CHAPTER

1 Force

Force
A force is that physical cause which change (or tends to change) either the size or shape or the
state of rest or motion of the body.
S.I. unit = Newton (N)
CGS unit = dyne
1N = 105 dyne

Newtons Laws of Motion

FIRST LAW SECOND LAW THIRD LAW
A body continues to be in its The rate of change of momentum of To every action there
state of rest or of uniform a body is directly proportional to the is alway an equal and
motion is a straight line unlessforce applied on it and this change in opposite reaction.
an external force is applied on momentum takes place in the direction
it. of applied force.
 
This law is also called "LAW OF p mv F12  F21
INERTIA" F  
t t
F = ma
Acceleration →
Acceleration →

Force →

Force → Mass → Mass →

a ∝ F 1 F∝m
a∝
m
Momentum
The momentum of a body in linear motion is the product of the mass of the body and its velocity.
p = mv
It is vector quantify.
S.I. unit = kg m s–1
C.G.S. unit = g cm s–1
Equations of Motion
(i) v = u + at
1
(ii) s  ut  at 2
2
(iii) v = u + 2as
2 2

Moment of Force
The turning effect produced by a force on a rigid body about a point. pivot or fulcrum is called
moment of force.
S.I unit ⇒ Nm Clockwise Moment Anti Clockwise Moment
F
C.G.S unit ⇒ Dyne cm F Pivot
1Nm = 107 Dyne cm O A
Disc A Disc B d
1kgf m = 9.8 N m
τ =d×F
1gf cm = 980 dyne cm Negative Positive

Equilibrium of Bodies
When a number of force acting an a body produce Kind of Equilibrium
no change in its state of rests or of motion the
body is said to be in equilibrium.
Static Equilibrium Dynamic Equilibrium

Conditions for Equilibrium

(i) The resultant of all the forces acting an a body
should be 0.
(ii) Algebraic sum of moments acting on a body G G
should be 0. G

Principle of Moments Ring Disc Triangle

According to principle of moments in equilibrium.
Sum of anticlockwise moment = Sum of clockwise
moment G
G G
Centre of Gravity Rectangle Square Square
The centre of gravity (C.G.) of a body is the point
about which the algebraic sum of moments of G G
weights of all the particles constituting the body
is zero.
Cylinder ROD
The entire weight of the body can be considered to
act at this point.
Uniform Circular Motion
When a particle moves with constant speed in a circular path, its V B
motion is said to be the uniform circular motion. V
It is accelerated motion
Centripetal Force Centrifugal Force
C A
A force that acts towards the A force that acts away from center
center of circle, keeping object of a circle.
moving in circular path. D
V
It is a real force. It doesn't really exist. V

Formula sheet
1. Momentum (p)
p = mv

p-momentum, m-mass, v-velocity
2. Force (F)

F = ma
F-force, m-mass, a-acceleration
3. Equations of motion
u-initial velocity
v  u  at
v-final velocity
1
s  ut  at 2
t-time
2

v 2  u2  2as a-acceleration
s-distance of travelled
4. Moment of force (t)
  dF

d-perpendicular distance, F-force from pivot
 Current Year Questions (CYQs)
Physics
Force
1. A spanner of length 25 cm is used to open a nut. To produce maximum turning effect,
the force should be applied:
(A) At 0°
(B) At 30°
(C) At 60°
(D) At 90°
Ans (Hint): (D) Perpendicular force gives maximum torque.

2. The CG of a uniform triangular lamina lies at:

(A) Midpoint of base
(B) Midpoint of height
(C) One of the vertices
(D) Intersection of medians
Ans (Hint): (D) Intersection of medians

3. A uniform metre rule of mass 100g is balanced on a fulcrum at the 40 cm mark by

suspending an unknown mass m at the 20 cm mark.
Find the value of m.
(A) 50 g
(B) 100 g
(C) 200 g
(D) 300 g
Ans (Hint): (A) 50 g
4. Assertion: In uniform circular motion, acceleration is zero.
Reason: Speed is constant.
(A) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation for
Assertion.
(B) Both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not the correct explanation for
Assertion.
(C) Assertion is true, but Reason is false.
(D) Assertion is false, but Reason is true.
Ans (Hint): (D) Assertion is false, but Reason is true.

5. Match the following-

Column A Column B
1. Centripetal force a. Apparent outward effect in circular motion
2. Centrifugal force b. Inward force toward center
3. Torque c. Line through which weight acts
4. Centre of gravity d. 𝐅 × perpendicular distance
5. Translational motion e. All particles move parallel, same direction
(A) 1-b,2-a,3-d,4-c,5-e
(B) 1-a,2-b,3-d,4-c,5-e
(C) 1-c,2-a,3-d,4-b,5-e
(D) 1-b,2-d,3-a,4-c,5-e
Ans (Hint): (A) 1-b,2-a,3-d,4-c,5-e

6. Why is it easier to push a door at its free end?

Ans (Hint): Torque = F × distance.
At the free end, distance from hinge is maximum → maximum turning
effect.

7. A metre rule balances only when a mass is hung at the 20 cm mark. What does this
indicate about the rule?
 Ans (Hint): Its centre of gravity is not at 50 cm—it's displaced; the rule is not
perfectly uniform.

8. (i) Where is the centre of gravity of a uniform ring situated?

(ii) The position of the centre of gravity of a body remains unchanged even when the
body is deformed. State whether the statement is true or false.
Ans (Hint):
(i) The centre of gravity of a uniform ring is located at its geometric centre—the
centre of the circular ring—even though there is no material at that point.
(ii) False, when a body is deformed, its mass distribution changes, and therefore
the centre of gravity generally shifts to a new position.

9. A uniform half meter rule balances horizontally on a knife-edge at 29 cm mark when a

weight of 20 gf is suspended from one end.
(i) Draw a diagram of the arrangement.
(ii) What is the weight of the half meter rule?
Ans (Hint): (i) Diagram of the arrangement mentioned in the corresponding question:

(ii) The center of gravity of a uniform half meter rule is 25 cm

The rule balances horizontally on a knife-edge at 29 cm mark when a weight
of 20 gf is suspended from one end.
The difference in the center of gravity and the point of balance =29-25=4
cm Y.
The weight is suspended at one of the extremes.
let us assume at the 50 cm end
Therefore, the distance from the point of knife edge to the weight
= 50 − 29 = 21 cm(X).
X
Weight of meter rule =  Suspended weight
Y
21
∴ Weight of meter rule =  20 = 105 gf
4
The weight of the half meter rule is 105 gf.
10. Figure shows a uniform meter rule weighing 100 gf pivoted at its centre O. Two
weights 150 gf and 250 gf hang from the meter rod as shown in the figure.
Calculate:
(i) the total anti-clockwise moments about O.
(ii) the total clockwise moments about O.
(iii) the difference of anti-clockwise and clockwise moments about O.
(iv) the distance O, where a 100 gf weight should be placed to balance the meter rule.

Ans (Hint): According to the figure, given in question, we get

(i) The moments of the weight of 150 gf
= 150gf  40 cm = 6000gf cm

(ii) The moments of the weight of 250 gf

= −250  20 = −5000gf cm i.e., clockwise

(iii) The difference of moments =6000 gf cm – 5000 gf cm = 1000 gf cm

(iv) To balance these 1000 gf cm anti-clockwise moments, 100 gf weight
1000 gf cm
must be at a distance x = = 10 cm on the right side of O.
100 gf
 Work, Energy and
Power
Work
Work is said to be done only when the force applied on a body makes the body move.
It is scalar quantity
F - applied force F
s - displacement
θ
q - between force and displacement
S
S.I. unit = joule(J)
W = FS cosθ
C.G.S. unit = erg
1J = 107 erg
1kJ = 103 J, 1MJ = 106 J, 1GJ = 109 J

Different Cases of Work Done

W → Positive W → Negative W → Zero
F θ = 180° F
S θ = 90°
θ = 0° F S
S

Power
The rate of doing work is called power. It is a scalar quantity.
Work done w
Power P =
Time taken t

w
P =
t
Fs
P  Fv
t
F → force v → Average speed
S.I. unit = watt (w)
C.G.S. unit = erg s–1
1W = 107 erg s–1
1 H.P. = 746W = 0.746 kW
Energy
The energy of a body is its capacity to do work.
S.I. unit = joule (J)
C.G.S. unit = erg
Bigger unit of energy kilowatt hour (kWh)
1kWh = 3.6 × 106J = 3.6 MJ
Heat energy is usually measured in calorie.
1J = 0.24 calories, 1 calorie = 4.18 J
The energy of atomic particles is measured in electron volt (eV).
1eV = 1.6 × 10–19J
WORK ENERGY POWER
It is equal to product of force & displacement in Capacity to do work. The rate of doing
direction of force. work.
Does not depend on time. Does not depend on Depends on time.
time.
S.I. unit → joule S.I. unit → joule S.I. unit → watt

Different forms of Energy

Mechanical Energy- The energy possessed by a body due to its state of rest or of motion is caused
mechanical energy. It is in two forms:
(i) Kinetic energy
(ii) Potential energy
Kinetic energy- Energy possessed by a body by virtue of its state of motion.
1
K = mv 2
2
k → kinetic energy
m → mass
v → velocity
There are 3 forms of K.E.
1. Translational K.E.
2. Rotational K.E.
3. Vibrational K.E.
Relation between K.E. & momentum
p2
p= 2mk or K =
2m
Work energy theorem- The work done by a force on moving body is equal to the increase in its
kinetic energy.
1 1
W  mv 2  mu2
2 2
Potential energy- Energy possessed by a body by virtue of its specific position (or changed
configuration) is called potential energy.
It is usually denoted by symbol U.
It is mainly of two types-
(i) Gravitational P.E.
(ii) Elastic P.E.
 Gravitational P.E. is the amount of work done in raising a body from ground to a point
at height h, against gravity.
u = mgh
m - mass of object, g - acceleration clue to gravity h - height through which object is raised
h - height through which object is raised
1. Solar energy- energy radiated by Sun.
2. Heat energy- energy released on burning coal, oil, wood, gas.
3. Light energy- energy in presence of which other objects are seen.
4. Chemical energy- Energy possessed by fossil fuels.
5. Hydro energy- Energy of fast moving water.
6. Electrical energy- Energy possessed by charged body due to movement of free electrons.
7. Nuclear energy- Energy released due to process of nuclear fusion or fusion.

Energy Conversion
(i) Mechanical → electrical = Electric generator (dynamo)
(ii) Electrical → mechanical = fan, washing machine, mixer
(iii) Electrical → heat = heater, oven, geyser, toaster
(iv) heat → electrical = thermocouple
(v) electrical → sound = loudspeaker
(vi) sound → electrical = microphone
(vii) light → chemical = photosynthesis
(viii) light → electrical = photoelectric cell

Energy Sources
Renewable or non conventional source Non-Renewable or conventional source
A natural source providing us energy continuously These are the sources from which energy
is called renewable source of energy. cannot be continuously obtained over a long
period of time.

These sources can be regenerated. These sources cannot be regenerated.

E.g. Sun, wind, flowing water, tides, Oceans, E.g. - Coal, petroleum, natural gas
geothermal spots, nuclear fuel.

Work, Energy and Power

Law of Conservation of Energy
Energy can neither be created nor can it be destroyed. It only changes from one form to another.
A
k = 0, u = mgh O

X
h max. PE
k = mgx, u = mg(h–x)
C B
B
h A h
(h–x) k = mgh, u = 0
u = mgh u = 0 u = mgh
C
k=0 k = mgh k = 0
Free fall of body motion of simple pendulum

Formula Sheet
(i) Work(w)

W – FScosθ
(ii) Power(p)
w
P = P=F×V
t
p → power, w → work, t → time f → force, v → avg. speed
(iii) Kinetic energy (K)
1 p2
K = mv 2 K =
2 2m
K-K.E., m → mass, v → velocity, p → momentum
(iv) Gravitation P.E. (U)
U = mgh

m → mass, g → acceleration due to gravity, h → height

(v) Work energy theorem.
1 1
W  mv 2  mu2
2 2
 Current Year Questions (CYQs)
Work, Energy and Power
1. A force of 50 N makes an angle of 60° with the direction of motion. If displacement is

2 m, work done is:

(A) 100 J

(B) 50 J

(C) 25 J

(D) 0 J

Ans (Hint): W=FS cosθ = 50 × 2 × 0.5 = 50 J

2. If the velocity of a body becomes 3 times, its kinetic energy becomes:

(A) 3 times

(B) 6 times

(C) 9 times

(D) 12 times

Ans (Hint): (C) KE ∝ v² → becomes 9 times.

3. The unit “kilowatt-hour” is a unit of:

(A) Power

(B) Time

(C) Energy

(D) Current

Ans (Hint): (C) – 1 kWh = 3.6 × 10⁶ J.

4. Assertion: A body moving with constant speed in a circle has changing kinetic energy.
Reason: Speed is constant but direction changes.
(A) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation for
Assertion.
(B) Both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not the correct explanation for
Assertion.
(C) Assertion is true, but Reason is false.
(D) Assertion is false, but Reason is true.
Ans (Hint): (D) Assertion is false, but Reason is true.

5. Match the following-

Column A Column B
1. Work done a. 1 eV
2. Kinetic energy b. Translational motion
3. Energy of an electron c. ½ mv²
4. 1 calorie d. Force ⟂ displacement
5. Falling stone e. 4.2 J
(A) 1-d,2-c,3-a,4-e,5-b
(B) 1-a,2-b,3-d,4-c,5-e
(C) 1-c,2-a,3-d,4-a,5-e
(D) 1-b,2-d,3-a,4-c,5-e
Ans (Hint): (A) 1-d,2-c,3-a,4-e,5-b

6. What type of energy transformation takes place in:

(i) Electric bulb
(ii) Dry Cell
Electric bulb — Electrical energy into light energy.
Ans (Hint):
Dry cell — Chemical energy into electrical energy.

7. (i) Define power and state its S.I. Unit.

(ii) How is the unit horse power related to the SI unit of power?
Ans (Hint):
(i) The rate of doing work is called power, and the SI unit of power is watt (W).
(ii) 1 HP = 746 W.
8. Differentiate between the potential energy(U) and the kinetic energy(K).

