338 MATHEMATICS

Chapter 10
-
VECTOR ALGEBRA

 In most sciences one generation tears down what another has built and what
one has established another undoes. In Mathematics alone each generation
builds a new story to the old structure. – HERMAN HANKEL 

10.1 Introduction
In our day to day life, we come across many queries such
as – What is your height? How should a football player hit
the ball to give a pass to another player of his team? Observe
that a possible answer to the first query may be 1.6 meters,
a quantity that involves only one value (magnitude) which
is a real number. Such quantities - are called scalars.
However, an answer to the second query is a quantity (called
force) which involves muscular strength (magnitude) and
-

direction (in which another player is positioned). Such

--
quantities are called vectors. In mathematics, physics and
engineering, we frequently come across with both types of
-

W.R. Hamilton
quantities, namely, scalar quantities such as length, mass,
(1805-1865)
time, distance, speed, area, volume, temperature, work,
money, voltage, density, resistance etc. and vector quantities like displacement, velocity,
acceleration, force, weight, momentum, electric field intensity etc.
In this chapter, we will study some of the basic concepts about vectors, various
operations on vectors, and their algebraic and geometric properties. These two type of
properties, when considered together give a full realisation to the concept of vectors,
and lead to their vital applicability in various areas as mentioned above.
10.2 Some Basic Concepts
Let ‘l’ be any straight line in plane or three dimensional space. This line can be given
two directions by means of arrowheads. A line with one of these directions prescribed
is called a directed line (Fig 10.1 (i), (ii)).

Rationalised 2023-24
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 339

&

Vector
-
-
Vector
-3
-

Bring
ene Fig 10.1
Now observe that if we restrict the line l to the line segment AB, then a magnitude
-n

is prescribed on the line l with one of the two directions, so that we obtain a directed
line segment (Fig 10.1(iii)). Thus, a directed line segment has magnitude as well as
direction.
FB
Definition 1 A quantity that has magnitude as well as direction is called a vector.
-
-

Notice that a directed line segment is a vector (Fig 10.1(iii)), denoted as or

--

(FBK
-
simply as , and read as ‘vector ’ or ‘vector ’.
The point A from where the vector starts is called its initial point, and the
point B where it ends is called its terminal point. The distance between initial and
terminal points of a vector is called the magnitude (or length) of the vector, denoted as
| |, or | |, or a. The arrow indicates the direction of the vector.

Note Since the length is never negative, the notation | | < 0 has no meaning.
Position Vector
From Class XI, recall the three dimensional right handed rectangular coordinate system
(Fig 10.2(i)). Consider a point P in space, having coordinates (x, y, z) with respect to
--
the origin O (0, 0, 0). Then, the vector having O and P as its initial and terminal
-

points, respectively, is called - the position vector of the point P with respect
to O. Using distance formula (from Class XI), the magnitude of (or ) is given by
Ja of
| |= x2 + y 2 + z2
P the position vectors of points A, B, C, etc., with respect to the origin O
In practice,
z)
are denoted by(x ,y , , etc., respectively (Fig 10.2 (ii)).
· , ,

i LoP : 2

o
j Rationalised 2023-24
 340 MATHEMATICS

2
·

Fig 10.2
Direction Cosines
Consider the position vector of a point P(x, y, z) as in Fig 10.3. The angles α,
- -

β, γ made by the vector with the positive directions of x, y and z-axes respectively,
- - -

are called its direction angles. The cosine values of these angles, i.e., cos α, cos β and
cos γ are called direction cosines of the vector , and usually denoted by l, m and n,
-

respectively. Z

z C
P(x,y,z)
csp
Or #

I
CSk = (C
cosd
1) y
-

z
O Y
B
P
COSB x cosiy
E
=

A
O
losy =
= X
90°

A
Fig 10.3 X
From Fig 10.3, one may note that the triangle OAP is right angled, and in it, we
have . Similarly, from the right angled triangles OBP and

mr nd
OCP, we may write cos β =
y
r
z
-
and cos γ = . Thus, the coordinates of the point P may
r
Is
-
,

, also be expressed as (lr, mr,nr). The numbers lr, mr and nr, proportional to the direction
cosines are called as direction ratios of vector , and denoted as a, b and c, respectively.

Rationalised 2023-24
 ·
&
↑
A
mith = 1
VECTOR ALGEBRA 341

Note One may note that l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 but a2 + b2 + c2 ≠ 1, in general.

⑭ 10.3 Types of Vectors

-

Zero Vector A vector whose initial and terminal points coincide, is called a zero vector
-

-and denoted as . Zero vector can not be assigned a definite direction

(or null vector),

·
as it has zero magnitude. Or, alternatively otherwise, it may be regarded as having any
direction. The vectors represent the zero vector,
- -

Unit Vector A vector whose magnitude is unity (i.e., 1 unit) is called a unit vector. The
nitude
mag -
- unit vector in the direction of a given vector is denoted by â . O
④
--

-
Coinitial Vectors Two or more vectors having the same initial point are called coinitial
T
vectors.
Collinear Vectors Two or more vectors are said to be collinear if they are parallel to
*
⑳
the same line, irrespective of their magnitudes and directions.
Equal Vectors Two vectors are said to be equal, if they have the same
ci" O - - >
-

magnitude and direction regardless of the positions of their initial points, and written
as
-
. -

B Negative of a Vector A vector whose magnitude is the same as that of a given vector

/
(say, ), but direction is opposite to that of it, is called negative of the given vector.
For example, vector is negative of the vector , and written as =– .
Remark The vectors defined above are such that any of them may be subject to its
parallel displacement without changing its magnitude and direction. Such vectors are
called free vectors. Throughout this chapter, we will be dealing with free vectors only.
B

I
Example 1 Represent graphically a displacement
* of 40 km, 30° west of south.
Solution The vector represents the required
displacement (Fig 10.4).

Example 2 Classify the following measures as

scalars and vectors.
(i) 5 seconds
(ii) 1000 cm3 Fig 10.4

Rationalised 2023-24
 nituetre
to o mag
2a- n

rector
recor Collinear

inital I
>
-

ii j
:

>
- B

I
Equal
-

AB
I
=
vector
L
vico ne
Negative
diri in
opposite-
magnitudes
direction
342 MATHEMATICS

(iii) 10 Newton (iv) 30 km/hr (v) 10 g/cm3

(vi) 20 m/s towards north

Solution
(i) Time-scalar (ii) Volume-scalar (iii) Force-vector
(iv) Speed-scalar (v) Density-scalar (vi) Velocity-vector

Example 3 In Fig 10.5, which of the vectors are:

(i) Collinear (ii) Equal (iii) Coinitial

Solution

(i) Collinear vectors : .

