CHAPTER ONE

1.1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF TABLE TENNIS

1.1.1. Origin and Development of Table Tennis

The game originated as a sport in Britain during the 1880s, where it was played among the
upper-class as an after-dinner parlour game, then commonly known as "wiff-waff". A row of
books were to be stood up along the center of the table as a net, two more books served as
rackets and were used to continuously hit a golf-ball from one end of the table to the other. Later,
table tennis was played with paddles made of cigar box lids and balls made of champagne corks.
The popularity of the game led game manufacturers to sell the equipment commercially. Early
rackets were often pieces of parchment stretched upon a frame, and the sound generated in play
gave the game its first nicknames of "wiff-waff" and "Ping-Pong". A number of sources indicate
that the game was first brought to the attention of Hamley's of Regent Street under the name
"Gossima". The name "Ping-Pong" was in wide use before British manufacturer J. Jacques &
Son Ltd trademarked it in 1901. The name "Ping-Pong" then came to be used for the game
played by the rather expensive Jacques’s equipment, with other manufacturers calling it table
tennis.

The next major innovation was by James Gibb, a British enthusiast of table tennis, who
discovered novelty celluloid balls on a trip to the US in 1901 and found them to be ideal for the
game. This was followed by E.C. Goode who, in 1901, invented the modern version of the racket
by fixing a sheet of pimpled, or stippled, rubber to the wooden blade. Table tennis was growing
in popularity by 1901 to the extent that table tennis tournaments were being organized, books on
table tennis were being written, and an unofficial world championship was held in 1902. During
the early 1900s, the game was banned in Russia because the rulers at the time believed that
playing the game had an adverse effect on players' eyesight.

In 1921, the Table Tennis Association was founded in Britain, and the International Table Tennis
Federation followed in 1926. London hosted the first official World Championships in 1926. In
1933, the United States Table Tennis Association, now called USA Table Tennis, was formed.

In the 1950s, rackets that used a rubber sheet combined with an underlying sponge layer changed
the game dramatically, introducing greater spin and speed. These were introduced to Britain by
sports goods manufacturer S.W. Hancock Ltd. The use of speed glue increased the spin and
speed even further, resulting in changes to the equipment to "slow the game down". Table tennis
was introduced as an Olympic sport at the Olympics in 1988.

After the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, the International Table Tennis Federation instituted
several rules changes aimed at making table tennis more viable as a televised spectator sport.
First, the older 38 mm balls were officially replaced by 40 mm balls in 2000. This increased the
ball's air resistance and effectively slowed down the game. By that time, players had begun
increasing the thickness of the fast sponge layer on their rackets, which made the game
excessively fast and difficult to watch on television. Second, the ITTF changed from a 21-point
to an 11-point scoring system in 2001.

This was intended to make games more fast-paced and exciting. The ITTF also changed the rules
on service to prevent a player from hiding the ball during service, in order to increase the average
length of rallies and to reduce the server's advantage.

Variants of the sport have recently emerged. "Large-ball" table tennis uses a 44 mm ball, which
slows down the game significantly. This has seen some acceptance by players who have a hard
time with the extreme spins and speeds of the 40 mm game.

There is a move towards reviving the table tennis game that existed prior to the introduction of
sponge rubber. "Hard bat" table tennis players reject the speed and spin of reversed sponge
rubber, preferring the 1940–60s play style with no sponge and short-pimpled rubber. Defense is
less difficult by decreasing the speed and eliminating any meaningful Magnus effect of spin.
Because hard bat killer shots are almost impossible to hit against a skilled player, hard bat
matches focus on the strategic side of table tennis, requiring skillful maneuvering of the
opponent before an attack can become successful.

Meaning:

Table tennis, also known as Ping-Pong, is a sport in which two or four players hit a lightweight,
hollow ball back and forth using table tennis rackets. The game takes place on a hard table
divided by a net. Except for the initial serve, players must allow a ball played toward them only
one bounce on their side of the table and must return it so that it bounces on the opposite side.
Points are scored when a player fails to return the ball within the rules. Play is fast and demands
quick reactions. A skilled player can impart several varieties of spin to the ball, altering its
trajectory and limiting an opponent's options to great advantage.