Ans (Hint):

Potential Energy Kinetic Energy

• The energy possessed by a body • It is the energy possessed by a

by virtue of its state of position body by virtue of its state of

is known as potential energy. motion.

• Potential energy of a body is • Kinetic energy of a body is equal

equal to the work done on the to the amount of work done by

body to lift it to a height h. the body before it comes to rest.

• A body possesses this energy • Kinetic energy of the body

when it is not in motion. increases by increasing the

Speed of the body.

9. A boy weighing 50 kgf climbs up a staircase of 25 steps, each 18 cm high, in 4

minutes.

A girl weighing 40 kgf climbs the same staircase in 3 minutes.

Calculate:

(i) the work done by each,

(ii) the power developed by each,

(iii) who is more powerful.

Ans (Hint): (i) Work Done

Formula:

Work done = weight × vertical height

Boy:

Work done by boy = 50 kgf × 4.5 m = 225 kgf·m

Girl:

Work done by girl = 40 kgf × 4.5 m = 180 kgf·m

 (ii) Power Developed

Formula:

Power = Work done ÷ Time

Convert time into seconds:

Boy’s time = 4 min = 4 × 60 = 240 s

Girl’s time = 3 min = 3 × 60 = 180 s

Boy:

Power = 225 ÷ 240 = 0.9375 kgf·m/s

Girl:

Power = 180 ÷ 180 = 1.0 kgf·m/s

(iii) Who is more powerful?

Power of girl > Power of boy

Therefore, the girl is more powerful.

10. In a house 3 bulbs of 25 W each are used for 5 h a day. Calculate the units of electricity

consumed in a month of 31 days. Also, find the total expenditure, if 1 unit of electricity

costs ₹2.50.

Ans (Hint): Given, power of each bulb = 25 W, time = 5 h

Cost of 1 unit of electricity = ₹2.50

Electric energy consumed by 3 bulbs in a day = power × time = 3×25×5=375 Wh ...

Electricity consumed in 31 days

=375 × 31 = 11625 Wh

= 11.625 kWh = 11.625 units

 Cost of electricity consumed = 11.625 units × ₹2.50

= ₹29.06


 Machine

Machine
It is a device by which we can either overcome a large resistive force (or load) at some point by
applying a small force (or effort) at a convenient point and in a desired direction or by which we
can obtain a gain in speed.

Uses of Machine
Multiply force
To change direction of the force
To increase or decrease speed

Terms Related to Machine

(i) Load: The resistive or opposing force to be overcome, by machine.
(ii) Effort: The force applied on machine to overcome load.
(iii) Mechanical advantage (M.A.): Ratio of the load (L) to the effort (E)

M.A. =
( )
Load L
Effort ( E )
It has no unit
M.A. > 1 ⇒ force multiplier
M.A. < 1 ⇒ gains speed
M.A. = 1 ⇒ change in direction of effort.
(iv) Velocity Ratio (V.R.): Ratio of distance moved by effort (dE) to the distance moved by load
(dL).

V.R. =
Velocity of effort (V )
E

Velocity of load (V )
L

VE dE
V.R.
= =
VL dL
It has no unit
V.R. < 1 ⇒ gains speed
V.R. > 1 ⇒ force multiplier
V.R. = 1 ⇒ changes direction of effort
 (v) Work Input (Winput): The work done on the machine by the effort.
(vi) Work Output (Woutput): The work done by machine on the load.
(vii) Efficiency (η): It is the ratio of work done on load by machine to the work done on machine
by effort.
Work output
Efficiency η =

()
Work input
It can be expressed in percentage, it has no unit.
Woutput
=η × 100
Winput

Ideal Machine
An ideal machine is that in which there is no loss of energy in any manner. The efficiency of ideal
machine is 100%.

Relation Between η, M.A. and V.R.

M.A.
η=
V.R.
Machine

Lever Pulley

Levers
A lever is a rigid straight (or bent) bar which is capable of turning about a fixed axis.
According to principle of lever,
Movement of load about fulcrum = Movement of effort about fulcrum

L × dL =E × dE
A Effort Arm Load Arm B
F
E L

Kinds of Levers
Class I Class II Class III
E E
E F L
F L F L
M.A. = 1, M.A. < 1, M.A. > 1 M.A. > 1 M.A. < 1
V.R. = 1, V.R. < 1, V.R. > 1 V.R. > 1 V.R. < 1
 E.g., A pair of scissors, handle E.g., Bottle opener, wheel E.g., Sugar tongs, foot treadle,
of water pump, a catapult, barrow, paper cutter, raising spade lifting load, forearm
nodding of human head weight of human body on toes. used for lifting a load.
Pulley: It is a wheel on an axle that is designed to support movement and change the direction of a
cable or belt along its circumference. A set of pulleys assembled so that they rotate independently
on the same axle to form a block is called pulley system.
Single Fixed Pulley: A pulley which has its axis of rotation fixed in position.
Load T
M.A.
= = = 1
Effort T
dE T T
d
V.R.
= = = 1
dL d
L E
M.A.
=η = 1 or 100%
V.R.
with the use of single fixed pulley effort can be applied in more convenient direction.
Single Movable Pulley: A pulley whose axis of rotation is not fixed. E
T=E
Load 2T T
M.A.
= = = 2 T
Effort T
dE 2d
V.R.
= = = 2
dL d

M.A. 2
η= = = 1 or 100% L
V.R. 2
It is used as force multiplier
Combination of pulleys
(1) using one fixed pulley and other movable pulleys:
M.A. = 2n
V.R. = 2n
n ⇒ number of movable pulleys T3 T T
(2) Using several pulleys in two blocks (block T3 T3
and tackle system) E
T2 T
Load nT
M.A.
= = = n T2 E
Effort T
T T
dE nd T
V.R
= = = n T1
dL d
T1
M.A. n
Efficiency η= = = 1 or 100%
V.R. n
n = total number of pulleys
Effect of weight of pulleys on M.A., V.R. and η L
L
 L nE − W W
M.A.= = = n−
E E E
n ⇒ no. of pulleys, w ⇒ weight of lower block (total)

Formula Sheet
(1) Mechanical advantage:

Load(L)
M.A. =
Effort(E)

(2) Velocity Ratio: E

T=E
velocity of effort (VE ) dE T
V.R. = T
velocity of load (VL ) dL

(3) Efficiency T
T
Woutput
η= L
Winput L E

Woutput

In% η
= × 100
Winput
M.A.
(4) η =
V.R.
(5) Principle of Lever ⇒ L × dL = E × dE
E
(6) Class I MA = 1, MA > 1, MA < 1
L
E
Kinds of Lever Class II MA > 1
L
E
Class III MA < 1 T T
L

T
Load Arm
M.A. =
Effort Arm T3 E
T3 T T
dE T3 T
V.R. =
dL E
T2
(7) Single Fixed Pulley T2
M.A. = 1
T1
V.R. = 1
T1

η = 1 or 100% L

L
(8) Single Movable Pulley
M.A. = 2
V.R. = 2

η = 1 or 100%
(9) Combination of pulleys
1 fixed & n movable pulleys
M.A. = 2n
V.R. = 2n
(10) Block and tackle system
n number of pulleys
M.A. = n
V.R. = n
If total weight of pulleys in lower back is W
W
M.A. =
n− , V.R. =
n
E
W
η= 1 −
nE
 Current Year Questions (CYQs)
Physics

1. The mechanical advantage of a lever is 4. If the load is 200 N, the effort required to lift
the load will be:
(A) 50 N
(B) 200 N
(C) 800 N
(D) 400 N
Ans (Hint): (A) MA = L/EE
L 200
E= = = 50N
MA 4

2. The velocity ratio of a single movable pulley system is:

(A) 1
(B) 2
(C) 0.5
(D) Infinite
Ans (Hint): (B) VR = 2 for a movable pulley.

3. Which of the following is an example of a third-class lever?

(A) Scissors
(B) Tongs
(C) Fishing rod
(D) Wheelbarrow
Ans (Hint): (C) Fishing rod is a third-class lever.

4. Assertion: A single movable pulley is used to change the direction of the applied effort.
Reason: A single movable pulley has a velocity ratio of 2 and acts as a force multiplier.
(A) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation for
Assertion.
(B) Both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not the correct explanation for
Assertion.
 (C) Assertion is true, but Reason is false.
(D) Assertion is false, but Reason is true.
Ans (Hint): (D) Assertion is false, but Reason is true.

Reason: A single movable pulley does not change the direction of effort; the effort is applied

upwards. The Assertion is false. The Reason is true: VR = 2 and (force multiplier).

5. Match the following-

Column A Column B

1. Nutcracker a. VR = 1, Changes direction of effort.

2. Single Fixed Pulley b. VR > 1, Force multiplier

3. Velocity Ratio c. Always less than 1 for force multipliers

4. MA of a Class III Lever d. Distance moved by Effort / Distance moved by Load

5. Block and Tackle System e. Class II Lever

(A) 1-e,2-a,3-d,4-c,5-b

(B) 1-a,2-b,3-d,4-c,5-e

(C) 1-c,2-a,3-d,4-a,5-e

(D) 1-b,2-d,3-a,4-c,5-e

Ans (Hint): (A) 1-d,2-c,3-a,4-e,5-b

1. (e) Nutcracker is a Class II lever (F-L-E).

2. (a) Single Fixed Pulley has VR = 1 and is used to change the direction

of effort.

3. (d) VR is the ratio of effort distance (de) to load distance (d₁).

4. (c) Class III levers have Effort arm Load arm, so MA < 1

5. (b) Block and Tackle systems have and are used as force multipliers

VR>1.

6. A gardener uses a pair of forceps (tongs) to gently hold a seedling.

(i) State the class of lever represented by forceps.

(ii) Is it used to gain force or speed?

Ans (Hint): (i) Class III lever (Fulcrum-Effort-Load, F-E-L).

(ii) It is used to gain speed/distance (a small movement of the effort hand

results in a larger movement of the load/tips).

7. State the relation between mechanical advantage (MA), velocity ratio (VR), and

efficiency (n) for a practical machine.

 MA 
Ans (Hint): η=   100
 VR 
For practical machines, eta < 1 meaning MA is always less than VR due to

energy losses.

8. An effort of 10 kgf is applied on a machine through a distance of 100 cm, when a load
of 100 kgf moves through a distance of 5 cm.
Calculate the
(i) velocity ratio
(ii) mechanical advantage
(iii) efficiency of the machine
Ans (Hint): Given, effort, 12E = 10 kgf , load, L = 100 kgf
Distance moved by effort, dE = 100 cm and distance moved by load,
dL =5 cm.
(i) Velocity Ratio (VR)
Distance through which the effort moves (dE ) 100 cm
VR = = = 20
Distance through which the load moves (dL ) 5 cm

(ii) Mechanical Advantage (MA)

Load (L ) 100 kgf
MA = = = 10
Effort (E ) 10 kgf

(iii) Percentage efficiency, η

MA 10
η=  100 =  100 = 50%
VR 20
9. Diagram given in below is representing a pulley system having a velocity ratio 3 and an
efficiency of 80%. Calculate the mechanical advantage and efficiency.

Ans (Hint): Since, Mechanical Advantage,

Load 80
MA = = VR  η = 3  = 2.4
Effort 100
load 300
Or efficiency = = = 125N
2.4 2.4

10. (i) Draw a diagram consisting of 4 pulleys in block and tackle arrangement.
(ii) State how many strands of tackle support the load?
(iii) Find the mechanical advantage of the system stating the assumptions made.
(iv) If load is pulled up by a distance of 1 m, how much does the effort arm move?
Ans (Hint): (i)

(ii) Four strands of tackle support the load.

(iii) If we neglect the friction of the pulleys and weight of the pulleys in the
lower block, then
L = 4T and E = T
L 4T
 MA = = =4
E T
(iv) If load is pulled up by a distance 1 m, the effort end moves by 4 m.


 Refraction of Light
at Plane Surface
Refraction of Light
The change in the direction of the path o light, when it passes from one transparent medium to
another transparent medium is called refraction.

i i
Rarer Denser 90°
Rarer
Denser
r Rarer Denser
r

∠i > ∠r ∠i < ∠r ∠i = ∠r = 0°
Refracted beam has change in speed (v), wavelength (λ), direction but frequency (υ ) remains
constant.

Laws of Refraction
(1) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in same
plane.
(2) The ratio of sine of angle of incidence (i) to the sine of the angle of refraction (r) is constant
for given pair of media.

sini
= constant = 1 µ2 (R.I. of second medium w.r.t. first medium)
sinr
This is also known as Snell’s law.

Refractive Index
The refractive index of second medium with respect to the first medium is defined as the ratio of
sine of angle of incidence in first medium to the sine of angle of refraction in the second medium.
R.I. or absolute R.I. has no unit.
Speed of light in vacuum or air (c)
µ=
Speed of light in that medium (v)

c fλair λair
µ= = =
v fλmedium λmedium
Relative refractive index
It is the ratio of speed of light in one medium to the speed of light in second medium.
v1 µ2
1 µ 2 or n 21 = =
v2 µ1
1
Note: 1 µ2 =
2 µ1
Factors affecting refractive index of a medium
(1) Nature of medium (optical density)
(2) Temperature of medium (temperature ↑ v↑ µ↓)
(3) Colour or wavelength of light (µv > µR)

Refraction of Light Through a Glass Slab

Incident ray

i Air (rarer)

A B
Glass slab
r (denser)
Refracted
ray
r'

C
D
e Air (rarer)

Emergent Lateral displacement

ray
Lateral displacement depends upon
(1) Thickness of glass block
(2) Angle of incidence
(3) Refractive index of glass
tsin (i - r )
Lateral displacement =
cosr

Refraction of light through prism

Refraction Refracting
surface A surface

Base

Class-X MATH
Prism: It is a transparent medium bounded by five plane surfaces with a triangular cross section.
The different relation ∠ in prism
(i) δ = ( ∠i + ∠e )- ( ∠r1 + ∠r2 )
(ii) ∠i + ∠e = ∠A + δ A
d
(iii) ∠r1 + ∠r2 = ∠A e
i r1 r2
i = angle of incidence
e = angle of emergence
δ = angle of deviation
r1, r2 = angle of refraction

Factors affecting δ:
(1) angle of incidence ( ∠i )
(2) material of prism (µ)

Angle of deviation →
(3) angle of prism ( ∠A )
(4) colour of wavelength of light (λ)

Relation between i and s:

δm
In the position of minimum deviation the refracted ray inside the
prism is parallel to its base, if prism is equilateral.