(ii) Equal vectors :

(iii) Coinitial vectors :

Fig 10.5

EXERCISE 10.1
1. Represent graphically a displacement of 40 km, 30° east of north.
2. Classify the following measures as scalars and vectors.
(i) 10 kg (ii) 2 meters north-west (iii) 40°
(iv) 40 watt (v) 10–19 coulomb (vi) 20 m/s2
3. Classify the following as scalar and vector quantities.
(i) time period (ii) distance (iii) force
(iv) velocity (v) work done
4. In Fig 10.6 (a square), identify the following vectors.
(i) Coinitial (ii) Equal
(iii) Collinear but not equal
5. Answer the following as true or false.
(i) and – are collinear.
(ii) Two collinear vectors are always equal in
magnitude.
Fig 10.6
(iii) Two vectors having same magnitude are collinear.
(iv) Two collinear vectors having the same magnitude are equal.

Rationalised 2023-24
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 343

10.4 Addition of Vectors

A vector simply means the displacement from a point
A to the point B. Now consider a situation that a girl
moves from A to B and then from B to C
(Fig 10.7). The net displacement made by the girl from
point A to the point C, is given by the vector and
-T
AU =
iB +
177
To a
expressed as C Fig 10.7

⑳
=
no
> ④

A
linefish
-
B This is known as the triangle law of vector addition.
-

Post In general, if we have two vectors and (Fig 10.8 (i)), then to add them, they are
eve
positioned so that the initial point of one coincides with the terminal point of the other
sane
(Fig 10.8(ii)).

C C
b
+b b b
a
a
A B A B
a a
–b
a –
b
(i) (ii) (iii)
C’

Fig 10.8
For example, in Fig 10.8 (ii), we have shifted vector without changing its magnitude
and direction, so that it’s initial point coincides with the terminal point of . Then, the
vector + , represented by the third side AC of the triangle ABC, gives us the sum (or
resultant) of the vectors and i.e., in triangle ABC (Fig 10.8 (ii)), we have
=
Now again, since , from the above equation, we have

This means that when the sides of a triangle are taken in order, it leads to zero
resultant as the initial and terminal points get coincided (Fig 10.8(iii)).

Rationalised 2023-24
344 MATHEMATICS

Now, construct a vector so that its magnitude is same as the vector , but the
direction opposite to that of it (Fig 10.8 (iii)), i.e.,
=
Then, on applying triangle law from the Fig 10.8 (iii), we have

=
The vector is said to represent the difference of .
Now, consider a boat in a river going from one bank of the river to the other in a
direction perpendicular to the flow of the river. Then, it is acted upon by two velocity
vectors–one is the velocity imparted to the boat by its engine and other one is the
velocity of the flow of river water. Under the simultaneous influence of these two
velocities, the boat in actual starts travelling with a different velocity. To have a precise
idea about the effective speed and direction
(i.e., the resultant velocity) of the boat, we have -

the following law of vector addition.

If we have two vectors represented
by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram
-
O g
in magnitude and direction (Fig 10.9), then their
sum is represented in magnitude and
* 4
direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram
through their common point. This is known as
O
Fig 10.9
the parallelogram law of vector addition.

Note From Fig 10.9, using the triangle law, one may note that
=
- - -

or = (since )
---

which is parallelogram law. Thus, we may say that the two laws of vector
addition are equivalent to each other.

Properties of vector addition

Property 1 For any two vectors ,

*
= (Commutative property)

Rationalised 2023-24
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 345

Proof Consider the parallelogram ABCD

(Fig 10.10). Let then using
the triangle law, from triangle ABC, we have

Now, since the opposite sides of a

parallelogram are equal and parallel, from
Fig 10.10, we have, and
Fig 10.10
. Again using triangle law, from
triangle ADC, we have

Hence =
Property 2 For any three vectors a , b and c

>
- = (Associative property)
-

Proof Let the vectors be represented by , respectively, as

shown in Fig 10.11(i) and (ii).

Fig 10.11
Then =
and =

So =

Rationalised 2023-24
 346 MATHEMATICS

and =
Hence =
Remark The associative property of vector addition enables us to write the sum of
three vectors without using brackets.
Note that for any vector a , we have
- =
Here, the zero vector is called the additive identity for the vector addition.
- -

② 10.5 Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar

Let be a given vector and λ a scalar. Then the product of the vector by the scalar
λ, denoted as λ , is called the multiplication of vector by the scalar λ. Note that, λ
⑭ is also a vector, collinear to the vector . The vector λ has the direction same (or
opposite) to that of vector according as the value of λ is positive (or negative). Also,
the magnitude of vector λ is | λ | times the magnitude of the vector , i.e.,

O
&P -
|λ | = |λ | | |
-

A geometric visualisation of multiplication of a vector by a scalar is given

in Fig 10.12.

a
2a

–2
2 a
2 a
a

1
1

Fig 10.12
When λ = – 1, then λ = – , which is a vector having magnitude equal to the
magnitude of and direction opposite to that of the direction of . The vector – is
called the negative (or additive inverse) of vector and we always have
+ (– ) = (– ) + =
1
Also, if λ = , provided ≠ 0 i.e. is not a null vector, then
|a |

| λ | =| λ | | | =

Rationalised 2023-24
unitrector
q
= a VECTOR ALGEBRA 347
-
*
( So, λ represents the unit vector in the direction of . We write it as

O
a 1 !
= â = ! a
|a|

Note For any scalar k, k 0! = 0.

!

10.5.1 Components of a vector

Let us take the points A(1, 0, 0), B(0, 1, 0) and C(0, 0, 1) on the x-axis, y-axis and
z-axis, respectively. Then, clearly
| | = 1, | | = 1 and | |= 1
The vectors , each having magnitude 1,
are called unit vectors along the axes OX, OY and OZ,
respectively, and denoted by iˆ, ˆj and kˆ , respectively
(Fig 10.13).
Fig 10.13
Now, consider the position vector of a point P (x, y, z)
as in Fig 10.14. Let P1 be the foot of the perpendicular from P on the plane XOY.

Fig 10.14

We, thus, see that P1 P is parallel to z-axis. As iˆ, ˆj and kˆ are the unit vectors along the
x, y and z-axes, respectively, and by the definition of the coordinates of P, we have
. Similarly, and .