Table tennis is controlled by the worldwide organization International Table Tennis

Federation (ITTF), founded in 1926. ITTF currently includes 215 member associations. The
table tennis official rules are specified in the ITTF handbook. Since 1988, table tennis has been
an Olympic sport, with several event categories. In particular, from 1988 until 2004, these were:
men's singles, women's singles, men's doubles and women's doubles. Since 2008 the doubles
have been replaced by the team events.

Table tennis at the highest level

Highest governing body ITTF

Nickname(s) Ping-pong

First played 1880s England

Characteristics

Contact No

Team members Single or doubles

Mixed gender men, women or other

Categorization Racquet sport, indoor

Equipment celluloid, 40 mm

Olympic 1988

Governance
Founded in 1926, the International Table Tennis Federation (ITTF) is the
worldwide governing body for table tennis, which maintains an international ranking system in
addition to organizing events like the World Table Tennis Championships.

On many continents, there is a governing body responsible for table tennis on that continent. For
example, the European Table Tennis Union (ETTU) is the governing body responsible for table
tennis in Europe. There are also national bodies and other local authorities responsible for the
sport, such as USA Table Tennis (USA.

1.2. BASIC RULES AND REGULATIONS OF TABLE TENNIS

Facilities and Equipment

a. Ball

The international rules specify that the game is played with a light 2.7 gram, 40 mm diameter
ball. The rules say that the ball shall bounce up 24–26 cm when dropped from a height of
30.5 cm on to a standard steel block thereby having a coefficient of restitution of 0.89 to 0.92.
The 40 mm ball was introduced after the 2000 Olympic Games. However, this created some
controversy as the Chinese National Team argued that this was merely to give non-Chinese
players a better chance of winning since the new type of balls has a slower speed, while at that
time most Chinese players were playing with fast attack and smashes. A 40 mm table tennis ball
is slower and spins less than the original 38 mm (1.5 inch) one. The ball is made of a high-
bouncing air-filled celluloid or similar plastics material, colored white or orange, with
a matte finish. The choice of ball color is made according to the table color and its surroundings.
For example, a white ball is easier to see on a green or blue table than it is on a gray table. Stars
on the ball indicate the quality of the ball. Three stars indicate that it is of the highest quality, and
is used in official competition.

b. Table
The table is 2.74 m (9 ft) long, 1.525 m (5 ft) wide, and 76 cm (30 inch) high with a Masonite (a
type of hardboard) or similarly manufactured timber, layered with a smooth, low-
friction coating. The table or playing surface is divided into two halves by a 15.25 cm (6 inch)
high net. An ITTF approved table surface must be in a green or blue color.

c. Racket

Players are equipped with a laminated wooden racket covered with rubber on one or two sides
depending on the grip of the player. The official ITTF term is "racket"; though "bat" is common
in Britain, and "paddle" in the U.S.

The wooden portion of the racket, often referred to as the "blade", commonly features anywhere
between one and seven plies of wood, though cork, glass fiber, carbon fiber, aluminum fiber, and
Kevlar are sometimes used. There are no restrictions on a blade's composition except that it be at
least 85% natural wood. Common wood types include Balsa, Limba, and Cypress or "Hinoki,"
which is popular in Japan. The average size of the blade is about 6.5 inches (16.5 cm) long and
6 inches (15 cm) wide. Although there are no official restrictions on the shape or size of the
blade itself, these dimensions are optimal for most play styles.

