1BESC104A_204A_BUILDING SCIENCE AND MECHANICS

MODULE-1
INTRODUCTION TO BUILDING SCIENCE
What is engineering?
Engineering is a term applied to the profession in which a knowledge of the mathematical and
natural sciences, gained by study, experience, and practice, is applied to the efficient use of the
materials and forces of nature.
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It is a profession of converting scientific knowledge into useful practical applications, where the
materials and force in nature are effectively used for the benefit of mankind. An Engineer is a
person who plays a key role in such activities.

Define Civil Engineering?

Civil engineering is the oldest, broadest and simple of the various engineering fields. It is mainly
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related to planning, analysis, design, construction and maintenance of buildings, roads, bridges,
dams, tunnels and other structures by the use of physical laws and mathematical equations and
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theory of mechanics.
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Scope of different field of civil engineering:

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1. Surveying
2. Structural Engineering
3. Geotechnical Engineering
4. Hydraulics & Water Resources
5. Transportation Engineering
6. Environmental Engineering
7. Construction planning &Project management

i) Surveying:
• It is the science/ art of map making.
• It mainly deals with various types of measurements and plotting of maps/plans.
• To start any development (construction) activity in an area, the relative positions of various
objects in the horizontal and vertical directions are required. This is achieved by surveyingthe
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area.
• Unless maps are drawn, no development work and construction can be undertaken.
• Earlier, conventional/traditional instruments used for surveying are – chain, tape, leveling
instruments, etc.
• Modern instruments are distance meter, total stations, theodolite, etc.
• Modern technologies are photogrammetry and remote sensing(GPS) have made surveying
easier.

• Some of the common instruments used for surveying are,

▪ Chain
▪ Tape
▪ Compass
▪ Auto Level
▪ Theodolite
▪ Total station
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▪ GPS
▪ Drones
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• Classification of surveying
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▪ Plane surveying
In this type of surveying, the effect of curvature of the surface of earth is not taken
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into account. Therefore, plane surveying is adopted for small areas. And the degree
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of accuracy of plane survey is relatively low.

▪ Geodetic surveying
In geodetic surveying the curvature of the earth’s surface is taken into account.
Geodetic surveys are carried out for large distances and areas with a high degree of
precision. In India, Survey of India, a Government department, undertakes the
work of geodetic surveying.
ii) Geotechnical Engineering:
• It mainly deals with the study of soil, its types of soil and their properties.
• Soil property may changes from place to place, depth (layer to layer) to depth even in the
same place, season to season.
• Any building, bridge, dam, retaining wall etc. consist of components like foundations. The
foundation is laid from a certain depth below the ground surface till a hard layer is reached.
The soil should be thoroughly checked for its suitability for construction purposes. The
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study dealing with the properties and behavior of soil under loads and changes in
environmental conditions is called geo-technical engineering.
• Geotechnical engineers analyze the soil to determine its suitability to support extreme loads.
• Proper geotechnical engineering is essential for a safe and secure structure.

Following are the uses of Geo-Technical Engineering

▪ To assess the quality and strength of soil or rock to construct civil engineering
structure.
▪ To design retaining walls for soil retainment.
▪ To decide type of foundations for different type of structures.
▪ For design of underground structures such as Tunnels, Shafts, Conduits.
▪ Design of earthen dams for storage of water. • For the design of Roads for
transportation facilities.

iii) Structural Engineering:

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• It mainly deals with analysis and design of various structures like.

• Steel structures – trusses in industrial building, Towers etc.
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• Concrete structures- buildings, bridges, dams etc.

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• Analysis: Assessing or determining the internal forces or stresses developed in structural

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components of any structures due to applied load is called as analysis. For example
structural components in building are beam, column etc.
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• Design: Fixing or finding the suitable dimensions (breadth, depth, length etc.) for structural
components of any structures using various methods is called as design.
• Example: Load acting on a structure is ultimately transfer to ground (soil) through beams,
columns, foundation etc. When the load acts on the structure, the various components are
subjected to internal stresses (offer resistance to applied load).
• Structural engineers design steel, concrete, or timber framed structures such as: Tall
buildings and towers, bridges, dams, retaining walls, foundations, stadiums.