Rationalised 2023-24
 348 MATHEMATICS

Therefore, it follows that =

and =
Hence, the position vector of P with reference to O is given by

=
This form of any vector is called its component form. Here, x, y and z are called
as the scalar components of , and xiˆ, yjˆ and zkˆ are called the vector components
of along the respective axes. Sometimes x, y and z are also termed as rectangular
components.

= xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ , is readily determined by applying the

The length of any vector r =
Pythagoras theorem twice. We note that in the right angle triangle OQP1 (Fig 10.14)
= ,
and in the right angle triangle OP1P, we have
L
-+z =
sity
- &

= xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ is given by

Hence, the length of any vector r =
T
If
| | =
T
3are any two vectors given in the component form a iˆ + a ˆj + a kˆ and
1 2 3

b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3 kˆ , respectively, then

(i) the sum (or resultant) of the vectors is given by

= (a1 + b1 )iˆ + (a2 + b2 ) ˆj + (a3 + b3 )kˆ

(ii) the difference of the vector is given by

= ( a1 − b1 )iˆ + ( a2 − b2 ) ˆj + (a3 − b3 )kˆ

(iii) the vectors are equal if and only if
a1 = b1, a2 = b2 and a3 = b3
(iv) the multiplication of vector by any scalar λ is given by
λ = ( λa1 )iˆ + (λa2 ) ˆj + (λa3 )kˆ

Rationalised 2023-24
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 349

The addition of vectors and the multiplication of a vector by a scalar together give
the following distributive laws:
Let be any two vectors, and k and m be any scalars. Then
- -
(i) ..
-
--
(ii)-↑
(

-
(iii)
- m
--
-
Remarks
(i) One may observe that whatever be the value of λ, the vector λ is always
collinear to the vector . In fact, two vectors are collinear if and only if
there exists a nonzero scalar λ such that . If the vectors are given
in the component form, i.e. a == a iˆ + a ˆj + a kˆ and
1 2 3 , then the
two vectors are collinear if and only if

b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3 kˆ = λ( a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ )

⇔ b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3 kˆ = (λa1 )iˆ + (λa2 ) ˆj + (λa3 ) kˆ

⇔ b1 = λ a1 , b2 = λ a2 , b3 = λ a3
b1 b b
⇔ = 2 = 3 =λ
a1 a2 a3

(ii) If a == a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3 kˆ , then a1, a2, a3 are also called direction ratios of .
(iii) In case if it is given that l, m, n are direction cosines of a vector, then liˆ + mjˆ + nkˆ

= (cos α)iˆ + (cos β) ˆj + (cos γ )kˆ is the unit vector in the direction of that vector,
where α, β and γ are the angles which the vector makes with x, y and z axes
respectively.

- Example 4 Find the values of x, y and z so that the vectors

F - -
--
and

⑭
are equal. x =
- -
2

Solution Note that two vectors are equal if and only if their corresponding components

magnitude are
I
equal. Thus, the given vectors will be equal if and only if
x = 2, y = 2, z = 1
Direction 2 =1

Same
-

Rationalised 2023-24
350 MATHEMATICS

Example 5 Let and . Is ? Are the vectors equal?

Solution We have and

So, . But, the two vectors are not equal since their corresponding components
are distinct.
Example 6 Find unit vector in the direction of vector

Solution The unit vector in the direction of a vector is given by .

Now = 2 2 + 32 + 12 = 14

1 2 ˆ 3 ˆ 1 ˆ
Therefore aˆ = (2iˆ + 3 ˆj + kˆ) = i+ j+ k
14 14 14 14

Example 7 Find a vector in the direction of vector that has magnitude

7 units.

Solution The unit vector in the direction of the given vector is

1 ˆ 1 ˆ 2 ˆ
= (i − 2 ˆj ) = i− j
5 5 5
Therefore, the vector having magnitude equal to 7 and in the direction of is

∧  1 ∧ 2 ∧ 7 ˆ 14 ˆ
i−
7a = 7 i− j = j
 5 5  5 5

Example 8 Find the unit vector in the direction of the sum of the vectors,
-
and .
Solution The sum of the given vectors is

and = 42 + 32 + ( −2)2 = 29

Rationalised 2023-24
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 351

Thus, the required unit vector is

1 4 ˆ 3 ˆ 2 ˆ
= (4iˆ + 3 ˆj − 2kˆ) = i+ j− k
29 29 29 29

Example 9 Write the direction ratio’s of the vector and hence calculate
its direction cosines.
Solution Note that the direction ratio’s a, b, c of a vector are just
the respective components x, y and z of the vector. So, for the given vector, we have
a = 1, b = 1 and c = –2. Further, if l, m and n are the direction cosines of the given
vector, then

 1 1 2 
Thus, the direction cosines are  , ,– .
 6 6 6

10.5.2 Vector joining two points

If P1(x1, y1, z1) and P2(x2, y2, z2) are any two
points, then the vector joining P1 and P2 is the ↑

vector (Fig 10.15).

Joining the points P1 and P2 with the origin
O, and applying triangle law, from the triangle
OP1P2 , we have
=
Using the properties of vector addition, the

y
above equation becomes Fig 10.15
=
-
y3+
-

i.e. = ( x2iˆ + y2 ˆj + z2 kˆ ) − ( x1iˆ + y1 ˆj + z1kˆ )

C2, -

2)

= ( x2 − x1 )iˆ + ( y2 − y1 ) ˆj + ( z2 − z1 ) kˆ

The magnitude of vector is given by

| |= ( x2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 + ( z2 − z1 ) 2
-

Rationalised 2023-24
352 MATHEMATICS

Example 10 Find the vector joining the points P(2, 3, 0) and Q(– 1, – 2, – 4) directed
-
from P to Q.
Solution Since the vector is to be directed from P to Q, clearly P is the initial point
and Q is the terminal point. So, the required vector joining P and Q is the vector ,
given by

= (−1 − 2)iˆ + (−2 − 3) ˆj + ( − 4 − 0) kˆ

i.e. = −3iˆ − 5 ˆj − 4kˆ.