δ = δm , ∠i = ∠e, δ m = 2i - A, δ = ( µ - 1 ) A Angle of incidence →

Application of Refraction of Light

Real and apparent depth: An object placed in a denser medium
when view from a rarer medium appears to be at a depth lesser r
Apparent air
than its real depth. depth
Shift O = Real depth – Apparent depth i denser
 1  Real medium
Shift = real depth  1- 
 a µm  depth
O
Shift by which the object appears to be raised depends:
(1) Refractive index of medium µ↑ Shift↑
(2) Thickness of medium↑ Shift↑
(3) Wavelength (color) of light λ↑ shift↓ µV > µR shift V > shift R

Total Internal Reflection

Rarer
When a ray of light travelling in a denser medium is incident at the
Denser Reflected
surface of rarer medium at the angle of incidence greater than critical i i
incident ray
angle for the given pair of media, the ray is totally reflected back into
the denser medium. ray i > c

Refraction of Light at Plane Surface

Condition for TIR
(1) Light must travel from denser to rarer medium
(2) ∠i > ∠c

Critical angle ∠r = 90°

Rarer
The angle of incidence in denser medium for which the angle of refraction
Denser
in rarer medium is 90°. It is denoted by c. C

Factors affecting c
(1) Colour of light λ↑ c↑
(2) Temperature↑ c↑

Relation between critical angel and refractive index

sini
R.I. of rarer medium w.r.t. denser medium = d µr =
sinr
sinc
If ∠i = ∠c, ∠r =90° d µr = ⇒ d µr = sinc
sin90°
R.I. of denser medium w.r.t. rarer medium
3
For glass a µ g =
2
1 , 2
r µd = c = sin-1   = 42°
sinc 3
Total internal reflection in a prism
(a) To deviate light through 90°: This action of prism is used in periscope, where a total reflecting
prism is preferred over a plane mirror.
(b) To deviate light through 180°: This action is used in binocular and camera to invert the
image without the loss intensity.
(c) To erect the inverted image with deviation: A prism used in this manner is called erecting
prism. This action of prism is used in a slide projector.

45°
90°
45° 45° 90°
45° 45° object
45° 45°
90° 45°
45° 45°
object image image
(a) (b) (c)

Prim of angle (30°, 60° and 90°)

It can be used to deviate a light ray through an angle less than 60° by TIR.

Class-X MATH
 30° 30° 30°
30°
30° 30°
60°
90° 60° 90° 60° 90° 60°

Some Consequences of Total Internal Reflection

(1) On hot sunny day, a driver may see a pool of water (or wet road) in front of him at some
distance. (Mirage)
(2) A crack in glass vessel often shines like mirror.
(3) A piece of diamond sparkles when viewed from certain directions.
(4) An optical fibre is used to transmit a light signal over a long distance without much loss of
energy.

Formula Sheet
µ2 v1 c Real depth
(1) 1 µ2 = = , µ= , µ=
µ1 v2 v Apparent depth

tsin (i - r )
(2) Lateral displacement =
cosr
 A + δm 
sin  
(3) R.I. of prism µ =  2  , δ = 2i - A , δ = ( µ - 1 ) A
min
A
sin  
2
 1 
(4) Shift = real depth 1- 
 a µm 

1
(5) µ =
sinc

Refraction of Light at Plane Surface

 Current Year Questions (CYQs)
Physics

Refraction of Light at Plane Surfaces

1. When a ray of light passes from air into glass, it:
(A) bends away from the normal
(B) bends towards the normal
(C) does not bend
(D) bends at 90°
Ans (Hint): (B) bends towards the normal

2. The refractive index of a medium is defined as:

(A) ratio of real depth to apparent depth
(B) ratio of speed of light in vacuum to speed in medium
(C) ratio of angle of incidence to angle of refraction
(D) ratio of sine of incidence to sine of refraction
Ans (Hint): (B) ratio of speed of light in vacuum to speed in medium

3. A ray of light passes through a rectangular glass slab. The emergent ray is:
(A) parallel to the incident ray
(B) perpendicular to the incident ray
(C) bent towards the normal
(D) bent away from the normal
Ans (Hint): (A) parallel to the incident ray

4. Assertion: A coin kept at the bottom of a beaker of water appears raised.

Reason: Light rays bend away from the normal when they travel from water to air.
(A) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation for
Assertion.
(B) Both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not the correct explanation for
Assertion.
(C) Assertion is true, but Reason is false.
(D) Assertion is false, but Reason is true.
Ans (Hint): (A) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation
for Assertion.

5. Match Column I with Column II:

Column A Column B

1. Apparent depth a. Parallel displacement of ray in slab

2. Lateral shift b. Coin appears raised in water

3. Refractive index c. Ratio of speed of light in vacuum to medium

4. Refraction d. Bending of light at interface

(A) 1-b,2-a,3-d,4-c

(B) 1-a,2-b,3-d,4-c

(C) 1-c,2-a,3-d,4-a

(D) 1-b,2-a,3-c,4-d

Ans (Hint): (D) 1-b,2-a,3-c,4-d

6. Define refraction of light.

Ans (Hint): Refraction is the phenomenon of bending of light when it passes obliquely from

one transparent medium to another due to change in its speed.

7. Why does a pencil partly immersed in water appear bent at the surface?

Ans (Hint): Due to refraction, light rays from the submerged part bend away from the

normal as they pass from water to air. This makes the pencil appear displaced

or bent at the water surface.

8. State Snell's Law of Refraction with its mathematical expression.

Ans (Hint): Snell's Law states that the ratio of sine of angle of incidence to sine of angle of

refraction is constant for a given pair of media.

sin i
= n21
sin r
where n21 is the refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1.
9. A ray of light enters a glass slab of thickness 5 cm with refractive index 1.5. Explain why
the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray but laterally displaced.
Ans (Hint): Inside the slab, the ray bends towards the normal and then away from the normal
at the second interface. The emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray because
the two refractions cancel the angular deviation. However, the path inside the slab
is shifted sideways, causing a lateral displacement of the emergent ray.

10. Water in a pond appears to be only three-quarters of its actual depth.

(A) What property of light is responsible for this observation? Illustrate your answer
with the help of a ray diagram.
(B) How is the refractive index of water calculated from its real and apparent depths?
Ans (Hint): (a) Water in a pond appears to be only three-quarters of its actual depth due
to the refraction of light while travelling from one medium to another.
The light rays suffer refraction while travelling from denser medium (water
or glass) to rarer medium (air), so it bends away from the normal. Below is
the ray diagram for this:

(b) Let us say an object (B) is at the bottom of a pond. Consider a ray of light
BC from the object that moves from water to air.
The ray now moves away from the normal N along the path CD, after
refraction from the water surface.
When we produce CD it appears from the point B'.
The virtual image of the object B appears at B'.
Real depth
Hence, we get, Refractive index of water = .
Apparent depth


 Refraction
Through a Lens
Lens
A lens is a transparent refracting medium bounded by either the two spherical surfaces or one
surface spherical and other surface plane.
Types of Lens

Convex Concave
(Converging lens) (Diverging lens)

Terms related to a Lens

(1) Centre of curvature: It is the centre of sphere whose part is a lens surface. It is denoted by C.
(2) Radius of curvature: The radius of the sphere whose part is the lens surface.
(3) Principal axis: Line joining the centre of curvature of the two surfaces of lens.
(4) Optical centre: Point on the principal axis of lens such that a ray of light passing through this
point emerges parallel to its direction of incidence.
(5) Principal focus:

Principal focus Second principal focus

Point on principal axis as which the rays

Point on principal axis of lens at which the
coming parallel to principal axis converge or
rays starting from or directed to become
appears to diverge appears to diverge from
parallel to principal axis after refraction.
the lens.

F1
F1 F2
F2

(6) Focal length: The distance between focus and optical centre of lens.
(7) Focal plane: The plane passing through the focus and perpendicular to the principal axis.
Principal Rays for Ray Diagram

O
F1 F2 O
F1 F2 F1 O F2

Convex lens Convex lens Convex lens

F2 O F1 F2 O F1 F2 O F1

Concave lens Concave lens Concave lens

Image Formation by Convex Lens

Q Q
F2 2F2
P‘ 2F2 F2 P‘
F1 C F2 P 2F F1 O P F1 O
1
2F1
Q‘ Q‘

Q Q Q‘

F2 P
P′ F2
F1 C Q
2F1 P F1 O 2F2
P‘ F 1 P O F2
Parallel rays
Q′ to infinity

[Link]. Position of object Position of image Size of image Nature of image

1. At infinity At F Point sized Real & inverted

2. Beyond 2F Between F & 2F Diminished Real & inverted
3. At 2F At 2F Same size Real & inverted
4. Between 2F & F Beyond 2F Enlarged Real & inverted
5. At F At infinity Highly enlarge Real & inverted
On the same side of lens as the
6. Between F & O Enlarged Virtual & erect
object

Refraction Through a Lens

 Applications of Convex Lens

To correct far sightedness Projectors Magnifying

glass
Camera lens

Image Formation by Concave Lens

P
P'

F2 O F1 Q F2 Q' O F1

Nature of
[Link]. Position of object Position of image Size of image
image
Virtual &
1. At infinity At F, same side as the object Diminished
erect
Between lens & Between F & O, on same side Virtual &
2. Diminished
infinity as the object erect

Application of Concave Lens

Door peepholes or spy holes To correct near sightedness Binoculars

Sign Convention and Lens Formula

incident ray Positive incident ray Positive
Object Object
Positive Positive

F1 O F2 F2 O F1
Negative Negative
Negative Negative
Direction Direction
opposite to opposite to
incident ray incident ray

Class-X PHYSICS PW
Lens Formula
1 1 1 f → focal length
= -
f v u u → object distance
v → image distance

Linear Magnification
The ratio of length of image to the length of object (both perpendicular to principal axis)
hI v
m= =
hO u

Power of a Lens
The deviation of the incident light rays produced by a lens on refraction through it, is a measure
of its power.
1
Power of lens =
focal length

It is measured in diopter (D).

Formula Sheet
1 1 1
(1) = -
f v u
hI v
(2) m = = |m|
hO u

m ⇒ + ⇒ virtual, erect image

m ⇒ − ⇒ real, inverted image
|m| > 1 |m| = 1 |m| < 1
1
(3) P = same diminished
f enlarge
image size image

P ⇒ + ⇒ Convex lens
⇒ − ⇒ Concave lens

Refraction Through a Lens

 10 Most Important Question
Physics
1. The focal length of a convex lens of power +5 D is:
(A) 5 cm
(B) 10 cm
(C) 20 cm
(D) 25 cm
Ans (Hint): (C) 20 CM
100 100
f = = = 20cm.
P 5

2. A convex lens forms a real, inverted image of an object placed at 2F. The image is
formed at:
(A) F
(B) Between F and 2F
(C) At 2F
(D) At infinity
Ans (Hint): (C) At 2F

Object at 2F → Image at 2F, same size, real and inverted.

3. A concave lens always produces:

(A) Real and diminished image
(B) Virtual and diminished image
(C) Real and magnified image
(D) Virtual and magnified image
Ans (Hint): (B) Virtual and diminished image.
4. Assertion: A convex lens can form both real and virtual images.
Reason: The nature of the image depends on the position of the object.
(A) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation for
Assertion.
(B) Both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not the correct explanation for
Assertion.
(C) Assertion is true, but Reason is false.
(D) Assertion is false, but Reason is true.
Ans (Hint): (A) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct
explanation for Assertion.
Reason: A single movable pulley does not change the direction of effort; the effort is applied
upwards. The Assertion is false. The Reason is true: VR = 2 and (force multiplier).

5. Match the following-

Column A Column B
1. Object at infinity a. Image at 2F, same size
2. Object at 2F b. Image at F, highly diminished
3. Object between F and 2F c. Image beyond 2F, magnified
4. Object between F and O d. Image virtual, erect, magnified
(A) 1-c,2-a,3-d,4-a
(B) 1-a,2-b,3-d,4-c
(C) 1-b,2-a,3-c,4-d
(D) 1-b,2-d,3-a,4-c
Ans (Hint): (C) 1-b,2-a,3-c,4-d

6. Define focal length of a lens.

Ans (Hint): The focal length of a lens is the distance between its optical centre and the
principal focus, where parallel rays of light converge (convex) or appear to
diverge (concave).

7. Why does a convex lens converge light rays while a concave lens diverges them?
Ans (Hint): Convex lens is thicker at the centre, so rays bend towards the principal axis
after refraction. Concave lens is thinner at the centre, so rays bend away from
the axis, appearing to diverge.
8. Define the term principal foci of a convex lens and illustrate your answer with the aid
of proper diagrams.
Ans (Hint): A light ray can enter a lens from either side, therefore, a lens has two principal
foci, one on either side of the lens. These are known as first focal point(or first
focus) F₁ and the second focal point (or second focus) F2.
For a convex lens, the first focal point is a point F₁ on the principal axis of the
lens such that the rays of light coming from it, after refraction through the
lens, become parallel to the principal axis of the lens.

For a convex lens, the second focal point is a point F2 on the principal axis of
the lens such that the rays of light incident parallel to the principal axis, after
refraction from the lens, pass through it.

9. Define the term principal foci of a concave lens and show them with the help of proper
diagrams.
Ans (Hint): A light ray can enter a lens from either side, therefore, a lens has two principal
foci, one on either side of the lens. These are known as first focal point(or first
focus) F₁ and the second focal point (or second focus) F2.
For a concave lens, the first focal point is a point F₁ on the principal axis of a
lens such that the incident rays of light appearing to meet at it, after refraction
from the lens become parallel to the principal axis of the lens.
 For a concave lens, the second focal point is a point F2 on the principal axis of
the lens such that the rays of light incident parallel to the principal axis, after
refraction from the lens, appear to be diverging from this point.