Table tennis regulations allow different surfaces on each side of the racket. Various types of
surfaces provide various levels of spin or speed, and in some cases they nullify spin. For
example, a player may have a rubber that provides much spin on one side of his racket, and one
that provides no spin on the other. By flipping the racket in play, different types of returns are
possible. To help a player distinguish between the rubbers used by his opposing player,
international rules specify that one side must be red while the other side must be black. The
player has the right to inspect his opponent's racket before a match to see the type of rubber used
and what color it is. Despite high speed play and rapid exchanges, a player can see clearly what
side of the racket was used to hit the ball. Current rules state that, unless damaged in play, the
racket cannot be exchanged for another racket at any time during a match.

2.3. Game play

a. Starting a game

According to ITTF rule 2.13.1, the first service is decided by lot, normally a coin toss. It is also
common for one player (or the umpire/scorer) to hide the ball in one or the other hand (usually
hidden under the table), allowing the other player to guess which hand the ball is in.

The correct or incorrect guess gives the "winner" the option to choose to serve, receive, or to
choose which side of the table to use. (A common but non-sanctioned method is for the players
to play the ball back and forth four times and then play out the point. This is commonly referred
to as "play to serve" or "rally to serve".)

b. Service and return

In game play, the player serving the ball commences a play. The server first stands with the ball
held on the open palm of the hand not carrying the racket, called the freehand, and tosses the ball
directly upward without spin, at least 16 centimeters (approximately 6 inches) high. The server
strikes the ball with the racket on the ball's descent so that it touches first his court and then
touches directly the receiver's court without touching the net assembly. In casual games, many
players do not toss the ball upward; however, this is technically illegal and can give the serving
player an unfair advantage.

The ball must remain behind the end line and above the upper surface, known as the playing
surface, of the table at all times during the service. The server cannot use his body or clothing to
obstruct sight of the ball; the opponent and the umpire must have a clear view of the ball at all
times. If the umpire is doubtful of the legality of a service they may first interrupt play and give a
warning to the server. If the serve is a clear failure or is doubted again by the umpire after the
warning, receiver scores a point.

If the service is "good", then the receiver must make a "good" return by hitting the ball back
before it bounces a second time on receiver's side of the table so that the ball passes the net and
touches the opponent's court, either directly or after touching the net assembly. Thereafter, the
server and receiver must alternately make a return until the rally is over. Returning the serve is
one of the most difficult parts of the game, as the server's first move is often the least predictable
and thus most advantageous shot due to the numerous spin and speed choices at his or her
disposal.

c. Let

A let is a rally of which the result is not scored, and is called in the following circumstances:

 The ball touches the net in service, provided the service is otherwise correct or the ball is
obstructed by the player on the receiving side. Obstruction means a player touches the ball
when it is above or traveling towards the playing surface, not having touched the player's
court since last being struck by the player.
 When the player on the receiving side is not ready and the service is delivered.
 Player's failure to make a service or a return or to comply with the Laws is due to a
disturbance outside the control of the player.
 Play is interrupted by the umpire or assistant umpire.
d. Scoring

A point is scored by the player for any of several results of the rally.

 Opponent fails to make a correct service or return.

 After making a service or a return, the ball touches anything other than the net assembly
before being struck by the opponent.
 The ball passes over the player's court or beyond his end line without touching his court,
after being struck by the opponent.
 The opponent obstructs the ball.
 The opponent strikes the ball twice successively. Note that the hand that is holding the
racket counts as part of the racket and that making a good return off one's hand or fingers
is allowed. It is not a fault if the ball accidentally hits one's hand or fingers and then
subsequently hits the racket.
 The opponent strikes the ball with a side of the racket blade whose surface is not covered
with rubber.
 The opponent moves the playing surface or touches the net assembly.
 The opponent's free hand touches the playing surface.
 As a receiver under the expedite system, completing 13 returns in a rally.
 The opponent has been warned by umpire commits a second offense in the same
individual match or team match. If the third offence happens, 2 points will be given to the
player. If the individual match or the team match has not ended, any unused penalty
points can be transferred to the next game of that match.