10.5.3 Section formula

-

Let P and Q be two points represented by the position vectors , respectively,

with respect to the origin O. Then the line segment
joining the points P and Q may be divided by a third &

...
point, say R, in two ways – internally (Fig 10.16)
>
-
and externally (Fig 10.17). Here, we intend to find
the position vector for the point R with respect
to the origin O. We take the two cases one by one.
Case I When R divides PQ internally (Fig 10.16).
If R divides such that = , Fig 10.16

where m and n are positive scalars, we say that the point R divides internally in the
ratio of m : n. Now from triangles ORQ and OPR, we have
=

and = ,

Therefore, we have = (Why?)

or = (on simplification)

Hence, the position vector of the point R which divides P and Q internally in the
ratio of m : n is given by

C =

Rationalised 2023-24
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 353

Case II When R divides PQ externally (Fig 10.17).

We leave it to the reader as an exercise to verify
that the position vector of the point R which divides
the line segment PQ externally in the ratio
PR m
m : n i.e. = is given by
QR n

= Fig 10.17
Remark If R is the midpoint of PQ , then m = n. And therefore, from Case I, the
midpoint R of , will have its position vector as

=
-

Example 11 Consider two points P and Q with position vectors and

. Find the position vector of a point R which divides the line joining P and Q
in the ratio 2:1, (i) internally, and (ii) externally.
Solution
(i) The position vector of the point R dividing the join of P and Q internally in the
ratio 2:1 is

=
(ii) The position vector of the point R dividing the join of P and Q externally in the
ratio 2:1 is

Example 12 Show that the points A(2iˆ − ˆj + kˆ ), B(iˆ − 3 ˆj − 5kˆ), C(3iˆ − 4 j − 4kˆ) are
the vertices of a right angled triangle.
Solution We have
= (1 − 2)iˆ + (−3 + 1) ˆj + (−5 − 1)kˆ = −iˆ − 2 ˆj − 6kˆ
= (3 − 1)iˆ + (−4 + 3) ˆj + (−4 + 5) kˆ = 2iˆ − ˆj + kˆ
and = (2 − 3)iˆ + ( −1 + 4) ˆj + (1 + 4)kˆ = −iˆ + 3 ˆj + 5kˆ

Rationalised 2023-24
354 MATHEMATICS

Further, note that

=
Hence, the triangle is a right angled triangle.

EXERCISE 10.2
1. Compute the magnitude of the following vectors:
1 ˆ 1 ˆ 1 ˆ
= iˆ + ˆj + k ; = 2iˆ − 7 ˆj − 3kˆ; i+ = j− k
3 3 3
2. Write two different vectors having same magnitude.
3. Write two different vectors having same direction.
4. Find the values of x and y so that the vectors 2iˆ + 3 ˆj and xiˆ + yjˆ are equal.
5. Find the scalar and vector components of the vector with initial point (2, 1) and
terminal point (– 5, 7).
6. Find the sum of the vectors = iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ, = −2iˆ + 4 ˆj + 5kˆ and c =
= iˆ − 6 ˆj – 7 kˆ .
7. Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector a = iˆ + ˆj + 2kˆ .
8. Find the unit vector in the direction of vector , where P and Q are the points
(1, 2, 3) and (4, 5, 6), respectively.
9. For given vectors, = 2iˆ − ˆj + 2kˆ and = −iˆ + ˆj − kˆ , find the unit vector in the
direction of the vector .
10. Find a vector in the direction of vector 5iˆ − ˆj + 2kˆ which has magnitude 8 units.
11. Show that the vectors 2iˆ − 3 ˆj + 4kˆ and − 4iˆ + 6 ˆj − 8kˆ are collinear.
12. Find the direction cosines of the vector iˆ + 2 ˆj + 3kˆ .
13. Find the direction cosines of the vector joining the points A (1, 2, –3) and
B (–1, –2, 1), directed from A to B.
14. Show that the vector iˆ + ˆj + kˆ is equally inclined to the axes OX, OY and OZ.
15. Find the position vector of a point R which divides the line joining two points P
and Q whose position vectors are iˆ + 2 ˆj − kˆ and – iˆ + ˆj + kˆ respectively, in the
ratio 2 : 1
(i) internally (ii) externally

Rationalised 2023-24
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 355

16. Find the position vector of the mid point of the vector joining the points P(2, 3, 4)
and Q(4, 1, –2).
17. Show that the points A, B and C with position vectors, = 3iˆ − 4 ˆj − 4kˆ,
= 2iˆ − ˆj + kˆ and = iˆ − 3 ˆj − 5kˆ , respectively form the vertices of a right angled
triangle.
18. In triangle ABC (Fig 10.18), which of the following is not true:
(A)

(B)

(C)

(D) Fig 10.18

19. If are two collinear vectors, then which of the following are incorrect:
(A)
(B)
(C) the respective components of are not proportional
(D) both the vectors have same direction, but different magnitudes.
10.6 Product of Two Vectors
So far we have studied about addition and subtraction of vectors. An other algebraic
operation which we intend to discuss regarding vectors is their product. We may
recall that product of two numbers is a number, product of two matrices is again a
matrix. But in case of functions, we may multiply them in two ways, namely,
multiplication of two functions pointwise and composition of two functions. Similarly,
multiplication of two vectors is also defined in two ways, namely, scalar (or dot)
product where the result is a scalar, and vector (or cross) product where the
result is a vector. Based upon these two types of products for vectors, they have
found various applications in geometry, mechanics and engineering. In this section,
we will discuss these two types of products.
10.6.1 Scalar (or dot) product of two vectors
Definition 2 The scalar product of two nonzero vectors , denoted by , is
- °
-

Rationalised 2023-24
=
Falcos
A

bot 356 MATHEMATICS

defined as =
where, θ is the angle between (Fig 10.19).

If either then θ is not defined, and in this case, we Fig 10.19

define
Observations
4: 90'
1. is a real number.
at 5= - °
-

2. Let be two nonzero vectors, then if and only if are

/(5)
O
coso perpendicular to each other. i.e.

loso3.
"
COSTT= - 1
If θ = 0, then
>
-

In particular,
! !
· >
-

as θ in this case is 0.
! !
4. If θ = π, then a ⋅ b = − | a | | b |
- -

In particular, , as θ in this case is π.

5. In view of the Observations 2 and 3, for mutually perpendicular unit vectors
in iˆ, ˆj and kˆ, we have
I 1/
9
51 >
L ↑②
cose iˆ ⋅ iˆ = ˆj ⋅ ˆj = kˆ ⋅ kˆ = 1,
.

=-
&

>
-

⑲ O
iˆ ⋅ ˆj = ˆj ⋅ kˆ = kˆ ⋅ iˆ = 0

/LT
>
-
- -

6. The angle between two nonzero vectors is given by

a = 0
-

K
- or
B a
5
.