Following are the uses of Structural Engineering

▪ Analysis and design of Dams, Bridges, Stadiums, Auditoriums, Multi – storied
Buildings.
▪ Analysis and design of power generation stations
▪ Analysis and design of steel industrial structures
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▪ Repair, rehabilitation and maintenance of structures

▪ Design of nuclear Power plants.
▪ Design of structural reinforcement for different type of structural components

iv) Construction Planning and Project Management:

Construction Planning

• It deals with the different types of construction of structures like buildings, roads, bridges,
etc.
• Construction of underground Tunnels using modern equipment's.
• Construction of floating structures.
• Earlier days only man power is utilized for construction. But development of new
technology i.e manufacture of new machineries like cranes to lift weight, painting machines,
plastering machines, concrete or tar laying machines have made the construction easy and
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faster.
• It mainly includes excavation of soil, construction of foundation, concreting, finishing etc
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with different techniques and methods.

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Project Management
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Planning for Construction Equipment and Machinery for construction project.

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• Deals with planning, scheduling and execution of construction activity related to a project.
• Comprises of men, material, time and money management
• Emphasis will be on new construction practice such as pre-cast construction and prestress
constructions, safety of men and material, utilization of marginal materials etc.
Following are the scopes of Construction Technology,
• Building Construction – Residential, commercial, industrial, prefabrication, green buildings.
• Transportation Works – Roads, highways, bridges, flyovers, tunnels, airports, railways,
ports.
• Water Resources – Dams, canals, reservoirs, irrigation systems, water supply & drainage.
• Environmental Engineering – STPs, solid waste management, rainwater harvesting, eco-
friendly methods.
• Industrial & Infrastructure – Power plants, refineries, smart cities, industrial structures.
• Special Structures – Skyscrapers, stadiums, towers, earthquake-resistant and disaster-
resistant buildings.
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• Maintenance & Rehabilitation – Repairs, retrofitting, strengthening, sustainable reuse of

materials.

v) Fluid Mechanics, Hydraulics and Water Resources and Irrigation

Engineering:

Hydraulics
• As we know that water is an very important need for all human beings.
• It mainly deals with study of mechanics of water and its flow characteristics like pipe flows,
open channel flows, dams, irrigation, hydropower etc.
• Applications: - Determination of fluid properties such as density, vapour pressure etc.
• Design of valves, pipes, gates etc.
• Design of hydropower system etc.
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Water Resources and Irrigation Engineering:

• It deals with tapping or storage of water and supplying water to agricultural fields (for crop
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cultivation), to drinking purposes and to other domestic/ industrial uses. Hence suitable
water resources are identified and it is stored.
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• Identifying, planning, building water retaining structures like dams, tanks and carrying
stored water to needy area is known as water resource engineering.
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• Irrigation: - Artificial supply of water to crops by different methods (Drip, Sprinkler

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irrigation) is called as irrigation.

• The important basic human needs i.e water and food are taken care by irrigation engineering
directly or indirectly.
Following are the uses of Fluid Mechanics, Hydraulics and Water Resources and Irrigation
Engineering
▪ To record the total discharge of water from rainfall from catchment areas
▪ To design the reservoir capacity to store the water • Water quality management
and pollution control.
▪ Scope for usage of water for garden and recreational centres.
▪ Design of water supply systems for the cities and industries.
▪ Flood mitigation, land drainage and culverts for control of water.
▪ To measure the discharge of water in rivers for design of bridges.
▪ Design of hydroelectric power plants for generation of electricity.
▪ Design of Pumps and turbines.
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▪ Design of water supply schemes for the city which includes design of pipes and
pumps.
▪ Design of canals to carry water to irrigation land from dams.
▪ Design of Weirs for Dams

vi) Transportation Engineering:

• It plays a very important role in economic development of country.
• It mainly deals with study of existing transportation systems and their improvement for
safe drive.
• It mainly includes design, construction and management of roads, railways, navigation and
air-routs.
• The various modes of transportation are: Road ways, Railways, Airways and Water ways.
• Traffic management including traffic signals, number of lanes (width of roads), parking
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facilities and curves are also a part of transportation engineering.

Following are the scopes of Transportation Engineering,

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▪ It involves planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance of

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transportation facility.
▪ Planning and design of air strip runways, roads, harbours and railways
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▪ Maintenance and up gradation of harbours, airports, railway system based on

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requirements.
▪ It contributes economic, industrial, social and cultural development of any country.
▪ Design of traffic signals for control of traffic

vii) Environmental Engineering (water supply and sanitary engineering)

• This is an important branch of civil engineering which covers both water supply and
sanitary engineering.
• The importance of clean environment was felt with the rapid growth in population, and
growth in urbanization and industries.
• The science of civil engineering deals with the subject of tapping water from different
sources, testing its quality, purification processes and distribution of water to the consumers.
• Similarly, the environmental engineering encompasses the subject of treatment of wastes
which originate from different sources and deals with the removal of harmful substances in
these wastes by different processes.
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• The impact of wastes originating from industries is felt by living organisms if such wastes
contain toxic substances.
• The Central Government as well as state governments have enacted laws for the protection of
environment needed for the safe living of human beings.