A game shall be won by the player first scoring 11 points unless both players score 10 points,
when the game shall be won by the first player subsequently gaining a lead of 2 points. A
match shall consist of the best of any odd number of games. In competition play, matches are
typically best of five or seven games.

e. Alternation of services and ends

Service alternates between opponents every two points (regardless of winner of the rally) until
the end of the game, unless both players score 10 points or the expedite system is operated, when
the sequences of serving and receiving stay the same but each player serves for only 1 point in
turn. Player serving first in a game shall receive first in the next game of the match.

After each game, players switch sides of the table. In the last possible game of a match, for
example the seventh game in a best of seven matches, players change ends when the first player
scores 5 points, regardless of whose turn it is to serve.

If the sequence of serving and receiving is out of turn or the ends is not changed, points scored in
the wrong situation are still calculated and the game shall be resumed with the order at the score
that has been reached.
 a. Doubles game

In addition to games between individual players, pairs may also play table tennis. In doubles, all
the rules of single play are applied except for the following.

1. A line painted along the long axis of the table to create doubles courts bisects the table.
This line's only purpose is to facilitate the doubles service rule, which is that service,
must originate from the right hand "box" in such a way that the first bounce of the serve
bounces once in said right hand box and then must bounce at least once in the opponent
side's right hand box (far left box for server), or the receiving pair score a point.
2. Players must alternate hitting the ball. For example, if A is paired with B, X is paired
with Y, A is the server and X is the receiver. The order of play shall be A → X → B →
Y. The rally proceeds this way until one side fails to make a legal return and the other
side scores.
3. At each change of service, the previous receiver shall become the server and the partner
of the previous server shall become the receiver. For example, if the previous order of
play is A → X → B → Y, the order becomes X → B → Y → A after the change of
service.
4. In each game of a doubles match, the pair having the right to serve first shall choose
which of them will do so. The receiving pair, however, can only choose in the first game
of the match. When the first server is chosen in the second or the latter games of the
match, the first receiver of the game is the player who served to the first server of the
game in the preceding game. For example, if the order of play is A → X → B → Y at
beginning of the first game, the order begins with X → A → Y → B or Y → B → X →
 A in the second game depending on either X or Y being chosen as the first server of the
game.
5. When a pair reaches 5 points in the final game, the pairs must switch ends of the table
and the team that receives the service must switch receiver. For example, when the last
order of play before a pair score 5 points in the final game is A → X → B → Y, the
order after change shall be A → Y → B → X if A still has the second serve. Otherwise,
X is the next server and the order becomes X → A → Y → B.

Singles and doubles are both played in international competition, including the Olympic Games
since 1988 and the Commonwealth Games since 2002. In 2005, the ITTF announced that
doubles table tennis only was featured as a part of team events in the 2008 Olympics.

a. Expedite system

If a game is unfinished after 10 minutes' play and scored less than 18 points in total, the expedite
system comes into effect. The umpire first interrupts the game and each player starts to serve for
1 point in turn until the end of the game. The server has to win the point before the 13th return by
the opponent, or the point goes to the opponent. The system can also be operated at any time at
the request of both players or pairs. Once introduced, the expedite system remains in operation
until the end of the match. It's the rule to shorten the time of a match, and is mainly seen in
defensive players' games.

2.4. BASIC SKILLS OF TABLE TENNIS

Grips

Though table tennis players grip their rackets in various ways, their grips can be classified into
two major families of styles, pen hold and shake hand. The Laws of Table Tennis do not
prescribe the manner in which one must grip the racket, and numerous variations on gripping
styles exist in excess of these two general categories.