=>
=
.
7. The scalar product is commutative. i.e.

(Why?)
Two important properties of scalar product

Property 1 (Distributivity of scalar product over addition) Let be

-

E
any three vectors, then

- - -

--

Rationalised 2023-24
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 357

Property 2 Let be any two vectors, and l be any scalar. Then

-
If two vectors are given in component form as a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ and
b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3 kˆ , then their scalar product is given as
= (a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ ) ⋅ (b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3kˆ )

= a1iˆ ⋅ (b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3kˆ ) + a2 ˆj ⋅ (b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3 kˆ ) + a3kˆ ⋅ (b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3 kˆ)

= a1b1 (iˆ ⋅ iˆ) + a1b2 (iˆ ⋅ ˆj ) + a1b3 (iˆ ⋅ kˆ ) + a2b1 ( ˆj ⋅ iˆ) + a2b2 ( ˆj ⋅ ˆj ) + a2b3 ( ˆj ⋅ kˆ)
+ a3b1 ( kˆ ⋅ iˆ) + a3b2 (kˆ ⋅ ˆj ) + a3b3 ( kˆ ⋅ kˆ ) (Using the above Properties 1 and 2)
= a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 (Using Observation 5)
Thus = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
10.6.2 Projection of a vector on a line
Suppose a vector makes an angle θ with a given directed line l (say), in the
anticlockwise direction (Fig 10.20). Then the projection of on l is a vector
(say) with magnitude , and the direction of being the same (or opposite)
to that of the line l, depending upon whether cos θ is positive or negative. The vector
B
B
a a
θ
θ l l
A p C C A
p
(00< θ < 900) (900< θ < 1800)
(i) (ii)

p θ θ p
C l C l
A
A
a a
B B
(1800< θ < 2700) (2700< θ < 3600)
(iii) (iv)

Fig 10.20

Rationalised 2023-24
358 MATHEMATICS

is called the projection vector, and its magnitude | | is simply called as the projection
of the vector on the directed line l.
For example, in each of the following figures (Fig 10.20 (i) to (iv)), projection vector
of along the line l is vector .
Observations
1. If p̂ is the unit vector along a line l, then the projection of a vector on the line
l is given by a ⋅ pˆ .
!
2. Projection of a vector on other vector b , is given by

a ⋅ bˆ, or

3. If θ = 0, then the projection vector of will be itself and if θ = π, then the

projection vector of will be .
π 3π
4. If θ = or θ = , then the projection vector of will be zero vector.
2 2
Remark If α, β and γ are the direction angles of vector = a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3 kˆ , then its
direction cosines may be given as

Also, note that are respectively the projections of

along OX, OY and OZ. i.e., the scalar components a1, a2 and a3 of the vector , are
precisely the projections of along x-axis, y-axis and z-axis, respectively. Further, if
is a unit vector, then it may be expressed in terms of its direction cosines as
= cos αiˆ + cos βˆj + cos γkˆ

Example 13 Find the angle between two vectors with magnitudes 1 and 2
respectively and when =1.
Solution Given . We have

Rationalised 2023-24
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 359

Example 14 Find angle ‘θ’ between the vectors .

Solution The angle θ between two vectors is given by

cosθ =

Now = (iˆ + ˆj − kˆ) ⋅ ( iˆ − ˆj + kˆ ) = 1 − 1 − 1 = −1 .

−1
Therefore, we have cosθ =
3

hence the required angle is θ=

Example 15 If , then show that the vectors

are perpendicular.
Solution We know that two nonzero vectors are perpendicular if their scalar product
is zero.
Here = (5iˆ − ˆj − 3kˆ ) + ( iˆ + 3 ˆj − 5kˆ) = 6iˆ + 2 ˆj − 8kˆ
and = (5iˆ − ˆj − 3kˆ) − ( iˆ + 3 ˆj − 5kˆ ) = 4iˆ − 4 ˆj + 2kˆ

So ( ).( ) = (6iˆ + 2 ˆj − 8kˆ) ⋅ (4iˆ − 4 ˆj + 2kˆ) = 24 − 8 − 16 = 0.

Hence are perpendicular vectors.

Example 16 Find the projection of the vector = 2 iˆ + 3 ˆj + 2 kˆ on the vector
= iˆ + 2 ˆj + kˆ .
!
Solution The projection of vector on the vector b is given by
(2 × 1 + 3 × 2 + 2 × 1) 10 5
= = = 6
(1) + (2) + (1)
2 2 2 6 3
Example 17 Find , if two vectors are such that
and .
Solution We have

Rationalised 2023-24
360 MATHEMATICS

=
= (2)2 − 2(4) + (3) 2
Therefore = 5

Example 18 If is a unit vector and , then find .

Solution Since is a unit vector, . Also,

or =8
or
Therefore = 3 (as magnitude of a vector is non negative).

Example 19 For any two vectors , we always have (Cauchy-

Schwartz inequality).
! ! !
Solution The inequality holds trivially when either a! = 0 or b = 0 . Actually, in such a
situation we have . So, let us assume that .
Then, we have

= | cos θ | ≤ 1

Therefore
C
Example 20 For any two vectors , we always b
a +
have (triangle inequality). b
A B
Solution The inequality holds trivially in case either a

(How?). So, let . Then,

Fig 10.21

=
= (scalar product is commutative)
≤ (since x ≤ | x | ∀ x ∈ R )
≤ (from Example 19)
=

Rationalised 2023-24
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 361

Hence
Remark If the equality holds in triangle inequality (in the above Example 20), i.e.
= ,

then =
showing that the points A, B and C are collinear.
Example 21 Show that the points A ( −2iˆ + 3 ˆj + 5kˆ ), B( iˆ + 2 ˆj + 3kˆ) and C(7iˆ − kˆ)
are collinear.
Solution We have
= (1 + 2) iˆ + (2 − 3) ˆj + (3 − 5) kˆ = 3iˆ − ˆj − 2kˆ ,

= (7 − 1) iˆ + (0 − 2) ˆj + ( −1 − 3) kˆ = 6iˆ − 2 ˆj − 4kˆ ,
= (7 + 2) iˆ + (0 − 3) ˆj + ( −1 − 5)kˆ = 9iˆ − 3 ˆj − 6kˆ
=

Therefore
Hence the points A, B and C are collinear.

