MULTI VARIABLE CALCULUS – DETAILED NOTES
WITH EXAMPLES
Exam■oriented notes covering definitions, methods, worked examples, and key results.
1. Functions of Several Variables
A function of several variables assigns a real value to each point in space. Commonly used forms are
functions of two variables f(x, y) and three variables f(x, y, z).
Examples:
• f(x, y) = x² + y²
• f(x, y, z) = xyz + x²
Level Curves and Level Surfaces
For f(x, y), a level curve is obtained by setting f(x, y) = c, where c is a constant. For f(x, y, z), the
equation f(x, y, z) = c gives a level surface.
Example: f(x, y) = x² + y². Level curves x² + y² = c are circles.
2. Limits and Continuity of Functions of Two Variables
The limit of f(x, y) as (x, y) approaches (a, b) exists if f(x, y) approaches the same value along all
possible paths.
Continuity Conditions:
• f(a, b) exists
• Limit of f(x, y) as (x, y) → (a, b) exists
• Limit equals f(a, b)
Example: f(x, y) = (x²y)/(x² + y²) at (0, 0). Limit depends on path → limit does not exist.
3. Partial Differentiation
Partial derivatives measure the rate of change of a function with respect to one variable while keeping
other variables constant.
Notation:
∂f/∂x, ∂f/∂y, ∂f/∂z
Example:
If f(x, y) = x²y + y³, then ∂f/∂x = 2xy and ∂f/∂y = x² + 3y².
Higher Order Partial Derivatives
Second order partial derivatives are obtained by differentiating first order partial derivatives. If f has
continuous second order derivatives, then ∂²f/∂x∂y = ∂²f/∂y∂x (Clairaut’s theorem).
4. Total Derivatives
If z = f(x, y) where x and y are functions of t, then the total derivative of z with respect to t is:
dz/dt = (∂z/∂x)(dx/dt) + (∂z/∂y)(dy/dt)
Example:
Let z = x² + y², x = t, y = t². Then dz/dt = 2x·dx/dt + 2y·dy/dt = 2t + 4t³.
5. Jacobians
The Jacobian represents the ratio of change of variables in multiple integrals and transformations.
J = ∂(u, v)/∂(x, y) = | ∂u/∂x ∂u/∂y ; ∂v/∂x ∂v/∂y |
Example:
If u = x + y and v = x − y, then the Jacobian ∂(u, v)/∂(x, y) = −2.
6. Taylor’s Series for Functions of Two Variables
Taylor’s series approximates a function near a point using partial derivatives.
f(x, y) ≈ f(a, b) + (x−a)f_x + (y−b)f_y + 1/2[(x−a)²f_xx + 2(x−a)(y−b)f_xy + (y−b)²f_yy]
7. Vector Functions and Vector Fields
A vector field assigns a vector to each point in space. Examples include velocity fields and force
fields.
Example: F = xi + yj + zk is a vector field.
8. Gradient, Divergence and Curl
Gradient:
∇f = (∂f/∂x)i + (∂f/∂y)j + (∂f/∂z)k
Divergence:
∇·F = ∂P/∂x + ∂Q/∂y + ∂R/∂z
Curl:
∇×F = determinant form with i, j, k
Example: For F = (x, y, z), divergence = 3 and curl = 0.
9. Line Integrals
Line integrals compute work done by a vector field along a curve.
∫C F·dr = ∫(P dx + Q dy + R dz)
Example:
For F = (y, x) along the line from (0,0) to (1,1), the work done is 1.
10. Green’s Theorem
Green’s theorem relates a line integral around a closed curve to a double integral over the region
enclosed.
■C (P dx + Q dy) = ■R (∂Q/∂x − ∂P/∂y) dA
Example:
Used to evaluate circulation over rectangles and simple closed curves efficiently.
11. Surface Integrals and Divergence Theorem
Surface integrals measure flux through a surface. Divergence theorem converts surface integrals into
volume integrals.
■S F·n dS = ■V (∇·F) dV
END OF NOTES