a. Pen hold

The pen hold grip is so-named because one grips the racket similarly to the way one holds
a writing instrument. The style of play among pen hold players can vary greatly from player to
player. The most popular style, usually referred to as the Chinese pen hold style, involves curling
the middle, ring, and fourth finger on the back of the blade with the three fingers always remain
touching one another. Chinese penholders favour a round racket head, for a more over-the-table
style of play. In contrast, another style, sometimes referred to as the Korean pen hold grip,
involves splaying those three fingers out across the back of the racket, usually with all three
fingers touching the back of the racket, rather than stacked upon one another. Sometimes a
combination of the two styles occurs, wherein the middle, ring and fourth fingers are straight, but
still stacked, or where all fingers may be touching the back of the racket, but are also in contact
with one another. Korean penholders will often use a square-headed racket for an away-from-
the-table style of play. Traditionally these square-headed rackets feature a block of cork on top of
the handle, as well as a thin layer of cork on the back of the racket, for increased grip and
comfort. Pen hold styles are popular among players originating from East Asian regions such
as China, Taiwan, Japan, and South Korea.
Traditionally, pen hold players use only one side of the racket to hit the ball during normal play,
and the side which is in contact with the last three fingers is generally not used. This
configuration is sometimes referred to as "traditional pen hold" and is more commonly found in
square-headed racket styles.

However, the Chinese developed a technique in the 1990s in which a penholder utilizes both
sides of the racket to hit the ball, where the player produces a backhand stroke (most often
topspin) by turning the traditional side of the racket to face him or herself, and swinging using
the opposite side of the racket. This stroke has greatly improved and strengthened the pen hold
style both physically and psychologically, as it eliminates the strategic weakness of the
traditional pen hold backhand.

a. Shake hand

The shake hand (or shake hands) grip is so-named because the racket is grasped as if one is
performing a handshake. Though it is sometimes referred to as the "tennis" or "Western" grip, it
bears no relation to the Western tennis grip, popularized on the West Coast of the United
States in which the racket is rotated 90°, and played with the wrist turned so that on impact the
knuckles face the target. In table tennis, “Western” refers to Western nations, for this is the grip
that players native to Europe and the Americas have almost exclusively employed.

The shake hand grip’s simplicity and versatility, coupled with the acceptance among top-level
Chinese trainers that the European style of play should be emulated and trained against, has
established it as a common grip even in China. Many world-class Asian players currently use the
shake hand grip, and it is generally accepted that shake hands is easier to learn than penholder,
allowing a broader range of playing styles both offensive and defensive.

[Link]. Types of shots

Table tennis strokes generally break down into offensive and defensive categories.

 Offensive strokes

 Speed drive

A direct hit on the ball propelling it forward back to the opponent. This stroke differ from speed
drives in other racket sports like tennis because the racket is primarily perpendicular to the
direction of the stroke and most of the energy applied to the ball results in speed rather than spin,
creating a shot that does not arc much, but is fast enough that it can be difficult to return.

A speed drive is used mostly for keeping the ball in play, applying pressure on the opponent, and
potentially opening up an opportunity for a more powerful attack.

 Loop

Perfected during the 1960s, the loop is essentially the reverse of the speed drive. The racket is
much more parallel to the direction of the stroke ("closed") and the racket thus grazes the ball,
resulting in a large amount of topspin. A good loop drive will arc quite a bit, and once striking
the opponent's side of the table will jump forward, much like a kick serve in tennis. A loop drive
might not be as difficult to return as a speed drive; however, because of its topspin, it is more
likely to rebound off the opponent's racket at a very high angle, setting up an easy smash on the
follow-up. As the loop drive requires a lot of topspin, players generally use their entire body to
generate the movement required. Variations in spin and speed add to the effectiveness of this
shot.

 Counter-drive

The counter-drive is usually a counterattack against drives, normally high loop drives. The racket
is held closed and near to the ball, which is hit with a short movement "off the bounce"
(immediately after hitting the table) so that the ball travels faster to the other side. A well-timed,
accurate counter-drive can be as effective as a smash.
  Flip

When a player tries to attack a ball that has not bounced beyond the edge of the table, the player
does not have the room to wind up in a backswing. The ball may still be attacked, however, and
the resulting shot is called a flip (or "flick" in Europe) because the backswing is compressed into
a quick wrist action. A flip is not a single stroke and can resemble either a drive or a loop in its
characteristics. What identifies the stroke is instead whether the backswing is compressed into a
short wrist flick.