Note In Example 21, one may note that although but the
points A, B and C do not form the vertices of a triangle.

EXERCISE 10.3

1. Find the angle between two vectors with magnitudes 3 and 2 ,

respectively having .

and 33iˆiˆ−−22ˆjˆj++kˆkˆ
2. Find the angle between the vectors iˆiˆ−−22ˆjˆj++33kˆkˆ and
and
3. Find the projection of the vector iˆ − ˆj on the vector iˆ + ˆj .
4. Find the projection of the vector iˆ + 3 ˆj + 7kˆ on the vector 7iˆ − ˆj + 8kˆ .
5. Show that each of the given three vectors is a unit vector:
1 ˆ 1 1
(2i + 3 ˆj + 6kˆ ), (3iˆ − 6 ˆj + 2kˆ ), (6iˆ + 2 ˆj − 3kˆ)
7 7 7
Also, show that they are mutually perpendicular to each other.

Rationalised 2023-24
362 MATHEMATICS

6. Find , if .
7. Evaluate the product .

8. Find the magnitude of two vectors , having the same magnitude and such
1
that the angle between them is 60o and their scalar product is .
2
9. Find , if for a unit vector , .

10. If are such that is

perpendicular to , then find the value of λ.
11. Show that is perpendicular to , for any two nonzero
vectors .
12. If , then what can be concluded about the vector ?
13. If are unit vectors such that , find the value of
.
14. If either vector . But the converse need not be
true. Justify your answer with an example.
15. If the vertices A, B, C of a triangle ABC are (1, 2, 3), (–1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 2),
respectively, then find ∠ABC. [∠ABC is the angle between the vectors and
].
16. Show that the points A(1, 2, 7), B(2, 6, 3) and C(3, 10, –1) are collinear.
17. Show that the vectors 2iˆ − ˆj + kˆ, iˆ − 3 ˆj − 5kˆ and 3iˆ − 4 ˆj − 4kˆ form the vertices
of a right angled triangle.
18. If is a nonzero vector of magnitude ‘a’ and λ a nonzero scalar, then λ is unit
vector if
(A) λ = 1 (B) λ = – 1 (C) a = | λ | (D) a = 1/| λ |

10.6.3 Vector (or cross) product of two vectors

In Section 10.2, we have discussed on the three dimensional right handed rectangular
coordinate system. In this system, when the positive x-axis is rotated counterclockwise

Rationalised 2023-24
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 363

into the positive y-axis, a right handed (standard) screw would advance in the direction
of the positive z-axis (Fig 10.22(i)).
In a right handed coordinate system, the thumb of the right hand points in the
direction of the positive z-axis when the fingers are curled in the direction away from
the positive x-axis toward the positive y-axis (Fig 10.22(ii)).

O
Cross
product
Fig 10.22 (i), (ii)

Definition 3 The vector product of two nonzero vectors

and defined as
, is denoted by

O ①
O =

So 1
X =
-
On ,
a=

④ =
where,
180
θ is②the angle between
= , 0 ≤ θ ≤ π and n̂ is a

unit vector perpendicular to both , such that

form a right handed system (Fig 10.23). i.e., the
right handed system rotated from moves in the direction
Fig 10.23
of n̂ .
If either , then θ is not defined and in this case, we define .
Observations
1. is a vector.

-
2. Let be two nonzero vectors. Then
- - ⑳if and only if are
parallel (or collinear) to each other, i.e.,
I O= O
= O -
~
Parradles
- -

D=0
-
-
·-
-

Rationalised 2023-24
 364 MATHEMATICS

In particular, and , since in the first situation, θ = 0 and

in the second one, θ = π, making the value of sin θ to be 0.
π
3. If θ = then .
2 -

-
4. In view of the Observations 2 and 3, for mutually perpendicular
unit vectors iˆ, ˆj and kˆ (Fig 10.24), we have

0 = 0 × iˆ =
iˆ X x X
Sin = O
-
- --- -

iˆ × ˆj = kˆ, ˆj × kˆ = iˆ, kˆ × iˆ = ˆj Fig 10.24

-----
5. In terms of vector product, the angle between two vectors may be
x+ given as
=

(5 sin θ =

x 6. It is always true that the vector product is not commutative, as = .

: Indeed, , where form a right handed system,

i.e., θ is traversed from , Fig 10.25 (i). While, , where
form a right handed system i.e. θ is traversed from ,
Fig 10.25(ii).

Fig 10.25 (i), (ii)

Thus, if we assume to lie in the plane of the paper, then nˆ and nˆ1 both
will be perpendicular to the plane of the paper. But, n̂ being directed above the
paper while n̂1 directed below the paper. i.e. nˆ1 = − nˆ .

Rationalised 2023-24
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 365

Hence =
=
7. In view of the Observations 4 and 6, we have
ˆj × iˆ = − kˆ, kˆ × ˆj = − iˆ and iˆ × kˆ = − ˆj.

8. If represent the adjacent sides of a triangle then its area is given as

.
By definition of the area of a triangle, we have from
Fig 10.26,
1
Area of triangle ABC = AB ⋅ CD.
2
Fig 10.26
But (as given), and CD = sin θ.

Thus, Area of triangle ABC =

9. If represent the adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then its area is given

by .
From Fig 10.27, we have
Area of parallelogram ABCD = AB. DE.
But (as given), and
.
Thus, Fig 10.27

Area of parallelogram ABCD =

We now state two important properties of vector product.
Property 3 (Distributivity of vector product over addition): If
are any three vectors and λ be a scalar, then
-

