceleration 2:7 Freely Falling Objects 2.8 Kinematie Equations Derived from Calculus General Problem-Sol Strategy [As a first step in studying classical mechanics, we describe the motion of an object In drag racing, a drver wants as while ignoring the interactions with external agents that might be affecting or modifying th ation. This portion of classical mechanics is called kinematics. (The word kinematics has the same root as cinema) In this chapter, we consider only motion in one dimension, th , motion af an object along a straight line From everyday experience, we recognize that motion of an object represents a continu ‘us change in the abject’s position. In physies, we can categorize mot translational, rotational, and vibrational, A car traveling on 2 highway is an exemple of translational motion, the Earth's spin on its axis isan example of rotational mation, and the back-and-forth movement of a pendulum is an example of vibrational motion. In this and ‘the next few chapters, we are concerned only with translational motion. (Later in the book we shall discuss rotational and vibrational motions) In our study of translational motion, we use what is called the particle model and describe into three types: ‘the moving object as 2 particle regardless of its size. Remember our discussion of making ‘models for physical situations in Section 1.2. In general, a particle is a point-like object, ‘that is, an object that has mass but is of infinitesimal size, For example, if we wish to Earth asa particle and describe the mation of the Earth around the Sun, we can treat 2122 Chapter 2 Motion in One Dimension obtain reasonably accurate data about its orbit. This approximation is justified because the radius of the Earth's orbit is large compared with the dimensions of the Earth and the Sun. ‘As an example on a much smaller scale, i is possible to explain the pressure exerted by a gas ‘on the walls of a container by treating the gas molecules as particles, without regard for the internal structure of the molecules. Position, Velocity, and Speed Position PA particle’ position x is the location of the particle with respect to a chosen ref erence point that we ean consider to be the origin of a coordinate system. The motion ofa particle is completely known if the particle’ position in space is known aall times. Consider a car moving back and forth along the xaxis as in Figure 2.18, When we begin collecting position data, the car is 80 m to the right ofthe reference p tion x = 0. We will use the particle model by identifying some point on the car, pethape the front door handle, a a particle representing the entire car. We start our clock, and once every’ 10 s we note the cat's position, As you can see from Table 2.1, the car moves to the right (which we have defined as the postive direction) during the first 10 s of motion, from position ® to position ®. After ®, the position values begin to decrease, suggesting the car is backing up from position © through position ©. In fact, at ©, 30 s after we start measuring, the ear is atthe origin of coordinates (see Fig. 2.12) It continues moving to the left and is more than the Carat Various Times 50 m to the left of x = 0 when we stop recording information after ous sixth data Position +68) x(n) point, A graphical representation of this information is presented in Figure 2.1b. io Position of ®@ 0 30 Such a plot is called a position-time graph 8 1 52 Note the atemative representations of information that we have used for the e 2 motion of the car, Figure 2a is a picoral resentation, whereas Figure 2.10 isa ® 30 ‘graphical representation. Table 2.1 is a tabular representation of the same information. ® » Erin an ateratve representation often an enclen sate for understanding the situation in a given problem, The ultimate goal in many problems is a math- “The car moves to the right between positions ® and ®. atm 0 eee STS vim ® © oO © ‘ie Fae 22 on a oe ee oe ee NY 60-50 40-90-20 -10 0-10 2 90 400 oO “The car moves the left between posions © ana ©. jure 2.1. Acar moves back and forth along. straight ine ecause we are interested only in the bout the motion of the car ean be used. Table 2.1 ia tabular representation of the information, {a) A pictorial representation ofthe motion ofthe cat (b) A graphical representation (position-dime raph) of the motion of the ear2.1 Position, Velocity, and Speed 23 ‘ematical rppresentation, which can be analyzed to solve for some requested piece of information, Given the data in Table 2.1, we can casily determine the change in position of the car for various time intervals. The displacement