10. The diagram in figure shows experimental setup for determination of the focal length of
a lens using a plane mirror.

(i) Draw two rays from the point O of the object to show the formation of image I at O
itself.
(ii) What is the size of the image I?
(iii) State two more characteristics of the image I.
(iv) Name the distance of the object O from the optical centre of the lens.
(v) To what point will the rays return if the mirror is moved away from the lens by a
distance equal to the focal length of the lens?
Ans (Hint): (i) Below ray diagram shows the formation of image I at O itself:
(ii) The size of the image is same as that of the object O.
(iii) The image I is inverted and real.
(iv) The distance of object O from the optical centre of the lens will be equal
to the focal length of the lens.
(v) The position of plane mirror relative to the lens does not affect the position
of image as long as rays fall normally on the plane mirror M.


 Spectrum of
light
Deviation Produced by Triangular Prism
Light ray while passing through a prism gets deviated to time while passing
through the two refracting surface. The total deviation (D) with respect to D
incident ray is given as: i d2
d1
D = δ1 + δ 2
Depends on

1. ∠i
  at first 2. Angle of 3. R.I.
  of prims
surface prism(A) (color of light)

Dependence of angle deviation on colour of light (λ)

For different colours of light the R.I. of a given transparent medium is different.
λ↑ µ↓
λred > λviolet ∴µ violet > µred
As a result prism deviate violet light most and red light least.
δviolet > δred

Dispersion of White Light by Glass Prism

The phenomenon of splitting of white light into its constituent colours when it passes through a
prism is called dispersion.
This band of seven colours obtained VIBGYOR, (V = violet, I = indigo, B = blue, G = green, Y =
yellow, O = orange, R = red) is called spectrum.
A
Screen
White light R
beam O
Y
G
B
I
V
B C
Dispersion of white light occurs at the first surface of prism.
Deviation of light occurs at both the surfaces of prism.
The prism does not produce colours but it only splits the various colours present in the light
incident on it.
Wavelength and frequency of different colours of white light
Colour Wavelength range (Å) Frequency range (1014)
Violet 4000 – 4460 7.5 – 6.73
Indigo 4460 – 4640 6.73 – 6.47
Blue 4640 – 5000 6.47 – 6.01
Green 5000 – 5780 6.01 – 5.19
Yellow 5780 – 5920 5.19 – 5.07
Orange 5920 – 6200 5.07 – 4.84
Red 6200 – 8000 4.84 – 3.75

Electromagnetic Spectrum and Its Broad Classification

The orderly distribution of electromagnetic radiations according to their wavelength or frequency
is called electromagnetic spectrum.
10–2 10 400 800 106 1010 Wavelength in nm

Gamma x-rays Ultra Visible Infra Microwave Radio waves

rays violet red

3 ×108 3 ×1016 3 ×1011 3 ×107

7.5 ×1014

3.75 ×1014

Frequency in Hz

(1) Electromagnetic wave do not require material medium for their propagation.
(2) They travel with same speed in vacuum (c = 3 × 108 m/s)
(3) Exhibit property of reflection and refraction.
(4) They do not deflect by electric and magnetic fields.
(5) These are transverse waves.

Properties and uses of different rays

Infrared rays:
‰ Heat waves, i.e., produced from heat radiation bodies and molecules.
‰ High penetration power – frequency ⇒ 3 × 1011 Hz to 4 × 1014Hz
Uses:
� Physical therapy � Satellite for army purpose
� Weather forecasting � Producing dehydrated fruits
� Solar water heat, solar cells and cooker
Ultraviolet rays:
‰ Produced by special lamps and very hot bodies.
‰ Sun is important source of UV rays.
‰ Frequency 1014 to 1016 Hz

Class-X PHYSICS P
Uses:
� Burglar alarm � Checking mineral sample
� To study molecular structure � To kill germs in water
� Surgical instruments (to sterilise)
Relation between frequency, speed and wavelength of electromagnetic spectrum
speed of EM wave ( v )
frequency (ν ) =
wavelength ( λ )

Scattering of Light
Scattering is the process of absorption and then re-emission of light energy.
The air molecules of size smaller than the wavelength of incident light absorb the energy of incident
light and then re-emit it without change in its wavelength. The air molecules of size bigger than
wavelength of incident light scatter the light of all wavelengths of white light to he same extent.
1
I∝
λ4
I → Intensity of scattered light,   λ → Wavelength of light

Blue Colour of Sky

The sky appears blue during the day because the particles in the atmosphere scatter shorter
wavelengths of light particularly blue more than the longer wavelengths like red. This scattered
blue light reaches our eyes.

Formula Sheet
speed 1
� frequency = �  I ∝ �  λ ↑⇒ v ↑⇒ µ ↓⇒ δ ↑
wavelength λ4

Spectrum
 Current Year Questions (CYQs)
Physics
1. The band of colours obtained when white light is dispersed by a prism is called:

(A) Rainbow

(B) Spectrum

(C) Reflection

(D) Refraction

Ans (Hint): (B) Spectrum

2. Which colour of visible light has the shortest wavelength?

(A) Red

(B) Blue

(C) Violet

(D) Green

Ans (Hint): (C) Violet

3. In the visible spectrum, the colour with the highest speed in glass is:

(A) Red

(B) Violet

(C) Blue

(D) Green

Ans (Hint): (B) Red light is least refracted, hence travels fastest in glass.
4. Assertion: A prism disperses white light into its constituent colours.
Reason: Different colours of light have different speeds in glass, hence different
refractive indices.
(A) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation for
Assertion.
(B) Both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not the correct explanation for
Assertion.
(C) Assertion is true, but Reason is false.
(D) Assertion is false, but Reason is true.
Ans (Hint): (A) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation
for Assertion.

5. Match the following-

Column A Column B
1. Red light a. Maximum deviation in prism
2. Violet light b. Minimum deviation in prism
3. Dispersion c. Splitting of white light into colours
4. Spectrum d. Band of colours obtained after dispersion
(A) 1-c,2-a,3-d,4-a
(B) 1-a,2-b,3-d,4-c
(C) 1-b,2-a,3-c,4-d
(D) 1-b,2-d,3-a,4-c
Ans (Hint): (C) 1-b,2-a,3-c,4-d

6. Define dispersion of light.

Ans (Hint): Dispersion of light is the phenomenon of splitting of white light into its
constituent colours (VIBGYOR) when it passes through a prism due to different
refractive indices for different colours.

7. Why does a prism produce a spectrum but a glass slab does not?
Ans (Hint): A prism has non-parallel refracting surfaces, so different colours deviate by
different amounts, producing a spectrum. A glass slab has parallel surfaces, so
the emergent rays are parallel and no spectrum is formed.
8. Calculate the frequency of yellow light of wavelength 550 nm. The speed of light is
3 × 108 ms-1.
Ans (Hint): As we know,
Speed of light (c) = Frequency (f) x Wavelength (1)
Given,
 = 550 nm
= 550 × 10-9 m
= 0.55 × 10-6 m
C = 3 × 108 ms-1
Substituting the values in the formula, we get
3 × 108 = f × 0.55 × 10–6

3  108
f =
0.55  10 −6
 f = 5.45  1014 Hz
Hence, we get,
Frequency = 5.4×1014 Hz

9. The wavelength of X-rays is 0.01 A. Calculate it's frequency. State the assumption
made, if any.
Ans (Hint): Assumption Speed of X-rays = 3 x 108 ms-1
As we know,
Speed of wave (c) = frequency (f) x wavelength (λ)
Given,
c = 3 × 108 ms-1
 = 0.01A
As 1Å = 10-10 m
Hence,
 = 0.01 Å = 0.01 × 10-10 m
Substituting the values in the formula above we get,

(
3  108 = f  0.01  1010 )
3  108
f =
0.01  10 −10
 3  108
f =
1  10 −12
 f = 3  10 20 Hz
Hence,
Frequency of x – rays = 3× 1020Hz

10. What are infrared radiations? How are they detected? State one use of these radiations.
Ans (Hint): The electromagnetic waves of wavelength A = 8000 A to 107 Å are called infrared
radiations.
For the detection of infrared radiations
If a thermometer having it's bulb blackened is moved from the violet end towards
the red end of the spectrum of visible light, it is observed that there is a very slow
rise in temperature. But when this thermometer is moved beyond the red extreme,
a rapid rise in temperature is noticed.
It means that the part of spectrum beyond the red extreme of the visible light has
certain radiations which produce a strong heating effect, but they are not visible.
These radiations are called the infrared radiations.
The infrared radiations are used for therapeutic purposes by doctors.


 Sound

Sound is a form of energy which produces a sensation of hearing in our ears.

It is produced by vibrating objects. It requires a material medium (solid, liquid or gas) for its
propagation.
Sound waves are also called mechanical waves.

Type of Waves
(1) Longitudinal wave: Individual particles of the medium vibrate in the direction parallel to the
direction of propagation of wave.
(2) Transverse wave: Individual particles of the medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction
of wave propagation.
Light is a transverse wave (but not a mechanical wave)

Propagation of Sound in Air

When a vibrating object moves forwards, it compresses the air, creating compression (high
pressure) and when it moves backward it created rarefaction (low pressure). Compression (C) is
where particles are close together and Rarefaction (R) is where particles are father apart.
Relationship between speed, frequency and wavelength of sound wave:

Speed = frequency × wavelength

Range of Hearing
The average frequency range over which the human ear is sensitive is called audible range (20 Hz
to 20,000 Hz)
Infrasonic sound: Sound of frequency less than 20 Hz, cannot be heard by humans.
Ultrasonic sound: Sound of frequency higher than 20,000 Hz. Bats, dolphins, tortoise and rats
can produce as well as hear ultrasound.

Reflection of Sound Waves

The returning back of sound waves on striking a surface such as wall, metal sheet etc.
Sound does not require a smooth and shining surface like mirror for reflection.
Condition for reflection of sound wave is that the size of reflecting surface must be bigger than
the wavelength of sound wave.

Echo
The sound heard after reflection from a distant obstacle (such as a cliff, hillside, wall of a building,
edge of a forest etc.) after the original sound has ceased is called echo.

Condition for hearing an echo

(1) The size of obstacle/reflector must be large compared to the wavelength of the incident
sound.
(2) The distance between the source of sound and the reflector should be at least 17 m.
(3) Intensity of sound must be high enough for echo to be heard clearly.
Note: If there are repeated reflections at the reflecting surface the sound gets prolonged. This
effect is known as reverberation.

Determination of speed of sound by method of echo

Total distance travelled 2d
V=
time interval
=
t
(ms-1 )
V = speed of sound

Uses of echo
Ehoes find their application in sound ranging and echo depth sounding by using ultrasonic waves.
Reason for using ultrasonic waves:
(1) They can travel undeviated through a long distance.
(2) Can be confined to a narrow beam.
(3) They are not easily absorbed in a medium.
Uses of echo by:
 Bats, dolphins, fisherman
 SONAR (Sound navigation and raging)
 Medical field – i.e., ultra sonography

Natural, Damped and Force Vibrations

Natural vibrations
The periodic vibrations of a body in the absence of any external force on it are called the natural
(or free) vibrations.
E.g.,
(i) if bob of a simple pendulum is displaced slightly.
g
f = 2π
l
f → frequency
g → acceleration due to gravity
l → length of pendulum

Sound
 (ii) A load suspended from spring when stretched.
k
f = 2π
m
f → frequency
k → force constant
m → mass of load
(iii) Tuning fork struck against rubber pad.
(iv) Striking keys of piano.
(v) When air column in a flute vibrates.
(vi) When stringed instrument (guitar, sitar, violin) is plucked
T +a

Displacement
f = 2π
π r 2d
O
f → frequency t
T → Tension
–a
r → radius of string
d → density of string
Note: In ideal condition once a body start vibrating it continues to vibrate with same amplitude
& frequency forever.

Damped vibrations
+a
The periodic vibration of a body of decreasing amplitude in

Displacement
presence resistive force.
In damped vibrations two forces act on the body (1) restoring O
force (2) frictional (resistive) force. t
E.g.,
(i) Branch of tree when pulled and released –a Damped Vibration
(ii) Tuning fork vibrating in air
(iii) Oscillating pendulum in air
(iv) Spring (load) vibration in air

Forced vibrations
The vibrations of a body which takes place under the influence of an external periodic force acting
on it. The vibrating body is acted upon by 3 forces:
(1) restoring force
(2) resistive force
(3) external periodic force
Amplitude of the forced vibrations depends on the frequency of external force.
E.g.,
(i) Swing pushed at regular interval
(ii) While playing a guitar, artist forces the strings of the guitar to execute forced vibrations.
Resonance: It is special case of forced vibration when the frequency of an externally applied
periodic force on a body is equal to its natural frequency, the body readily begins to vibrated with

Class-X PHYSICS PW
increased aplitude.
E.g.,
(i) Sympathetic vibrations of pendulums (ii) Resonance in radio and TV receiver
(iii) Resonance in bridge (iv) Resonance in air column and tuning fork.

Characteristics of Sound
(1) Loudness: It is a characteristic by virtue of which a loud sound can be distinguished from a
faint one, both having same pitch and quality. It depends on the amplitude of the wave.

Large amplitude
Small amplitude
Displacement

Displacement
Time Time

Factors affecting loudness:

(i) Proportional to square of amplitude
(ii) Inversely proportional to the square of distance from sound
(iii) Surface area of vibrating body
(iv) Density of medium
(v) Presence of resonant bodies
(2) Intensity: The amount of sound energy passing each second through unit area.
S.I. unit ⇒ Watt per square metre (W/m2)
L = klog10I

(3) Pitch (or shrillness): Pitch is the characteristic of sound by which an acute (shrill) note can
be distinguished from a grave or flat note pitch depends on its frequency.

Low Pitch Sound High Pitch Sound

Displacement
Displacement

Time Time

(4) Quality (or timbre) and waveform: Quality of a sound is that characteristic which distinguishes
the two sounds of the same loudness and same pitch but emitted by two different instruments.
The quality of a musical sound depends on the waveform.