Following are the scopes of Environmental Engineering,

• Involves collection of water, Purification and supply for drinking.
• Waste water collection, treatment and disposal
• Air pollution control and treatments.
• Solid waste management and control
• E-Waste management control and Treatment
• Construction waste management and control
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Building materials:
1. Bricks
2. Stones
3. Cement
4. Concrete
5. Structural steel
6. Wood

1. Bricks
• Bricks are obtained by moulding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size and then by
drying and burning these blocks.
• As bricks are of uniform size, they can be properly arranged, light in weight and hence
bricks replace stones.
• Classification: Bricks can broadly be divided into two categories.
(i) Unburnt or sundried bricks (ii) Burnt bricks
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(i) Un burnt or Sun-dried bricks- Un burn or sun dried with the help of heat received
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from sun after the process of moulding. These bricks can only be used in the
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constructions of temporary and cheap structures. Such bricks should not be used at
places exposed to heavy rains.
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(ii) (ii) Burnt Bricks: The bricks used in construction works are burnt bricks and they are
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classified into the following 3 categories.

• First class bricks
• Second class bricks
• Third class bricks

➢ First Class Bricks: -

❑ Plain surface, sharp edges and size with tolerance in dimensions + or -3%

❑ Uniform red or brownish colored.

❑ High crushing strength, not less than 10.7 N/mm2
❑ Machine molded ❑ Efflorescence- NIL ❑ Water absorption less than 15%.
❑ USE: They are used for the exterior wall brick works, short columns and arches.
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➢ Second Class Bricks: -

❑ Slightly uneven faces and edges with tolerance in dimensions +-8%

❑ Uniform colored but may be slightly over burnt.
❑ High crushing strength, not less than 7 N/mm2
❑ Hand molded
❑ Efflorescence- Little
❑ Water absorption less than 20%.
❑ USE: They are used for internal walls and compound walls.

➢ Third Class Bricks

❑ May be distorted with blunt edges.

❑ Over burnt or under burnt and non-uniform color.

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❑ High crushing strength, not less than 3.5N/mm2

❑ Hand molded
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❑ Efflorescence- Large
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❑ Water absorption less than 25%.

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❑ USES: They are used for flooring, paving, small brick foundations and brick bat lime concrete
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(B.B.L.C.).
➢ Tests conducted on bricks: -
Following tests are conducted on bricks to determine their quality for construction,
• Absorption test.
• Crushing strength test.
• Hardness test.
• Shape and size.
• Color test.
• Soundness test.
• Structure of brick.
• Presence of soluble salts (Efflorescence Test)
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2. Stones
Stones are naturally occurring solid masses of minerals, obtained from rocks by quarrying and dressing,
widely used as a construction material due to their strength, durability, and natural beauty.

Properties of Good Building Stones

A stone for construction should have:

• Strength — High crushing strength (>100 N/mm² for granite).

• Durability — Resist weathering, chemical action, abrasion.

• Hardness — For wear resistance (important for floors, pavements).

• Toughness — Ability to resist impact (roads, railway ballast).

• Specific Gravity — Should be >2.4 for structural use.

• Water Absorption — <5% (ideally <1% for high-quality stone).

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• Appearance — Uniform color and texture for aesthetic use.

Easy to cut and shape without splitting.

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• Resistance to Fire — Igneous stones (granite, trap) perform well.

Common Building Stones — Types & Uses

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1. Granite
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• Color: Grey, pink, black, green.

• Properties: Very hard, durable, high crushing strength (100–250 N/mm²), low porosity.

• Uses: Columns, footings, lintels, bridge piers, steps, monuments, flooring.

2. Basalt / Trap

• Color: Dark grey to black.

• Properties: Tough, dense, hard-wearing, crushing strength ~200 N/mm².

• Uses: Road metal, foundation blocks, concrete aggregates, rubble masonry.

3. Sandstone

• Color: Light brown, red, yellow.

• Properties: Easy to dress, moderate strength (20–170 N/mm²), weather resistant.

• Uses: Wall facings, decorative panels, cladding, paving, carvings.

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4. Limestone

• Color: White, grey, cream.

• Properties: Moderately hard, easily dressed, reacts with acids, compressive strength ~30–
150 N/mm².

• Uses: Flooring, wall cladding, lime manufacturing, building blocks.