Ax of a particle is defined as its change in position in some time interval, As the particle moves from an initial position x,to a final position s, its displacement is given by Arey 2.1) 4 Displacement We use the capital Greek letter delta (A) to denote the change in a quantity. From this definition, we see that Ax is positive if x, is greater than x, and negative if s,s less than x, is very important to recognize the differ tance traveled. Distance is the length of a path followed by a particle. Consider, for example, the basketball players in Figure 2.2. If player runs from his own team's basket down the court to the other team's basket and then returns to his own bas- ket, the displacement of the player during this time interval is zero because he ended up at the same point as he started: x, ~ x, so Ax = 0, During this Lime interval, however, he moved through a distance of uwice the length of the basketball court. Distance is always represented as a positive number, whereas displacement can be ¢ between displacement and dis- either positive or negative. Figure 2.2 On this basketball Displacement is an example of a vector quantity. Many other physical quantities, cout, players nn back and fosth including position, velocity, and acceleration, also are vectors. In general, a vector {or the entire game. The distance that the players run over the Quantity iequites the specification of both ditection and magnitude. By contrast 2 . falar quantity hata numerical value and no direction Tn this chapter, we use poi. ‘Hetunnotibe game newer, tive (1) and negative (-) signs to indicate vector direction. For example, for hori: arerihtaunenet he eee zontal motion le us arbitrarily specify tothe right as being the positive direction, Sywonsmaey se bees hey {follows that any object always moving to the right undergoes a positive displace- _Heepsewning'o the ame point ment Ax > 0, and any object moving to the lef undergoes a negative displacement °°" #84 over again so that Ax <0. We shall treat veetor quantities in greater detail in Chapter 3 One very important point has not yet been mentioned. Notice that the data in Table 2.1 result only in the six data points in the graph in Figure 2.1b. Thevefore, the motion of the particle is not completely known because we don't know its posi- tion at ail times, The smooth curve drawn through the six points in the graph is only a possibility of the actual motion of the car. We only have information about six instants of time; we have no idea what happened between the data points. The smooth curve is a guess as to what happened, but keep in mind that it is only a guess. If the smooth curve does represent the ac the ear, the graph contains complete information about the entire 50-s interval during which we watch the ear I is much easier to see changes in position ftom the graph than from a verbal description or even a table of numbers. For example, itis clear that the ear covers ‘more ground during the middle of the 50- interval than at the end. Between posi- tions © and ©, the car uavels almost 40 mn, but during the last 10 s, between posi- tions © and ©, it moves less than half that far. A common way of comparing these different motions is to divide the displacement Ax that occurs between two clock readings by the value of that particular time interval AZ. The result turns out to be a very useful ratio, one that we shall use many times, This ratio has been given a special name: the average velocity. The average velocity ¥,..~ fa patticle is defined as the particle's displacement Ax divided by the time interval Ar during which that displacement occurs: al motion of Ax ean = 2.2) < Average velocity where the subscript x indicates motion along the xaxis. From this definition we see that average velocity has dimensions of length divided by time (L/'T), or meters per second in SI units24 Chapter 2 Motion in One Dimension The average velocity of a particle moving in one dimension can be positive or negative, depending on the sign of the displacement. (The time interval Avis always positive) If the coordinate of the particle increases in time (that is, if x; x,), Ax is positive and 1,34 = A\w/AC is positive. This case corresponds to a particle mov- ing in the positive direction, that is, coward larger valucs of x: If the coordinate decreases in time (that is, if %< x,), Avis megative and hence 9, is negative. This case corresponds to a particle moving in the negative « direction. We can interpret average velocity geometrically by drawing a straight line between any tw0 points on the position-time graph in Figure 2.1b. This