Sound
 Displacement

Displacement
a a
Time Time

Music and Noise

Music Noise
(1) It is regular, smooth and pleasant to ears. (1) It is harsh and unpleasant to ears.
(2) Produced by periodic vibrations. (2) Produced by irregular succession of
disturbance.
(3) All the component waves are similar (3) Wave changes their character suddenly
without any sudden change in wavelength and they are short duration.
& amplitude
(4) Sound level is low (10 dB to 30 dB) (4) Sound level is high (about 120 dB)
(5) Wave form is regular (5) Wave form is irregular

Formula Sheet
(1) v = fλ (3) Frequency of oscillating pendulum
v → velocity g
f = 2π
f → frequency l
λ → wavelength Frequency of loaded spring (oscillatin)
T → time period
k
1 f = 2π
f= m
T
Frequency of oscillating string
(2) Echo
T
vt f = 2π
D= π r 2d
2
(4) Intensity & loudness
D → distance between source and obstacle
L = Klog10I
v → speed
t → time I 
L = 10log10  1  dB
 I0 
I0 = 10-12 W / m 2

I1 = intensity of sound

Class-X PHYSICS PW
 Current Year Questions (CYQs)
Physics
Sound
1. Due to vibrations of medium particles, the energy transformation is from:

(A) heat energy to kinetic energy and vice versa

(B) kinetic energy to potential energy and vice versa

(C) heat energy to potential energy and vice versa

(D) potential energy to nuclear energy and vice versa

Ans (Hint): (B) kinetic energy to potential energy and vice versa

Reason: When the medium particles vibrate, there is a change of kinetic energy into the

potential energy and vice versa.

2. A wire stretched between two fixed supports, is plucked exactly in the middle and then

released. It executes (neglect the resistance of the medium) —

(A) resonant vibrations

(B) natural vibrations

(C) damped vibrations

(D) forced vibrations.

Ans (Hint): (B) natural vibrations

Reason: When a wire stretched between the two fixed supports, is plucked exactly in the

middle and then released, it will experience natural vibrations as no external

force is acting on it and the vibrations are under restoring force.

The amplitude of vibrations remains constant and will continue forever as

resistance of the medium is negligible.

3. For normal ears, sensitivity is maximum at the frequency:
(A) 5 kHz
(B) 10 kHz
(C) 100 kHz
(D) 500 Hz
Ans (Hint): (A) 5 kHz
Reason: Reason: The human ear is most sensitive around 3 kHz to 5 kHz.

4. Assertion: Sound waves can travel in vacuum, but light waves cannot.
Reason: Light is an electromagnetic wave, but sound is a mechanical wave.
(A) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation for
Assertion.
(B) Both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not the correct explanation for
Assertion.
(C) Assertion is true, but Reason is false.
(D) Assertion is false, but Reason is true.
Ans (Hint): (D) Assertion is False, but Reason is true.
Assertion is false. Sound waves require a medium to propagate, such as air, water,
or solids, but they cannot travel through a vacuum. On the other hand, light
waves can propagate through vacuum.

5. Column X shows the kind of vibrations and column Y shows their examples.
Column X Column Y
A. Natural 1. A tuning fork when stroked on a rubber pad.
vibrations
B. Damped 2. When a guitarist plucks or strums the guitar strings
vibrations with his/her fingers.
C. Forced vibrations 3. When a troop crosses a suspension bridge
D. Resonant 4. A load suspended from a spring.
vibrations
(A) A-(4), B-(2), C-(3), D-(1)
(B) A-(4), B-(1), C-(2), D-(3)
(C) A-(4), B-(3), C-(1), D-(2)
(D) A-(2), B-(3), C-(4), D-(1)
Ans (Hint): (B) A—(4) B—(1) C—(2) D—(3)
Reason:
 ● Natural vibrations occur when a body vibrates freely without external force
after being disturbed once so a load on a spring will oscillate on its own
naturally at its natural frequency.
● When a tuning fork is struck, it vibrates but the amplitude decreases
gradually due to friction with air or internal resistance, hence damping
occurs.
● Guitar strings are kept vibrating by external forces (plucking or strumming
fingers) so this is an example of forced vibrations.
● If the troop's stepping frequency matches the natural frequency of the
bridge, resonance occurs.

6. What is meant by an echo? State two conditions necessary for an echo to be heard
distinctly.
Ans (Hint): The sound heard after reflection from a distant obstacle (such as a cliff, a
hillside, the wall of a building, edge of a forest, etc.) after the original sound has
ceased, is called an echo.
The two conditions for an echo to be heard distinctly are —
1. The minimum distance between the source of sound (or observer) and the
reflector in the air must be 17 m.
2. The size of the reflector must be large enough and rigid, so that sound
reflects well.

7. A blade, fixed at one end, is made to vibrate by pressing its other end and then
releasing it. State one way in which the frequency of vibrations of the blade can be
lowered.
Ans (Hint): The frequency of vibrations of the blade can be lowered by increasing the length
of the blade or by sticking a small weight on the blade at its free end, so as to
increase its mass.

8. Calculate the frequency of yellow light of wavelength 550 nm. The speed of light is
3 × 108 ms-1.
Ans (Hint): As we know,

Speed of Sound v =
( )
Total distance travelled 2d
time interval t()
 Total distance travelled by the sound in going and then coming back = 2d
Given,
v = 350 ms-1
An important condition for hearing an echo is that the reflected sound should
reach the ear only after a lapse of at least 0.1 s after the original sound dies off.
Hence, t = 0.1 s
Substituting the values in the formula above, we get,
2d
350 =
0.1
 2d = 350  0.1
 d = 17.5m
Hence, the minimum distance in air required between the source of sound and
the obstacle to hear an echo 17.5 m.

9. In what respect does the wave pattern of a noise and music differ? Draw diagram to
explain your answer.
Ans (Hint): Noise is a sound produced by an irregular succession of disturbances. It is usually
a discontinuous sound. Hence, the wave pattern is also irregular.
Music is a pleasant, continuous and uniform sound produced by the regular and
periodic vibrations. Hence, the wave form is regular.
10. The wavelength of waves produced on the surface of water is 20 cm. If the wave
velocity is 24 ms-1,
calculate
(i) The number of waves produced in one second and
(ii) The time in which one wave is produced.
Ans (Hint): (i) As we know,
Velocity (v) = frequency (f) x wavelength (1)
Given,
v = 24 ms-1
 = 20cm
Converting cm to m, we get, 100 cm = 1m cm = 1/100m = 0.01m
Therefore, 20cm = (20 × 0.01) m = 0.2m.
Hence,  = 0.2m
Substituting the values in the formula above, we get,
24 = f  0.2
24
f =
0.2
240
f =
2
 f = 120s−1
Therefore, the number of waves produced in one second = 120s-1.
(ii) As we know,
1
Time in which one wave is produced t =() f
Substituting the values in the formula above, we get,
1
t =
120
 t = 0.0083
 t = 0.0083s
Hence,
Time in which one wave is produced = 8.3 × 10-3s.


 Current Electricity

Electric Charge
It is a physical entity which is defined by excess or deficiency of electrons on a body.
S.I. unit ⇒ coulomb (C)
The total charge acquired by a body is an integral multiple of magnitude of change on a single
electron. This principle is called quantisation of charge.
q = ne  q = total charge, n = number of electrons, e = charge on 1 electron = 1.6 × 10–19C

1mC = 10–3C, 1µC = 10–6C, 1nC = 10–9C

Current
Rate of flow of charge
Q ne
I= I= I = current,    Q = charge,   t = time
t t
S.I. unit ⇒ ampere (A),   1mA = 10–3A, 1µA = 10–6 A
Note: Direction of current is taken opposite to the flow of electrons.

Electric Potential
Potential at a point is defined as the amount of work done in bringing a unit positive charge from
infinitely to that point. It is a scalar quantity.
W
V=
Q
   V = potential   W = work done   Q = charge
S.I. unit ⇒ JC–1 or volt (V)
Charged body Test charged
Q
P From infinity

Potential Difference (p.d.)

The potential difference between two points is equal to the work done in moving a unit positive
charge from one point to the other.
W
VA - VB =
Q
S.I. unit ⇒ Volt (V)
Resistance
The obstruction offered to the flow of current by the conductor (or wire) is called its resistance.

Ohm’s Law
According to Ohm’s law the current flowing in a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference applied across its ends provided the physical conditions and the temperature
of conductor remains constant.
V V
I ∝ V ,   = constant ,   R = ,   V =IR
I I

Y
DV
Slope = tanθ = =R
Potential difference(V)→

DI

Rheostat

K +
+ – A
q
X V –
Current(I)→
    R
Resistance of a conductor is numerically equal to the potential difference across its ends when unit
current flows through it.
S.I. unit is ⇒ ohm (Ω)

Ohmic and Non-ohmic resistors:

Ohmic resistor Non ohmic resistor
(1) Obey’s ohm’s law (1) Do not obey ohm’s law
(2) V-I graph is a straight line (2) V-I graph is not straight line
(3) Slope of V-I graph is same at all values (3) Slope of V-I graph is different for different
values
e.g., silver, iron, copper, nichrome e.g., junction diode, L.E.D., transistor,
filament bulb.

Factors affecting the resistance of a conductor

(1) Nature of conductor
(2) Length of conductor, R ∝ l
1
(3) Area of cross section of conductor, R ∝
A
(4) Temperature,

1 1 l ρl ρl
R ∝ l, R ∝ or R ∝ 2 , R ∝ or R = = 2
A πr A A πr

Class-X PHYSICS PW
Specific resistance or Resistivity (ρ): It is the resistance of a wire of that material of unit length
and unit area of cross section. S.I. unit ⇒ Ωm

Conductivity
1 l
The reciprocal of specific resistance is known as conductivity (σ), σ = = S.I. unit ⇒ Ω-1m-1
ρ RA
Conductance
1
Reciprocal or resistance, Conductance = S.I. unit ⇒ Ω-1
R
Superconductor
It is a substance of zero resistance (or infinite conductance) at a very low temperature.

Electromotive force (E.M.F.) of a cell

The E.M.F. of a cell is defined as the energy spent (or the work done) per unit charge in taking a
positive test charge around the complete circuit of cell.
W
E=
q

Factors affecting the E.M.F. of a cell:

(i) shape of electrodes
(ii) distance between electrodes
(iii) amount of electrolyte

Terminal voltage of a cell

The terminal voltage of a cell is defined as the work done per unit charge in carrying a positive
test charge around the circuit, connected across the terminals of cell.
W'
V=
q

Voltage drop in a cell

Work done in carrying a unit charge through the electrolyte is called voltage drop in the cell.
W
V=
q

Relationship between E.M.F. and terminal voltage of a cell:

E=V +v

Internal resistance of a cell

Resistance offered by the electrolyte inside the cell, to the flow of current is called internal
resistance of cell.
V =Ir
Factors affecting internal resistance of a cell:
(1) Surface area of electrodes

Current Electricity
(2) Distance between the electrodes
(3) Nature & concentration of electrolyte
(4) Temperature of electrolyte

Relationship between E.M.F., terminal voltage and internal resistance:

Total resistance = R + r

Current drawn from cell, I = E

R +r +E– r
E.M.F. (E) = I(R + r)
Terminal voltage of cell, V = IR = E – Ir I
Voltage drop due to internal resistance = Ir R
E- v E- v  E 
Internal resistance, r = = =  - 1 R
I V  V 
R

Combination of Resistors
Series
Parallel
R1 R2 R3
A B
I1 R1
V1 V2 V3 R2
A I2 B
–
I3 R3
A –
+ A
I +
+ I
– + – +

V V
1 1 1 1
R = R1 + R1 + R3 = + +
R R1 R2 R3

Measurement of Electrical Energy (E)

E = work done

V 2t
W = QV = VIt =I2Rt =
R
S.I. unit ⇒ joule (J)
Electrical power: The rate at which electrical energy is supplied by the source.

W V2 2
P= = VI = =I R
t R
S.I. unit ⇒ watt (W) or Js–1
Bigger units ⇒ 1 kW = 1000 W

Class-X PHYSICS PW
 1 MW = 106 W
1 HP = 746 W
Commercial unit of electric energy: 1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 J
Power rating of common electrical appliances:
V2
(i) Resistance of filament of bulb, R =
P
P
(ii) Safe current limit through the filament of the bulb, I =
V
Household consumption of electrical energy: Cost of electricity = electrical energy (in kWh) × cost
per kWh

Heating effect of electric current

The heat produced in a wire on passing current through it is called heating effect of current. This
is known as Joule’s law of heating.

H =I2Rt (in joule ) = 0.24 I2Rt (in cal )

Formula Sheet
Q ne W' (13) Electrical energy
(1) I = = (8) Terminal voltage ( V ) =
t t q V 2t
W = QV = VIt =I2Rt =
W W (9) E =I (R + r ) R
(2) V = ,VA - VB =
Q Q E (14) Electrical power
(10) r =  - 1  R
(3) V =IR V  W V2 2
1 P = = VI = =I R
(4) Conductance = (11) Series combination t R
R
R = R1 + R2 + ........ + Rn
(15) H =I2Rt (in joule)
ρl ρl
(5) R = = 2 H = 0.24I2Rt (in calorie)
A πr (12) Parallel combination
1 l 1 1 1 1
(6) Conductivity (σ ) = = = + + ........ +
ρ RA R R1 R2 Rn
W
(7) EMF ( E ) =
q

Current Electricity
 Current Year Questions (CYQs)
Physics
Current Electricity
1. If n electrons pass through a cross-section of a conductor in time t, then current in
conductor is:
ne
(A) I=
t
(B) I = net
nt
(C) I=
e
n
(D) I=
et
ne
Ans (Hint): (A) I=
t
Reason: If n electrons pass through a cross-section of a conductor in time t, then
ne
current in conductor is I =
t

2. In series combination of resistances —

(A) p.d. is same across each resistance
(B) total resistance is reduced
(C) current is same in each resistance
(D) all of the above are true
Ans (Hint): (C) current is same in each resistance
Reason: Current is same in each resistance in series combination of resistances. The
current has a single path to flow, hence, same current passes through each
resistor.

3. The amount of heat produced in a wire on passing a current through it depends on:
(A) the resistance of wire
(B) the square root of current I passing through the wire.
(C) the time for which current is passed.
(D) Both (1) and (3)
Ans (Hint): (D) Both (1) and (3)
Reason: The amount of heat produced in a wire on passing current through it, depends

on the following three factors.

1. The amount of current passing through the wire — The amount of heat H

produced in a wire is directly proportional to the square of current I passing

through the wire, i.e., H ∝ I2

2. The resistance of wire — The amount of heat H produced in the wire is directly

proportional to the resistance R of the wire, i.e., H ∝ R.

3. The time for which current is passed in the wire — The amount of heat H

produced in a wire is directly proportional to the time t for which current

is passed in the wire i.e., H ∝ t.

4. Assertion: The terminal voltage of a cell is always less than its e.m.f.

Reason: More the current drawn from the cell, the less is the terminal voltage.