(i)
-

(ii)
- -

Rationalised 2023-24
366 MATHEMATICS

Let be two vectors given in component form as a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ and

b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3 kˆ , respectively. Then their cross product may be given by

iˆ ˆj kˆ
= a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
Explanation We have
= (a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ ) × (b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3kˆ )
= a1b1 (iˆ × iˆ) + a1b2 (iˆ × ˆj ) + a1b3 (iˆ × kˆ ) + a2b1 ( ˆj × iˆ)
+ a2 b2 ( ˆj × ˆj ) + a2b3 ( ˆj × kˆ)
+ a3b1 ( kˆ × iˆ) + a3b2 (kˆ × ˆj ) + a3b3 ( kˆ × kˆ) (by Property 1)
= a1b2 (iˆ × ˆj ) − a1b3 (kˆ × iˆ) − a2b1 (iˆ × ˆj )
+ a2 b3 ( ˆj × kˆ ) + a3b1 (kˆ × iˆ) − a3b2 ( ˆj × kˆ)
(as iˆ × iˆ = ˆj × ˆj = kˆ × kˆ = 0 and iˆ × kˆ = −kˆ × iˆ, ˆj × iˆ = −iˆ × ˆj and kˆ × ˆj = − ˆj × kˆ)
= a1b2 kˆ − a1b3 ˆj − a2b1kˆ + a2b3iˆ + a3b1 ˆj − a3b2iˆ
(as iˆ × ˆj = kˆ, ˆj × kˆ = iˆ and kˆ × iˆ = ˆj )
= (a2b3 − a3b2 )iˆ − (a1b3 − a3b1 ) ˆj + ( a1b2 − a2b1 ) kˆ

iˆ ˆj kˆ
= a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3

Example 22 Find
Solution We have
iˆ ˆj kˆ
= 2 1 3
3 5 −2

= iˆ( −2 − 15) − (− 4 − 9) ˆj + (10 – 3)kˆ = −17iˆ + 13 ˆj + 7kˆ

Hence = ( −17) 2 + (13) 2 + (7)2 = 507

Rationalised 2023-24
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 367

Example 23 Find a unit vector perpendicular to each of the vectors and

where .
Solution We have
! !
A vector which is perpendicular to both a! + b and a! − b is given by

Now = 4 + 16 + 4 = 24 = 2 6
Therefore, the required unit vector is
!
c −1 ˆ 2 ˆ 1 ˆ
! = i+ j− k
|c | 6 6 6

Note There are two perpendicular directions to any plane. Thus, another unit
1 ˆ 2 ˆ 1 ˆ
vector perpendicular to will be i− j+ k . But that will
6 6 6
be a consequence of .
Example 24 Find the area of a triangle having the points A(1, 1, 1), B(1, 2, 3)
and C(2, 3, 1) as its vertices.

Solution We have . The area of the given triangle

is .

iˆ ˆj kˆ
Now, = 0 1 2 = − 4iˆ + 2 ˆj − kˆ
1 2 0

Therefore = 16 + 4 + 1 = 21
1
Thus, the required area is 21
2

Rationalised 2023-24
368 MATHEMATICS

Example 25 Find the area of a parallelogram whose adjacent sides are given
by the vectors
Solution The area of a parallelogram with as its adjacent sides is given

by .

iˆ ˆj kˆ
Now = 3 1 4 = 5iˆ + ˆj − 4kˆ
1 −1 1

Therefore = 25 + 1 + 16 = 42
and hence, the required area is 42 .

EXERCISE 10.4

1. Find .
2. Find a unit vector perpendicular to each of the vector , where
.
π π
3. If a unit vector makes angles with iˆ, with ˆj and an acute angle θ with
3 4
k̂ , then find θ and hence, the components of .
4. Show that

5. Find λ and µ if .
6. Given that and . What can you conclude about the vectors
?
7. Let the vectors be given as a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ, b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3kˆ,
c1iˆ + c2 ˆj + c3 kˆ . Then show that .

8. If either then . Is the converse true? Justify your

answer with an example.
9. Find the area of the triangle with vertices A(1, 1, 2), B(2, 3, 5) and C(1, 5, 5).

Rationalised 2023-24
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 369

10. Find the area of the parallelogram whose adjacent sides are determined by the
vectors and .

11. Let the vectors be such that , then is a unit

vector, if the angle between is
(A) π/6 (B) π/4 (C) π/3 (D) π/2
12. Area of a rectangle having vertices A, B, C and D with position vectors
1 1 1 1
– iˆ + ˆj + 4kˆ, iˆ + ˆj + 4kˆ , iˆ − ˆj + 4kˆ and – iˆ − ˆj + 4kˆ , respectively is
2 2 2 2
1
(A) (B) 1
2
(C) 2 (D) 4

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 26 Write all the unit vectors in XY-plane.
Solution Let be a unit vector in XY-plane (Fig 10.28). Then, from the
figure, we have x = cos θ and y = sin θ (since | | = 1). So, we may write the vector as
= cos θ iˆ + sin θ ˆj ... (1)
Clearly, | |= cos2 θ + sin 2 θ = 1

Fig 10.28
Also, as θ varies from 0 to 2π, the point P (Fig 10.28) traces the circle x2 + y2 = 1
counterclockwise, and this covers all possible directions. So, (1) gives every unit vector
in the XY-plane.

Rationalised 2023-24
370 MATHEMATICS

Example 27 If iˆ + ˆj + kˆ, 2iˆ + 5 ˆj, 3iˆ + 2 ˆj − 3kˆ and iˆ − 6 ˆj − kˆ are the position
vectors of points A, B, C and D respectively, then find the angle between and .
Deduce that and are collinear.
Solution Note that if θ is the angle between AB and CD, then θ is also the angle
between and .
Now = Position vector of B – Position vector of A
= (2iˆ + 5 ˆj ) − (iˆ + ˆj + kˆ) = iˆ + 4 ˆj − kˆ

Therefore | |= (1) 2 + (4) 2 + ( −1) 2 = 3 2

!!!"
Similarly = − 2iˆ − 8 ˆj + 2kˆ and |CD |= 6 2

Thus cos θ =

1(−2) + 4(−8) + ( −1)(2) −36

= = = −1
(3 2)(6 2) 36
Since 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, it follows that θ = π. This shows that and are collinear.

Alternatively, which implies that and are collinear vectors.

Example 28 Let be three vectors such that and

each one of them being perpendicular to the sum of the other two, find .

Solution Given
Now

=
+
=
= 9 + 16 + 25 = 50
Therefore = 50 = 5 2

Rationalised 2023-24
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 371

Example 29 Three vectors satisfy the condition . Evaluate

the quantity .
Solution Since , we have

=0

or =0

Therefore ... (1)

Again, =0

or ... (2)

Similarly = – 4. ... (3)

Adding (1), (2) and (3), we have

= – 29

−29
or 2µ = – 29, i.e., µ =
2
Example 30 If with reference to the right handed system of mutually perpendicular
unit vectors , then express in the form

is parallel to is perpendicular to

Solution Let is a scalar, i.e., .

Now = (2 − 3λ)iˆ + (1 + λ ) ˆj − 3kˆ .