line forms the hypotenuse of a right triangle of height Ax and base Ai. The slope of this line is the ratio Ax/Ay, which is what we have defined as average velocity in Equation 2.2. For example, the line between positions ® and ® in Figure 2.1b has a slope equal to the average velocity of the car between those two (62m = 30 m/(10s ~ 0) = 22 m/s In everyday usage, the terms sierd andl rolacity are interchangeable. In physics, however, there isa clear distinction between these two quantities. Consider a mara: thon runner who runs a distance 1 of more than 40 km and yer ends up at her starting point. Her total displacement is zero, so her average velocity is zero! None- theless, we need to be able to quantify how fast she was running. A slightly differ- cent ratio accomplishes that for us, The average speed vyy of a particle, a scalar quantity, is definedl as the total distance d traveled divided by the total time interval required to travel that distance: a ‘Average speed mt = 23) The SI unit of average speed is the same as the unit of average velocity: meters per second, Unlike average velocity, however, average speed has no direetion and nee is always expressed as a positive number. Notice the clear distinction between the Average Sped and Average definitions of average velocity and average speed: average velocity (Eq, 22) is the Velaty Temazioe ofthe yawned by the neta wires neta pe (Ey 29) Une di fuespeed. For cxample-consider tance divided by the time interval the marathon runner discussed Knowledge of the average velocity or average speed of a partiele does not provide Detore Equation 23. 1hemas- information about the details of the trip. For example, suppose it takes you 45.0 s eine ot et eee) to travel 100 m down a long, straight hallway toward your departure gate at an Is zero, but her average speed i oneness airport, At the 100-m mark, you realize you missed the restroom, and you return back 25.0 m along the same hallway, taking 10.0 s to make the return trip. The magnitude of your average velocityis +75.0 m/55.0's = +1.36m/s. The average speed for your trip is 125 m/35.0 s = 2.97 m/s. You may have traveled at various speeds during the walk and, of course, you changed direction, Neither average velocity nor average speed provides information about these details. ick Quiz 2.1 Under which of the following conditions is the magnitude of the average velocity of a particle moving in one dimension smaller than the average speed over some time interval? (a) particle moves in the +xdirection without reversing. (b) A particle moves in the —xdirection without reversing, (e) A par Aicle moves i the +x dieetion sud des severses dhe dixeetion of is motion, 4 (@ There are no conditions for which this is true. Calculating the Average Velocity and Speed ind the displacement, average velocity, and average speed of the cat Figure 2.1a between positions ® and ©.2.2: Instantaneous Velocity and Speed 25 P 21c0 ao Consult Figure 2.1 to form a mental image of the car and its motion. We model the ear asa particle. From the position time graph given in Figure 2.1b, notice that xg = 30:m at fg = 0 sand that xp = ~93 m at fg = 90. Use Equation 2.1 10 find the displacement of the car: Ax= ay - xg = —b3m = 30m = =83m ‘This result means that the car ends up 88 m in the negative direction ((o the left, in this case) from where it started. This number has the correct units and is of the same order of magnitude as the supplied data. A quick look at Fig- lure 2.1a indicates that itis the correct answer. sea Use Equation 2.2 to find the car's average velocity Yum = -17m/s We cannot unambiguously find the average speed of the car from the data in Table 2.1 because we do not have infor- mation about the positions of the car between the data points. If we adopt the assumption that the details of the car's position are described by the curve in Figure 2.1b, the distance traveled is 22 m (from @ to @) plus 105 m (from ® to ©), fora total of 127 m. Node thatthe average speed is positive, st mst be Suppo the redcrown curve in Figure 2.1 wer dierent s0 that between 0 s and 10 s it went from ® up to 100 m and then came back down to ®. The average speed of the car would change because the distance is different, but the average velocity would not change. Instantaneous Velocity and Speed Ofien we need to know the velocity of a particle at a particular instant in time ¢ rather than the average velocity over a finite time interval At. In other words, yout ‘would like to be able to specify your velocity just as precisely as you can specify your position by noting what is happening at a specific