(A) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation for

Assertion.

(B) Both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not the correct explanation for

Assertion.

(C) Assertion is true, but Reason is false.

(D) Assertion is false, but Reason is true.

Ans (Hint): (D) Assertion is false, but Reason is true..

Assertion is false. E.m.f. is greater than the terminal voltage only when the cell

delivers the current to the external circuit.

Reason is true. When a heavy current is drawn from the cell, a large number of

charge carriers flow through the electrolyte and hence more work is done. This

results in more voltage drop v, and hence less terminal voltage V. Thus, terminal

voltage V of a cell depends on the amount of current I drawn from it.

5. Match the following column:
Column A Column B
A. Ohm’s Law 1. Opposition to current flow
B. Electric current 2. Device used to control current
C. Resistance 3. Measure of rate of flow of electric charge
D. Rheostat 4. ( V = IR )
(A) A-(4), B-(2), C-(3), D-(1)
(B) A-(4), B-(1), C-(2), D-(3)
(C) A-(4), B-(3), C-(1), D-(2)
(D) A-(2), B-(3), C-(4), D-(1)
Ans (Hint): (C) A—(4) B—(3) C—(1) D—(2)
Ohm's Law states that the potential difference (V) across a conductor is directly
proportional to the current (1) flowing through it, provided temperature
remains constant. mathematically written as V = IR.
Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charge through a
conductor and is measured in amperes.
Resistance is the property of a material that opposes or resists the movement of
electric charges through it.
A rheostat is a variable resistor used in circuits to change current by adjusting
resistance.

6. State how are the two resistors joined with a battery in each of the following cases
when —
(a) same current flows in each resistor,
(b) potential difference is same across each resistor,
(c) equivalent resistance is less than either of the two resistances,
(d) equivalent resistance is more than either of the two resistances.
Ans (Hint): (a) When same current flows in each resistor, then the two resistors are joined
in series
(b) When potential difference is same across each resistor, then the two
resistors are joined in parallel
(c) When equivalent resistance is less than either of the two resistances, then
the two resistors are joined in parallel
(d) When equivalent resistance is more than either of the two resistances, then
the two resistors are joined in series
7. A music system draws a current of 400 mA when connected to a 12 V battery. What is
the resistance of the music system?
Ans (Hint): Given,
I = 400mA = 400  10 −3 = 0.4A
V = 12 V
From ohm’s law,
V = IR
Substituting the values in the formula we get,
12 = 0.4  R
12
R =
0.4
 R = 30
Hence, the resistance of the music system = 30

8. (a) Name and state the law which relates the potential difference and current in a
conductor.
(b) What is the necessary condition for a conductor to obey the law named above in
part (a)?
Ans (Hint): (a) The law which relates the potential difference and current in a conductor is
known as Ohm's law.
Ohm's law states that the current flowing through the conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across it's ends provided that the
physical conditions and the temperature of the conductor remain constant.
(b) The necessary condition for a conductor to obey Ohm's law is that the
physical conditions and the temperature should remain constant.

9. An electric bulb is rated '250 W, 230 V'. Calculate the energy consumed in one hour.
Ans (Hint): Given,
Power (P) = 250 W
Voltage (V) = 230 V
Time (t) = 1 h = 3600 sec
Energy (E) = ?
From relation,
E =P×t
Substituting the values in the formula above. We get,
E = 250  3600 = 9  105 J
Hence, energy consumed in one hour = 9 × 105 J.
10. An electric bulb is rated '220 V, 100 W. (a) What is it's resistance? (b) What safe

current can be passed through it?

Ans (Hint): (a) Given

P = 100 W

V = 220 volt

We know that,

v2
Power P =
R
Substituting the values in the formula above, we get,

220 2
100 =
R
220 2
R =
100
 R = 484
Hence, resistance of electric bulb = 484

(b) From relation P = VI

P
Safe current I =
V
Substituting the value we get,
100
I=
220
 I = 0.45A
Hence, safe current limit = 0.45 A.


 Household Circuits

Power Distribution
Power generation Grid sub station Main substation
station at II kV step up to 132 kV step down to 33 kV

To City substation Intermediate substation

Consumer step down to 220 V step down to II kV

The power is transmitted over a long distance at a high voltage to minimize the loss of energy in
the form of heat in the line wire. At high voltage, the value of current is very less, therefore heat
produced, H = I2Rt, will also be less.

Power Distribution to House (Components of Household Electric Circuit)

(1) Main circuit: Electricity is transmitted to home via two wires, the live wire (220 V) and the
neutral wire (0 V). The live wire carries current, while the neutral wire returns it. An earth
wire ensures safety. The main fuse is in live wire and the main switch controls both live and
neutral wires. Homes have two separate circuits; a 5A fuse for lighting and a 15A fuse for
power devices.
Company fuse KWh meter MCB
L
cable
2354 Main switch E
N
L L MCB
L E L
N E
From N N
city E N MCB
E L
substation Electric pole E
Earth N
Main Circuit

Main switch: It controls the flow of electricity to the home. It is the primary connection
between the external power supply and home’s wiring. The main switch is often a double pole
switch, which means it can break the connection to both the neutral wire and live wire at
the same time.
House wiring (Ring system): In this system wires starting from main fuse box run around all
the rooms of house and then come back to fuse box again forming the ring.
 Other appliances
Main fuse
(30 A) F S
L
N

F S

Socket

Advantage:
(i) Each appliance can operate independently without affecting the other appliances connected

in the system.
(ii) New appliance can be connected directly without new wiring.

Fuse
An electric fuse is a safety device which is used to limit the current in an electric circuit, fuse
safeguards the circuit and the appliances connected in that circuit from being damaged.
‰ Thin wire of tin (25%) & lead (75%) alloy
‰ Low melting point ( ≈ 200°C )
‰ Works on the principle of heating effect of current
‰ Always connected to live wire before appliance.
Total power of appliances in circuit
Current rating of fuse =
Voltage of supply
Switch
A switch is an on-off device for current in a circuit. It is connected to live wire in series.
Dual control switch (staircase wiring): Switch that controls a load from two different locations. It
is also known as multiway switch or staircase wiring.

L L L
P P P P P P
q S1 S2
q Supply q S1 S2 Supply q S1 S2 Supply
N q N
q
N
r r r r r r
Bulb off Bulb on through S1 Bulb on through S2

MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)

‰ Safety device automatically shuts off an electrical circuit when there is power surge or short
circuit.
Advantage: More reliable than fuses because they can be reset instead of replaced.

Household Circuits
Earthing
L Machine
Process of connecting an electrical appliance’s Metallic case
metal case to the ground using earth wire. Supply element of appliance
It is a safety measure that protects people from N
electric shocks.
E
Three pin plug and socket
Top pin: Earthing E
Left pin: Live
Right Pin: Neutral
The earth pin is thicker and loner than other two. N L

Safety precautions Plug Socket

‰ Do not touch switch with wet hands.
‰ Switch should always be connected to live wire.
‰ Appliances should be earthed.
‰ Use appropriate fuse rating in live wire of circuit.

Colour Coding of Wires

Colour
Wire
Old New convention
Live Red Brown
Neutral Black Blue
Earth Green Green or Yellow

Class-X PHYSICS PW
 Current Year Questions (CYQs)
Physics

Household Circuits
1. The neutral and the earth wires are connected at the local sub station so that :

(A) the potential increases

(B) the neutral and earth wires are at the same potential

(C) the potential of neutral wire increases

(D) none of the above

Ans (Hint): (B) the neutral and earth wires are at the same potential.

Reason: When the neutral and earth wires are at the same potential, it helps to stabilize the

electrical system and ensures that any fault currents are safely redirected to the

ground, minimizing the risk of electric shocks and other hazards to people and

equipment.

2. A person connects his household appliances in series. Which of the following is true?

(A) Each appliance operates independently

(B) The current in the circuit is reduced as resistance increases

(C) Each appliance does not operate at its rated voltage

(D) Both (2) and (3)

Ans (Hint): (D) Both (2) and (3)

Reason: When a person connects his household appliances in series:

• the total resistance increases as more appliances are added, which would lead to

a decrease in current according to Ohm's Law (V = IR).

• the voltage across each appliance will vary depending on its individual resistance

and the total voltage supplied by the source. Each appliance may not receive its

rated voltage due to voltage division across the appliances.

3. The rise in temperature of fuse wire depends upon :

(A) current rating

(B) radius r

(C) length of wire

(D) both (1) and (2)

Ans (Hint): (D) both (1) and (2)

Reason: The rise in temperature of fuse wire is directly proportional to the current rating

and inversely proportional to the cube of its radius. It does not depend on the length

of the wire.

4. Assertion: Same current flows through the live wires and the filament of a bulb, but the

heat produced in the filament is much higher.

Reason: The filament of a bulb is made of low resistance and high melting point.

(A) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation for

Assertion.

(B) Both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not the correct explanation for

Assertion.

(C) Assertion is true, but Reason is false.

(D) Assertion is false, but Reason is true.

Ans (Hint): (C) Assertion is true, but Reason is false.

Assertion is true. Same current flows through the live wires and the filament

of a bulb, but the heat produced in the filament is much higher. This is due to

the higher resistance of the filament compared to the live wires, leading to

greater heat generation in the filament.

Reason is false. The filament of a bulb is not made of a material with low

resistance. In fact, the filament is specifically designed to have a relatively high

resistance. This high resistance allows it to produce light efficiently by converting

electrical energy into heat and then into light.

5. Match the following-
Column A Column B
(a) Live wire (i) Prevents electric shock by earthing appliances
(b) Neutral wire (ii) Potential difference between live and neutral
(c) Earth wire (iii) Returns current to the power station
(d) Voltage (iv) Carries current from the supply
(A) (a)-(iv), (b)-(ii), (c)-(iii), (d)-(i)
(B) (a)-(iv), (b)-(i), (c)-(ii), (d)-(iii)
(C) (a)-(iv), (b)-(iii), (c)-(i), (d)-(ii)
(D) (a)-(ii), (b)-(iii), (c)-(iv), (d)-(i)
Ans (Hint): (C) (a)-(iv), (b)-(iii), (c)-(i), (d)-(ii)
• The live wire brings high-potential current from the power source into the
household circuit.
• The neutral wire completes the circuit by carrying the current back to the
supply.
• The earth wire provides a safe path for leakage current, protecting users from
shocks.
• Household power supply works because of the potential difference (usually 220–
240 V) between the live and neutral wires.

6. At what voltage is the electric power from the generating station transmitted? Give
reason to your answer.
Ans (Hint): At the generating station, the electric power is generated at a voltage of 11
kV because generation at voltage higher than 11 kV causes insulation difficulties,
while generation at voltage lower than 11 kV involves a very high current.
Hence, electric power from the generating station is transmitted at 11 kV.

7. It is dangerous to connect the switch in the neutral wire. Explain your answer.
Ans (Hint): It is dangerous to connect the switch in the neutral wire because in the 'off'
position of the switch the appliance remains connected to the high potential
terminal through the live wire, although no current flows through the appliance
because the return path is incomplete. However, it is not safe to carry out
repair work in this condition because on touching the live wire in the appliance
the current will pass through the body of the person and he may get a fatal
shock.
Further, due to some fault if the live wire touches the metallic body of the
appliance, then it is not safe to touch the appliance even from outside.
8. Name the device used to
(a) increase the voltage at the generating station.
(b) decrease the voltage at the sub station for it's supply.
Ans (Hint): (a) In order to increase the voltage at the generating station a step up
transformer is used.
(b) In order to decrease the voltage at the sub station a step down
transformer is used.

9. Why is it necessary to have an earth wire installed in a power circuit, but not in a
lighting circuit?
Ans (Hint): The appliances connected to the power circuit like air conditioner, geyser,
washing machine, etc. consume heavy current. If due to some reason such as
short circuiting, an excessive current flows through the power circuit, not only
the appliance will get damaged but due to the excessive heat produced by such
high current, the wires may get overheated causing a fire. If the earth wire is
installed, it conducts the excessive current to the earth thus avoiding the fire.
The current carrying capacity of lighting circuit is low (less than 5A). In case of
a short circuit, the chances of fire due to overheating of wires are little. Hence,
generally earth wire is not installed in a lighting circuit.

10. (a) What is the purpose of a switch in a circuit?

(b) Why is the switch put in the live wire?
(c) What precaution do you take while handling a switch?
Ans (Hint):
(a) A switch is an on-off device for current in a circuit (or in an appliance). It is
connected in the live wire.
(b) The switch is put in the live wire because when the switch is in 'on' position,
the appliance gets connected to the high potential point through the live wire
and current flows in the appliance, the circuit is complete and the neutral wire
provides the return path for the current. In the off position of the switch, the
circuit is incomplete and no current reaches the appliance through the live wire.
It is now safe to carry out repairs in the appliance, if required.
On the other hand, it is unsafe to connect a switch in the neutral wire. In the
'off' position of the switch the appliance remains connected to the high potential
terminal through the live wire, although no current flows through the appliance
 because the return path is incomplete. However, it is not safe to carry out
repair work in this condition because on touching the live wire in the appliance
the current will pass through the body of the person and he may get a fatal
shock. Moreover, if due to some fault, live wire touches the metallic body of the
appliance then on touching the appliance the person may get a fatal shock.
(c) A switch should never be touched with wet hands. If water reaches the live
wire, it forms a conducting layer between the hand and the live wire of the
switch due to which a current passes to the hand through it and the person
may get a fatal shock.


 Electromagnetism

Oersted’s Experiment
When an electric current is passed through a conducting wire, a magnetic field is produced around
it, which is detected using compass needle.

Magnetic field
The region around a magnet in which its effect can be experienced. It is denoted by B.
‰ Vector quantity
‰ S.I. unit ⇒ tesla (T)

Magnetic field due to straight current carrying conductor

Compass Magnetic field Magnetic

A needle line field Current
Rheostat
+ – Magnetic
field
B Key
Cardboard Maxwell's right hand rule-current

If we hold the current carrying conductor in our right hand such that the thumb points in the
direction of flow of current, then the fingers encircle the wire in the direction of magnetic field lines.

Magnetic field due to current in a loop

Magnetic Clock rule
field line

Anticlockwise Current Clockwise Current

I
K

Battery
Magnetic field lines become dense if:
(1) the strength of current in the loop is increased.
(2) the number of turns in loop are increased.