! !
Now, since β 2 is to be perpendicular to α , we should have . i.e.,
3(2 − 3λ ) − (1 + λ ) = 0
1
or λ=
2
3ˆ 1 ˆ
Therefore 1
= i − j and
2 2

Rationalised 2023-24
372 MATHEMATICS

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 10

1. Write down a unit vector in XY-plane, making an angle of 30° with the positive
direction of x-axis.
2. Find the scalar components and magnitude of the vector joining the points
P(x1, y1, z1) and Q (x2, y2, z2).
3. A girl walks 4 km towards west, then she walks 3 km in a direction 30° east of
north and stops. Determine the girl’s displacement from her initial point of
departure.

4. If , then is it true that ? Justify your answer.

5. Find the value of x for which x(iˆ + ˆj + kˆ) is a unit vector.
6. Find a vector of magnitude 5 units, and parallel to the resultant of the vectors
.

7. If , find a unit vector parallel

to the vector .
8. Show that the points A (1, – 2, – 8), B (5, 0, – 2) and C (11, 3, 7) are collinear, and
find the ratio in which B divides AC.
9. Find the position vector of a point R which divides the line joining two points
P and Q whose position vectors are externally in the ratio
1 : 2. Also, show that P is the mid point of the line segment RQ.
10. The two adjacent sides of a parallelogram are 2iˆ − 4 ˆj + 5kˆ and iˆ − 2 ˆj − 3kˆ.
Find the unit vector parallel to its diagonal. Also, find its area.
11. Show that the direction cosines of a vector equally inclined to the axes OX, OY
 1 1 1 
and OZ are ±  , , .
 3 3 3 

12. Let . Find a vector which

is perpendicular to both and , and .

13. The scalar product of the vector iˆ + ˆj + kˆ with a unit vector along the sum of
vectors 2iˆ + 4 ˆj − 5kˆ and λiˆ + 2 ˆj + 3kˆ is equal to one. Find the value of λ.
14. If are mutually perpendicular vectors of equal magnitudes, show that the
vector is equally inclined to .

Rationalised 2023-24
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 373

15. Prove that , if and only if are perpendicular, given

.
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 16 to 19.
16. If θ is the angle between two vectors , then only when
π π
(A) 0 < θ < (B) 0 ≤ θ ≤
2 2
(C) 0 < θ < π (D) 0 ≤ θ ≤ π
17. Let be two unit vectors and θ is the angle between them. Then is
a unit vector if
π π π 2π
(A) θ = (B) θ = (C) θ = (D) θ =
4 3 2 3
18. The value of iˆ.( ˆj × kˆ) + ˆj ⋅ (iˆ × kˆ) + kˆ ⋅ (iˆ × ˆj ) is
(A) 0 (B) –1 (C) 1 (D) 3
19. If θ is the angle between any two vectors , then when θ
is equal to
π π
(A) 0 (B) (C) (D) π
4 2

Summary


- Position vector of a point P(x, y, z) is given as , and its
magnitude by x2 + y 2 + z2 .
 The scalar components of a vector are its direction ratios, and represent its
projections along the respective axes.
 The magnitude (r), direction ratios (a, b, c) and direction cosines (l, m, n) of
any vector are related as:
a b c
l= , m= , n=
r r r

Rationalised 2023-24
374 MATHEMATICS

 The vector sum of the three sides of a triangle taken in order is .

 The vector sum of two coinitial vectors is given by the diagonal of the
parallelogram whose adjacent sides are the given vectors.
 The multiplication of a given vector by a scalar λ, changes the magnitude of
the vector by the multiple | λ |, and keeps the direction same (or makes it
opposite) according as the value of λ is positive (or negative).

 For a given vector , the vector gives the unit vector in the direction
- -

of .
 The position vector of a point R dividing a line segment joining the points
P and Q whose position vectors are respectively, in the ratio m : n

(i) internally, is given by .

-
-

(ii) externally, is given by

- -
.
- -

 The scalar product of two given vectors

-
having angle θ between
them is defined as
.
Also, when is given, the angle ‘θ’ between the vectors may be
determined by

cos θ =

 If θ is the angle between two vectors , then their cross product is

-

given as
-

where n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing . Such

that form right handed system of coordinate axes.

 If we have two vectors , given in component form as

and λ any scalar,

Rationalised 2023-24
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 375

then -
= (a1 + b1 ) iˆ + (a2 + b2 ) ˆj + ( a3 + b3 ) kˆ ;
-

λ = (λa1 )iˆ + (λa2 ) ˆj + (λa3 ) kˆ ;

-

= a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 ;

- -

iˆ ˆj kˆ
and = a1 b1 c1 .
- a2 b2 c2

Historical Note
The word vector has been derived from a Latin word vectus, which means
“to carry”. The germinal ideas of modern vector theory date from around 1800
when Caspar Wessel (1745-1818) and Jean Robert Argand (1768-1822) described
that how a complex number a + ib could be given a geometric interpretation with
the help of a directed line segment in a coordinate plane. William Rowen Hamilton
(1805-1865) an Irish mathematician was the first to use the term vector for a
directed line segment in his book Lectures on Quaternions (1853). Hamilton’s
method of quaternions (an ordered set of four real numbers given as:
a + biˆ + cjˆ + dkˆ, iˆ, ˆj , kˆ following certain algebraic rules) was a solution to the
problem of multiplying vectors in three dimensional space. Though, we must
mention here that in practice, the idea of vector concept and their addition was
known much earlier ever since the time of Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), a Greek
philosopher, and pupil of Plato (427-348 B.C.). That time it was supposed to be
known that the combined action of two or more forces could be seen by adding
them according to parallelogram law. The correct law for the composition of
forces, that forces add vectorially, had been discovered in the case of perpendicular
forces by Stevin-Simon (1548-1620). In 1586 A.D., he analysed the principle of
geometric addition of forces in his treatise DeBeghinselen der Weeghconst
(“Principles of the Art of Weighing”), which caused a major breakthrough in the
development of mechanics. But it took another 200 years for the general concept
of vectors to form.
In the 1880, Josaih Willard Gibbs (1839-1903), an American physicist and
mathematician, and Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925), an English engineer, created
what we now know as vector analysis, essentially by separating the real (scalar)

Rationalised 2023-24
 -
-
-
T -
- -

- -

- - -

x=
2
-
= y =
3
2 =
J

- -

(2) i)
-

-
-
I
① +W =

[b]
Ef2] +

(2)

i JE
KF + kB
2x1
=T
di
-
=
-

- -
j -k =

[b]
=

=
(2) =(i)
=] +* 27

[A +
[i] =

-
#+
+
/5 -