clock reading, that is, at some specific instant. What does it mean to talk about how quickly something is mow ing if we “freeze time” and talk only about an individual instant? In the late 1600s, with the invention of ealeulus, scientists began to understand how to deseribe an objects motion at any moment n me. To see how that is done, consider Figure 2.a (page 26), which is a reproduction of the graph in Figure 2.1b. What is the particle's velocity at = 0? We have already discussed the average velocity for the interval during which the car moved from position @ to position ® (given by the slope of the blue line) andl for the interval during which it moved from @ to ® (represented by the slope of the longer blue line and calculated in Example 2.1). The car starts out by moving to the right, which wwe defined ta he the positive directinn ‘Therefore, heing postive, the valne af the average velocity during the interval from ® to ® is more representative of the ini- tial velocity than is the value of the average velocity during the interval from @ to ©, which we determined to be negative in Example 2.1. Now let us focus on the short blue line and slide point © to the left along the curve, toward point @, asin Figure 2.3b, The line between the points becomes steeper and steeper, and as the two points become extremely close together, the line becomes a tangent line to the curve, indicated by the green line in Figure 2.8b. The slope of this tangent line26 Chapter2 Motion in One Dimension itfall Prevention 2.2 Slopes of Graphs In any graph of physical dat, the spe represents the rato of the change inthe {quantity represented on the srt: alanis the change in the quae tity represented on the horizontal axle, Remember tha a pe kas ‘wits (unless both axes have the Same units). The units of slope in Figures 2b and 2. are meters ‘per second, the units of velocity: Instantaneous velocity > Pitfall Prevention 2.3 Iwstantancous Speed and hnstan= taneous Velocity In PitiallPre~ vention 21. we argued that the Settee ieuor the average speed. The mage nitude of the instantancous veloc ity, however ithe instantaneous speed. In an infinitesimal ime inmerval, the magnitude ofthe dis eee telat ata traveled by the partic tm oo 60 “The blue ine between posiions @ and ® proaches the green tangentine as point © is amosed closer to point @®. 40 F109 Figure 2.3. () Graph representing the motion of the ca in Figure 2.1 (b) An enlargement of the Uupperletchand corner ofthe graph represents the velocity of the car at point ®. What we have done is determine the instantaneous velocity at that moment. In other words, the instantaneous velocity :, equals the Tintiting value of the ratio Ax/A¢as Acapproaches 2exo.! ae Bear (24) In calculus notation, this limit is called the derivative of x with respect to /, written dx/dt: v= tim ee es) The instantaneous velocity can be postive, negative, or zero. When the slope ofthe position-time graph is positive, such as at any time during the first 10 in Figure 2.3, 2,38 positive and the car is moving toward larger values of x. Aer point ®, x, 16 nega tive because the slope is negative and the car is moving toward smaller values of x Atpoint ®, the slope and the instantaneous velocity are zero and the car is momen- tarily at rest. From here on, we use the word veloity to designate instantaneous veloc wwe are intevested in anege veo, we shal alas nse the adjective arerage ‘The instantaneous speed of a particle is defined as the magnitude of its instan- taneons velocity. sw ciated with it. For example, if one particle has an instantaneous velocity of +25 m/s along a given line and another particle has an instantaneous velocity of ~25 m/s along the same line, both have w speed? of 25 m/s When werage speed, instantaneous speed has no direction asso- Quick aie 2.2 Are members ofthe highway patrol more interested in (@) your average specd or (8) your instantancous speed as you drive? ‘The Velocity of Different Objects Consider the following one-cimensional motions: (A) a ball thrown direetly upward rises 10 a highest pomnt and falls dack into the thrower's hand (B) a race car starts from rest and speeds up to 100 m/s: and (C) a spacecraft drifts through space at constant velocity. Are there any points in the motion of these objects at which the instantaneous velocity has the same value asthe average velocity over the entire motion? IF, identify the point(). ‘ati may appear w be difficult wo evaluate, the ratio docs have a specific vale, A8 wand Ar become smaller and "ag with ele we drop the adjective for inwantancous peed. dean “inwtantaeoue speed”