Magnetic field due to solenoid

If a conducting wire is wound in form of a cylindrical coil whose diameter is less than comparison
to its length, the coil is called solenoid.

Field lines

S N

Battery K

Magnetic field depends on:

(1) No. of turns of solenoid B ∝ N
(2) Strength of current, B ∝ I
(3) Nature of core material used to make solenoid

Comparison of electromagnet and permanent magnet

Electromagnet Permanent magnet
(1) It is made of soft iron. (1) It is made of steel
(2) Produces temporary magnetic field (2) Produces permanent magnetic field
Magnetic field strength cannot be
(3) Magnetic field strength can be changed (3)
changed
(4) Polarity can be reversed (4) Polarity cannot be reversed
(5) Can be easily demagnetized (5) Cannot be demagnetized

Uses of electromagnet
(1) Lifting and transporting large masses of iron scrap.
(2) Loading furnace with iron.
(3) Magnetic separation. Force (Motion)
(4) Removing iron pieces from wounds.

Force on a current carrying conductor

Fleming’s Left hand Rule: Stretch the forefinger central finger and
Magnetic
thumb of your left hand mutually perpendicular to each other.
If forefinger indicates the direction of magnetic field and the Field
central finger indicates the direction of current, then the thumb
will indicate the direction of motion of conductor. (i.e. force on
conductor) Current
Simple D.C. motor
An electric motor is a device which converts the electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Principle: When current is passed through a conductor placed normally in a magnetic field, force
acts on the conductor.
Parts of motor:
C B
(1) Armature   (2) Split rings   (3) Brushes
(4) Magnet   (5) DC source Field S
N
Speed rotation of motor can be increased by:
(i) Current (ii) No. of turns A
D
(iii) Area of coil (iv) Magnetic field strength
B1 B2
Electromagnetic induction R2 R1
The phenomenon of production of emf in a conductor on changing
the magnetic field around it. The emf produced is called induced emf.
The factors affecting the magnitude of induced emf are: Fleming's Right Hand Rule
(i) change in the magnetic flux Motion
(ii) Time in which the magnetic flux changes.

Fleming’s right hand rule

Stretch the thumb, central finger and forefinger of your right hand
Magnetic
mutually perpendicular to each other. If the forefinger indicates
the direction of magnetic field and thumb indicates the direction Field
of motion of conductor then the central finger will indicate the
direction of induced current.
Current
A.C. generator
Device which converts mechanical energy into electrical Axle
Armature
energy is called generator. Soft iron
Coil
Principle: Electromagnetic induction. Coil
Parts of generator:
(1) Field magnet (2) Armature coil
(3) Slip rings (4) Brushes
N S
Frequency of alternating current: If the coil makes n rotations
per second, then the magnitude of induced emf is given as: Slip Brush
e = e0 sin 2π nt and current is: i = i 0 sin 2π nt rings

Difference between A.C. and D.C. Load

Direct current (D.C.) Alternating current (A.C.)

(1) Current of constant magnitude (1) Current of varying magnitude
(2) Flows in one direction (2) Reverses its direction while flouring in circuit
(3) Source – Cell (or battery) (3) Source – AC generator or mains
Advantages of A.C. over D.C.:
(i) A.C. at any desirable voltage can be obtained using transformer.
(ii) A.C. can be converted to D.C. using rectifier.
(iii) Cost of generation is less.
(iv) A.C. can be controlled without much power loss.
(v) A.C. machines are very durable.
(vi) For long-distance transmission A.C. is preferred as it causes minimum loss of energy.
Transformer: Device which is used to increase or decrease the amplitude of an alternating emf.
They are of two types:
(1) Step-up transformer
(2) Step-down transformer
Principle: Transformer is based on the principle of mutual induction.

Step-up transformer Step-down transformer

Changes low alternating voltage too high Changes high alternating voltage to low
alternating voltage. (ES > EP, NS > NP) alternating voltage. (ES < EP, NS < NP)

Secondary Primary
Core coil coil Core
Primary Secondary
coil coil

Uses: Uses:
‰ Transmission of electric power at the power ‰ Electric bells, night bulbs, mobile phones,
generating station to step up the voltage computers.
‰ Television ‰ At the power substation to step down the
‰ Wireless sets voltage before its distribution to consumers.
‰ X-ray tubes to provide high accelerating
voltage.
 Current Year Questions (CYQs)
Physics
Electromagnetism
1. When the direction of current in a straight conductor is reversed, what happens to the
magnetic field around it? (1 Mark)
(A) The magnetic field strength doubles
(B) The magnetic field vanishes completely
(C) The magnetic field reverses its direction
(D) The magnetic field remains unchanged
Ans (Hint): (C) The magnetic field reverses its direction
Explanation: Reversing the current in a wire flips the polarity of the magnetic
field lines around it, causing the field direction to reverse while its strength
remains the same.

2. Which of the following devices commonly make use of horse shoe magnets? (1 Mark)
(A) Only d.c. motors
(B) Only a.c. generators
(C) Only electric bells
(D) All of the above
Ans (Hint): (D) All of the above
Explanation: Horse shoe magnets are widely used in d.c. motors, a.c.
generators, and electric bells because their shape provides a strong,
concentrated magnetic field that enhances the efficiency of these devices.

3. The standard frequency of alternating current supplied to households in India is:

(1 Mark)
(A) 100 Hz
(B) 70 Hz
(C) 50 Hz
(D) 40 Hz
Ans (Hint): (C) 50 Hz
Explanation: In India, the electric supply to homes operates at a frequency of
50 Hz. This ensures compatibility with domestic appliances and electrical
infrastructure designed for this standard.

4. Assertion: A current-carrying solenoid behaves like a bar magnet and aligns itself along
the north-south direction when freely suspended. (1 Mark)
Reason: The polarity of a solenoid depends on the direction of current in its windings,
with the end having anti-clockwise current acting as the north pole and the end with
clockwise current acting as the south pole.
(A) Both Assertion and Reason are True and Reason is the correct explanation of
Assertion.
(B) Both Assertion and Reason are True but Reason not explanation of Assertion.
(C) Assertion is True and Reason is False.
(D) Assertion is False and Reason is True.
Ans (Hint): (A) Both Assertion and Reason are True and Reason is the correct
explanation of Assertion.
Explanation: A solenoid carrying current produces a magnetic field similar to
a bar magnet. Its orientation in the north-south direction is due to the
polarity created by current flow: anti-clockwise current at one end makes it
a north pole, while clockwise current at the other end makes it a south pole.

5. Match the following: (1 Mark)

Column A Column B
(a) Current flows in a wire (i) Creates magnetic field around it
(b) Direction of current reversed (ii) Magnetic field direction gets reversed
(c) Current-carrying solenoid (iii) Behaves like a bar magnet
(d) Freely suspended solenoid (iv) Aligns itself in north-south direction
(A) (a-ii), (b-iv), (c-i), (d-iii)
(B) (a-iii), (b-i), (c-iv), (d-ii)
(C) (a-i), (b-ii), (c-iii), (d-iv)
(D) (a-iv), (b-iii), (c-ii), (d-i)
Ans (Hint): (C) (a-i), (b-ii), (c-iii), (d-iv)
6. A straight conductor lies in a horizontal plane and carries current from south to north.

(a) What will be the direction of the magnetic field at a point just above the wire?

(b) State the rule used to determine this direction. (2 Marks)

Ans (Hint): (a) The magnetic field at a point just above the wire will be directed

towards west.

(b) The rule applied is the Right Hand Thumb Rule, which relates the

direction of current to the orientation of the magnetic field lines.

7. A soft iron rod labeled XY has a coil wound around it.

(a) Identify the polarity developed at ends X and Y when the circuit switch is closed.

(b) Mention one method to enhance the strength of the electromagnet formed in this

setup. (2 Marks)

Ans (Hint): (a) When an electric current flows through the solenoid winding, the end X

experiences current in an anticlockwise direction, making it act as the

North pole. Conversely, at end Y the current flows clockwise, causing it

to behave as the South pole.

(b) The strength of the electromagnet can be enhanced by increasing the

current in the coil. One practical way to achieve this is by lowering the

circuit resistance with the help of a rheostat.

8. (a) Why is soft iron preferred as the core material in an electromagnet instead of

steel?

(b) How does the strength of an electromagnet change if the number of turns in the

solenoid is increased?

(c) Name one everyday device (other than a relay) where electromagnets are used.

(3 Marks)
Ans (Hint): (a) Soft iron is chosen because it can be magnetized and demagnetized

quickly, making the electromagnet highly responsive. Steel, on the other

hand, retains magnetism and is less suitable for temporary

magnetization.

(b) Increasing the number of turns increases the magnetic field strength,

since the field is directly proportional to the number of turns carrying

current.

(c) Electromagnets are widely used in electric bells.

9. (a) What is the basic principle behind the induction of e.m.f. in a coil?

(b) How does the direction of induced current relate to the change in magnetic flux?

(c) Give one practical application of electromagnetic induction in daily life. (3 Marks)

Ans (Hint): (a) The principle is Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, which states

that an e.m.f. is induced whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit

changes.

(b) According to Lenz’s law, the induced current always flows in such a way

that it opposes the change in magnetic flux that produced it.

(c) Electromagnetic induction is used in electric generators, where

mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy.

10. Explain one simple experiment that shows the phenomenon of electromagnetic

induction. (5 Marks)

Ans (Hint): Experiment - Wind an insulated copper wire in form of a spiral on a paper

(or wooden) cylinder so as to form a coil in the form of a solenoid. Connect a

centre zero galvanometer G between the two ends of the solenoid. Then, place

a magnet NS at some distance along the axis of solenoids as shown in figure.

Observations - It is observed that,

(i) When the magnet is stationary, there is no deflection in galvanometer

and it's pointer reads zero as shown in figure (a).

(ii) When the magnet with it's north pole facing the solenoid is moved

towards it, the galvanometer shows a deflection towards right showing

that a current flows in solenoid in the direction $B$ to $A$ as shown in

figure (b).

(iii) As the motion of magnet is stopped, the pointer of galvanometer comes

to zero position. Fig. (c) This shows that the current in solenoid flows as

long as the magnet is in motion.

(iv) If the magnet is moved away from the solenoid, the pointer of

galvanometer deflects towards left (as shown in figure d) showing that

the current in solenoid flows again, but now in direction A to B which is

opposite to that as shown in figure b. Current becomes zero as soon as

the magnet stops.

(v) If the same action (movement) of magnet is done rapidly, the deflection

in the galvanometer is more than before although the direction of

deflection remains same. It shows that now more current flows.

(vi) If the magnet is brought towards the solenoid by keeping it's south pole

towards it, the pointer of galvanometer deflects towards left as shown in

figure (e) showing that the current in solenoid flows in direction A to B

which is opposite to that shown in figure (b)

 Calorimetry

Heat
Heat is the internal energy of molecules constituting the body. It flows from a hot body to a cold
body when they are kept in contact.
It is represented by Q. S.I. unit ⇒ joule (J). Other units: 1 calorie = 4.2 joule. 1 kcal = 103 cal =
4.2 × 103 joule
Note: The measurement of the quantity of heat is called calorimetry.

Temperature
It is the measure of hotness or coldness of any body. S.I. unit ⇒ Kelvin (K)
Other units: Celsius (°C), Fahrenheit (°F)
T (K ) = T (°C ) + 273.15
∆T (°C ) = ∆T (K )

Factors affecting the quantity of heat absorbed to increase the temperature of a body:
(1) mass of body (m)
(2) increase in temperature of body Δt
(3) material of the body
Q ∝ m   Q ∝ ∆t
Q
= cm∆t c = specific heat capacity

Thermal Capacity or Heat Capacity (c)

Amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a body by 1°C (or 1K). It is denoted
by C.
Heat supplied ( Q ) S.I. unit ⇒ JK–1 or J°C–1
Heat capcity ( C ) =
Rise in temperature ( ∆t )

Specific Heat Capacity (c)

Amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of unit mass of the substance through
1°C (or 1K)
Amount of heat energy supplied Q
c= c=
mass × rise in temperature , m∆t
S.I. unit ⇒ J Kg–1 K–1 or J Kg–1 °C–1
Relationship between C and c
C =m×c
Specific heat capacity (c) → low ⇒ conductor
Specific heat capacity (c) → high ⇒ Poor conductor
Water has an unusually high specific heat capacity (= 4200 J Kg–1 K–1)

Calorimeter
It is a cylindrical vessel which is used to measure the amount of heat gained (or loss) by body when
it is mixed with the other body.

Principle
Heat lost by hotter body = Heat gained by cooler body

T0
T
Hot Body Cold Body Stirrer

m1 m2
Tap water
Calorimeter
T1 T2
Hot water

Double
walled vessel

Heat lost (Q1) = Heat gained (Q2)

m1c1 ( T1 - T ) = m 2 c2 ( T - T2 )

Changes of Phase (State)

The process of converting one state of substance into another state is known as change of state of
substance. It happens by heat absorption or rejection.
Sublimation

Melting Vaporisation
Solid Liquid Gas
Freezing Condensation

Solidification

Class-X PHYSICS
Latent Heat
It is the hidden amount of heat that is given out or taken by the unit mass of any substance to
change its state without change in temperature. It may also be called as change in potential energy
of molecules.

Specific Latent Heat

Quantity of heat absorbed (or liberated) by the unit mass of the substance for the change in its
phase at constant temperature. It is denoted by L.
Q
L=
m
S.I. unit ⇒ J kg–1, Other unit ⇒ cal g–1, kcal kg–1

Y Heating curve of water

140

our
Vap
120
Boiling
100
Temperature (°C)

80

60
uid
Liq

40

20
X
0
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420
Time (s)

Formula Sheet
(1) T(K) = T(°C) + 273.15 (5) C = m × c [Relation between C and c]
(2) Q = mc∆t [Heat energy] (6) m1c1 ( T1 - T ) = m 2 c2 ( T - T2 ) [Principle of
Q calorimetry]
(3) C = [Heat capacity]
∆t Q
(7) L = [specific heat capacity]
Q m
(4) c = [Specific heat capacity]
m∆t

Calorimetry
 Current Year Questions (CYQs)
Physics
Calorimetry
1. The specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J kg−1K−1. What does this statement imply?
(A) It takes 4200 J to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1ºC. [1 Mark]
(B) It takes 4200 J to melt 1 kg of ice at 0ºC.
(C) It takes 1 J to raise the temperature of 4200 kg of water by 1ºC.
(D) Water releases 4200 J of energy while freezing at 0ºC.
Ans (Hint): (A)
It takes 4200 J to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1ºC.