 Smash

The offensive trump card in table tennis is the smash. A player will typically execute a smash
when his or her opponent has returned a ball that bounces too high or too close to the
net. Smashing is essentially self-explanatory—large backswing and rapid acceleration imparting
as much speed on the ball as possible. The goal of a smash is to get the ball to move so quickly
that the opponent simply cannot return it. Because the ball speed is the main aim of this shot,
often the spin on the ball is something other than topspin. Sidespin can be used effectively with a
smash to alter the ball's trajectory significantly, although most intermediate players will smash
the ball with little or no spin. An offensive table tennis player will think of a rally as a build-up
to a winning smash; only a calculated series of smashes can guarantee a point against a good
opponent. However, most players will be able to return at most one or two smashes consistently.

Provided that the opponent is not too close to the table or too far away from the ball, a smash can
be lobbed, chopped, blocked or even counter-looped, albeit with some difficulty. A player who
smashes generally works out a series of smashes (and possibly drop-shots) to rush the opponent
out of position, put him off balance, or both. Smashers who fail to do this find it difficult to win a
point against an excellent defense.

 Defensive strokes

 Push

The push (or "slice" in Asia) is usually used for keeping the point alive and creating offensive
opportunities. A push resembles a tennis slice: the racket cuts underneath the ball, imparting
backspin and causing the ball to float slowly to the other side of the table. While not obvious, a
push can be difficult to attack because the backspin on the ball causes it to drop toward the table
upon striking the opponent's racket. In order to attack a push, a player must usually loop the ball
back over the net. Often, the best option for beginners is to simply push the ball back again,
resulting in pushing rallies. Against good players, it may be the worst option because the
opponent will counter with a loop, putting the first player in a defensive position. Another
response to pushing is flipping the ball when it is close to the net. Pushing can have advantages
in some circumstances, such as when the opponent makes easy mistakes.

 Chop

A chop is the defensive, backspin counterpart to the offensive loop drive. A chop is essentially a
bigger, heavier push, taken well back from the table. The racket face points primarily
horizontally, perhaps a little bit upward, and the direction of the stroke is straight down. The
object of a defensive chop is to match the topspin of the opponent's shot with backspin. A good
chop will float nearly horizontally back to the table, in some cases having so much backspin that
the ball actually rises. Such a chop can be extremely difficult to return due to its enormous
amount of backspin. Some defensive players can also impart no-spin or sidespin variations of the
chop.

 Block

The block is a simple shot, but nonetheless can be devastating against an attacking opponent. A
block is executed by simply placing the racket in front of the ball right after the ball bounces;
thus, the ball rebounds back toward the opponent with nearly as much energy as it came in with.
This is not as easy as it sounds, because the ball's spin, speed, and location all influence the
correct angle of a block.

It is very possible for an opponent to execute a perfect loop, drive, or smash, only to have the
blocked shot come back at him just as fast. Due to the power involved in offensive strokes, often
an opponent simply cannot recover quickly enough, and will be unable to return the blocked
shot. Blocks almost always produce the same spin as was received, usually topspin.
  Lob

The defensive lob is possibly the most impressive shot in the sport of table tennis, since it
propels the ball about fifteen feet in the air only to land on the opponent's side of the table with
great amounts of spin. To execute a lob, a defensive player first backs off the table 4–6 meters;
then, the stroke itself consists of simply lifting the ball to an enormous height before it falls back
to the opponent's side of the table. A lob is inherently a creative shot, and can have nearly any
kind of spin. Top quality players use this to their advantage in order to control the spin of the
ball. For instance, though the opponent may smash the ball hard and fast, a good defensive lob
could be more difficult to return due to the unpredictability and heavy amounts of the spin on the
ball. Thus, though backed off the table by tens of feet and running to reach the ball, a good
defensive player can still win the point using good lobs. However, at the professional level,
lobbers will lose the point most of the time, so the lob is not used unless it is really necessary.