2. Which of the following materials would make the best material for the base of a cooking
pan? [1 Mark]
(A) High specific heat capacity and low conductivity.
(B) Low specific heat capacity and high conductivity.
(C) High specific heat capacity and high conductivity.
(D) Low specific heat capacity and low conductivity.
Ans (Hint): (B) Low specific heat capacity and high conductivity.
(Rationale: Low specific heat allows the pan to heat up quickly; high
conductivity distributes heat evenly.)
3. In a calorimeter, why is the copper vessel usually polished on the outer and inner
surfaces? [1 Mark]
(A) To minimize heat loss by conduction.
(B) To minimize heat loss by convection.
(C) To minimize heat loss by radiation.
(D) To increase the heat capacity of the vessel.
Ans (Hint): (B) To minimize heat loss by radiation.

4. Assertion-Reason Question [1 Mark]

Directions: Choose the correct option below.
(A) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
(B) Both A and R are true, but R is NOT the correct explanation of A.
(C) A is true, but R is false.
 (D) A is false, but R is true.
Ans (Hint): (A) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
(Rationale: Water absorbs large amounts of heat without a significant
rise in temperature due to high specific heat capacity.)

5. Match the Following [2 Marks]

Match the physical quantity in Column A with its correct SI Unit in Column B:
Column A Column B
(P) Heat Capacity (C') (i) J kg–1
(Q) Specific Heat (ii) J K–1
Capacity (c)
(R) Specific Latent Heat (iii) J kg–1 k–1
(L)
(S) Heat Energy (Q) (v) Joule (J)
Ans (Hint):
Column A Column B
(P) Heat Capacity (C') (ii) J K–1
(Q) Specific Heat (iii) J kg–1 k–1
Capacity (c)
(R) Specific Latent Heat (i) J K–1
(L)
(S) Heat Energy (Q) (v) Joule (J)

6. Differentiate between Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity. Give one point of
distinction other than the unit. [2 Marks]
Ans (Hint): Difference between Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity
• Heat Capacity: It is the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of the entire body by 1ºC. It depends on the mass of the
body.
• Specific Heat Capacity: It is the amount of heat energy required to raise
the temperature of unit mass (1 kg or 1 g) of the substance by 1ºC. It is
a characteristic property independent of mass.

7. A mass of 50 g of a certain metal at 150ºC is immersed in 100 g of water at 11ºC.

The final temperature is 20ºC. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal. (Take
specific heat capacity of water = 4.2Jg−1K−1). [2 Marks]
Ans (Hint): Numerical Solution
Given: Mass of metal (m1) = 50 g, T1 = 150ºC
Mass of water (m2) = 100 g, T2 = 11ºC
Final Temperature (T) = 20ºC
Principle: Heat lost by hot body = Heat gained by cold body.
(
m1c1 T1 − T ) (
= m2c2 T − T2 )
50  c1  (150 − 20) = 100  4.2  (20 − 11)
50  c1  130 = 100  4.2  9
6500c1 = 3780
3780
c1 =
6500
c1  0.58J g−1 K−1

8. Explain the following natural phenomena based on the high specific heat capacity of
water: [3 Marks]
(a) Land and Sea Breezes.
(b) Why farmers fill their fields with water during winter nights to protect crops from
frost.
Ans (Hint): Natural Phenomena
(a) Land and Sea Breezes: Land has a lower specific heat capacity than sea
water. During
the day, land heats up faster than the sea. The air above the land
becomes hot and rises, and cooler air from the sea blows towards the
land (Sea Breeze). The reverse happens at night (Land Breeze).
(b) Protection of crops: Farmers fill fields with water because water has a
high specific heat capacity. As the atmospheric temperature drops at
night, water cools very slowly, releasing a large amount of heat energy
into the surroundings. This prevents the temperature of the crops from
dropping to freezing point (0ºC), saving them from frost damage.

9. Calculate the total amount of heat energy required to convert 100 g of ice at −10ºC
completely into water at 100ºC. [3 Marks]
• Specific heat capacity of ice = 2.1 J g−1K−1
• Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 J g−1K−1
• Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 336 J g−1
Ans (Hint): Total Heat Energy Calculation
• Steps:
1. Heat to raise ice from −10ºC to 0ºC (Q1).
2. Heat to melt ice at 0ºC to water at 0ºC (Q2).
3. Heat to raise water from 0ºC to 100ºC (Q3).
• Calculations:
Q1 = mcice T = 100  2.1  (0 − (−10)) = 100  2.1  10 = 2100 J
Q2 = mL = 100  336 = 33600 J
Q3 = mcwater T = 100  4.2  (100 − 0) = 42000 J
Qtotal = 2100 + 33600 + 42000
Qtotal = 77, 700 J ( or 77.7 kJ)

10. A piece of ice of mass 40 g is added to 200 g of water at 50ºC. Calculate the final
temperature of the mixture when all the ice has melted. [5 Marks]
Given:
• Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg−1K−1
• Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 336 × 103 J kg−1
Ans (Hint): Mixture Calculation
• Given: Mass of ice (mi) = 40 g = 0.04 kg
Mass of hot water (mw) = 200 g = 0.2 kg
Temp of hot water = 50ºC
Let final temperature be T.
• Heat gained by Ice:
Qgain = Heat to melt + Heat to raise temp of melted water to T
( ) (
= mi L + mi cw (T − 0) )
= (0.04  336, 000) + (0.04  4200  T )
= 13, 440 + 168T
• Heat lost by Hot Water:
Qlost = mwcw (50 − T )
= 0.2  4200  (50 − T )
= 840(50 − T )
= 42, 000 − 840T
• Equating (Qgain = Qlost):
13, 440 + 168T = 42, 000 − 840T
168T + 840T = 42, 000 − 13, 440
1008T = 28, 560
28, 560
T =
1008
T = 28.33º C
 Radioactivity

Atoms
Smallest part of any substance which consists of a centralized dense part called nucleus.

Atomic Number (Z)

Number of proton present in nucleus of an atom.

Mass Number (A)

Total number of proton and neutron present in nucleus.

Isotopes
Atoms belonging to the same element having same atomic number (z) but different mass number.
( )
E.g., Protium 11 H and deuterium 12 H ( )
Isotones
Atoms with same neutrons (N) but different atomic number (Z). E.g., ⇒ 23
11 Na and
24
12 Mg

Isobars
Atoms with same mass number (A) but different atomic number. E.g., ⇒ 23
11
Na and 23
12
Mg

Radioactivity
Spontaneous process by which a nucleus of an unstable atom decay by emitting radiations such
as α, β and γ. Substances which disintegrate by spontaneous emissions are radioactive substances.
E.g., Uranium, Radium, Polonium, Thorium, Actinium etc. Radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon.
Properties of α (alpha) particles
‰ Consists of Helium nuclei, 2He .
4 ‰ Can’t penetrate skin but harmful for humans.

‰ It is positively charged particle. ‰ Effects a photographic plate.

‰ Causes fluorescence on striking a fluorescence
‰ Least penetration power. material.
‰ Highest ionisation power. ‰ Affected by electric and magnetic fields.
Properties of b (Beta) particles
‰ Highly energetic electrons, which release ‰ Greater penetration power compared to α
from inside of a nucleus. particles.
‰ Denoted by –1β0 and +1β0. ‰ Less ionization power, still harmful.
‰ They are negatively and positively charged.
‰ Effects photographic plate
‰ They have negligible mass.
‰ Causes fluorescence on striking fluorescent
‰ For emission of negative β particles, a
neutron divides into proton and an electron material.
and for +β protons converts into neutron. ‰ Affected by electric & magnetic field.

Properties of γ particles (Gamma)

‰ Waves from high frequency end of ‰ Very harmful for living cell & causes
electromagnetic spectrum which do not mutation.
have mass.
‰ Effects photographic plate.
‰ Neutral in nature.
‰ Cause fluorescence when they strike a
‰ Denoted by γ0 0
fluorescent material.
‰ High penetrating power compared by α and
β particle. ‰ Not affected by electric and magnetic fields.

Changes within the nucleus in α, b and γ emission

(1) Alpha emission (2) Beta emission (3) Gamma emission
A
Z X 
→ A-4
Z-2 Y + 4
2He A
ZP 
→ A
Z+1 Q+ 0
–1 e A
Z X 
→ A
Z X + γ
Parent nucleus Daughter α-particle Parent nucleus Daughter β-particle Parent nucleus Daughter γ-radiation
nucleus nucleus nucleus

Uses of Radioactivity
(1) Medical use (2) Industrial use (3) Scientific use

X-Rays
‰ These are electromagnetic waves � Frequency ranges from 1016 to 3 × 1020 Hz
Uses:
(i) Surgery to detect fracture, stones in body
(ii) To detect fault, crack on bridges
(iii) For security purpose to detect metal or explosive material.
(iv) Used in scientific research.

Sources of harmful radiation

(1) Radioactive fall out from nuclear power plants
(2) Nuclear waste
(3) Cosmic radiations

Background radiations
All the radiations which are present in the atmosphere, even if there is no radioactive source
present are called background radiations. The sources of these radiations are:

Class-X PHYSICS
 (i) cosmic radiations
(ii) natural and artificial radioactive isotopes
(iii) products after nuclear explosion
(iv) traces of radioactive substance present in earth, i.e., rocks.

Safety measures for handling radioactive materials

‰ Know radiation safely limits to prevent excessive exposure.
‰ Wear lead lined apron and gloves for protection.
‰ Store radioactive substances in thick lead containers with narrow opening to prevent radiation
spread.

Nuclear energy
Energy released during the transformation of nuclei to another nuclei.
Two distinct ways of obtaining nuclear energy.

Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion

(1) Breaking of heavy nucleus into lighted nucleus (1) Involves binding of two nucleus
(2) It is a chain reaction (2) It is not a chain reaction
(3) It is a controlled process (3) It is uncontrolled process
(4) Produces enormous energy (4) More energy than fission
(5) Fission products are hazardous (5) It does not cause pollution
235 U + 1n → 141 Ba + 92 Kr + 3 0 n1 + Q
92 0 56 36
Heavy Thermal Product Huge amount 1 H1 +1 H1 → 1H2 +1 e+ + v + 0.42 meV
nucleus nucleus neutron of energy 1 H2 +1 H2 → 2He3 + 0 n 1 + 3.27 meV
Fission (220 Mev)
product 1 H2 + 1H2 → 1H3 + 1H1 + 4.03 meV

Radioactivity
 Current Year Questions (CYQs)
Physics
Radioactivity
1. Which of the following radiations has the highest ionizing power? (1 Mark)

(A) Alpha () (B) Beta ()

(C) Gamma () (D) X-rays

Ans (Hint): (A) (Alpha)

2. A radioactive nucleus emits a beta particle. The parent and daughter nuclei are:

(1 Mark)

(A) Isotopes (B) Isobars

(C) Isotones (D) Isomers

Ans (Hint): (B) (Isobars)

3. The safe limit of radiation exposure for radiation workers is approximately: (1 Mark)

(A) 20 mSv/year (B) 100mSv/year

(C) 1mSv/year (D) 5mSv/year

Ans (Hint): (A) 20 mSv/year

4. Assertion (A): Alpha particles are deflected towards the negative plate in an electric

field.

Reason (R): Alpha particles carry a double positive charge. (1 Mark)

(A) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation for

Assertion.

(B) Both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not the correct explanation for

Assertion.

(C) Assertion is true, but Reason is false.

(D) Assertion is false, but Reason is true.

Ans (Hint): (A) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation.
5. Match the following: (1 Mark)

Column A Column B

1. Gamma radiation A. Mass Number decreases by 4

2. Alpha emission B. High penetrating power, no

charge

3. Nuclear Fusion C. Combining light nuclei at high

temperature

4. Beta emission D. Atomic Number increases by 1

(A) 1-A, 2-B, 3-C, 4-D

(B) 1-B, 2-A, 3-C, 4-D

(C) 1-B, 2-A, 3-D, 4-C

(D) 1-B, 2-C, 3-A, 4-D

Ans (Hint): (B) 1-B, 2-A, 3-C, 4-D

6. State two differences between nuclear fission and radioactive decay. (2 Marks)

Ans (Hint): Fission: Splitting of heavy nucleus, controllable (in reactors). Decay:

Spontaneous emission, random process.

7. A radioactive nucleus 238

92
U decays by emitting an alpha particle to form a nucleus Th.
Write the nuclear reaction equation. (2 Marks)
238 234
Ans (Hint): 92
U →90 Th + 4
2
He

8. Answer the following: (3 Marks)

(a) Why must radioactive sources be stored in lead boxes?
(b) State one harmful effect of radiation on the human body.
(c) Name one safety precaution a worker in a nuclear power plant should take.
Ans (Hint): (a) Lead absorbs radiation.
(b) Genetic mutation/Cancer.
(c) Use lead-lined aprons/film badges.
9. A radioactive nucleus P decays to Q by emitting one alpha particle and one beta
particle. (3 Marks)
(a) If the atomic number of P is 88 and mass number is 226, calculate the atomic
number and mass number of Q .
(b) Are P and Q isotopes? Give a reason.
Ans (Hint): (a) Alpha emission: 226 − 4 = 222 (Mass), 88 − 2 = 86 (Atomic No).
• Beta emission: Mass remains 222, Atomic No becomes 86 + 1 = 87 .
222
• Final Q: 87
Q.
(b) No, atomic numbers are different (88 vs 87).

10. (a) Draw a labeled diagram of an atom showing the composition of the nucleus and

the arrangement of electrons for a Helium atom ( 4

2
He ).
(b) What is background radiation? Give one internal and one external source.
(c) Complete the following reaction: (5 Marks)
235
92
U +1
0
n → − + 92
36
Kr + 3 1
0
n + Energy

Ans (Hint): (a) Helium Atom Diagram

(b) Background radiation: Radiation from natural sources present at all

times. Source: Potassium-40 (Internal), Cosmic Rays (External).
141
(c) Missing 56
Ba (Barium).