5. Marble

• Color: White (Carrara), green, black, pink.

• Properties: Fine-grained, hard, takes high polish, strong (70–100 N/mm²).

• Uses: Flooring, wall lining, columns, monuments, table tops, decorative interiors.

6. Slate

• Color: Grey, dark green, black, purple.

• Properties: Fine-grained, splits into thin sheets, non-absorbent, durable.

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• Uses: Roof covering, floor tiles, damp proof courses, blackboards.

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7. Laterite
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• Color: Brown, reddish.

Properties: Soft when freshly quarried (easy to cut), hardens on exposure.

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• Uses: Rural building blocks, compound walls, small houses.

Uses of Stones in Construction

• Structural Uses:

o Foundations, retaining walls, piers, dams.

o Arches, bridges, abutments.

• Flooring & Paving:

o Granite, marble, sandstone for floors & pavements.

• Cladding & Facing:

o Marble, sandstone, slate for walls.

• Monuments & Decorative Works:

o Sculptures, memorials, heritage buildings.

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• Road Construction:

o Basalt, trap, granite for aggregates and surfacing.

• Other Uses:

o Crushed stone for concrete aggregate.

o Limestone for lime & cement manufacture.

3. Cement
A cement is a binder, a substance used for construction that sets, hardens, and adheres to
other materials to bind them together.

Grade of Cement
The grade of cement is generally differentiated in terms of indicates the strength of cement. The
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strength of cement is generally measured as compressive strength. Compressive strength is the

strength of cement molded in a standard cube, after 28 days of curing.
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▪ 33 Grade Cement: 33 grade cement means that the compressive strength of the cement
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after 28 days is 33N/mm2 when tested as per Indian Standards under standard conditions.
▪ 43 Grade Cement: 43 grade cement means that the compressive strength of the cement
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after 28 days is 43N/mm2 when tested as per Indian Standards under standard conditions.
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▪ 53 Grade Cement: 53 grade cement means that the compressive strength of the cement
after 28 days is 53N/mm2 when tested as per Indian Standards under standard conditions.
Types of Cement
1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
Ordinary Portland Cement also known as OPC is a type of cement that is manufactured and used
worldwide. OPC cement are available in three grades, such as 33 Grade, 43 Grade, 53 Grade.
2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
Portland pozzolana cement is prepared by grinding fly ash with Portland cement. It is also
produced by adding pozzolana with the addition of gypsum or calcium sulfate or by intimately
and uniformly blending Portland cement and fine pozzolana (fly Ash).
3. Portland Slag Cement
Portland slag cement is the type of Portland cement obtained by mixing Portland cement clinker
and gypsum with granulated blast furnace slag in suitable proportions and grinding them into a
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thorough and intimate mixture.

The Portland slag cement can also be manufactured by separately grinding Portland cement
clinker with gypsum and blast furnace slag. Then, later mixing them both thoroughly in suitable
proportions.
The product resulting from this manufacturing process is blended cement which has physical
properties similar to ordinary Portland cement.

4. Concrete: -
Concrete is obtained by mixing cement, fine aggregate (sand), coarse aggregate(crushed stone)
and water in a definite proportion.

Grade of Concrete:
• IS 456-2000(Indian Standard Code Book) has designated the concrete mixes into a
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number of grades as M10, M15, M20, M25, M30, M35 and M40. In this designation the
letter M refers to the mix and the number to the specified 28-day cube strength of mix in
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N/mm2. The mixes of grades M10, M15, M20 and M25 correspond approximately to the
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mix proportions (1:3:6), (1:2:4), (1:1.5:3) and (1:1:2) respectively.

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Factors Influencing the Strength of Concrete::

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1. Ratio of the cement to the mixing water

2. Ratio of cement and aggregate
3. Grading of the aggregate
4. Shape, size, texture of the aggregate
5. Mode of compaction
6. Curing method and the curing temperature
7. Concrete Mix
8. Rate of Loading
9. Moisture conditions
10. Age of the cement
11. Gel - space ratio
12. Age of concrete
13. Maximum size of the aggregates
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14. Water -Cement Ratio

15. Porosity
Types Concrete

1. Normal Strength Concrete

The concrete that is obtained by mixing the basic ingredients cement, water and aggregate will
give us normal strength concrete. The strength of these type of concrete will vary from 10 MPa to
40MPa. The normal strength concrete has an initial setting time of 30 to 90 minutes that is
dependent on the cement properties and the weather conditions of the construction site.
2. Lightweight Concrete
Concrete that have a density lesser than 1920kg/m3 will be categorized as lightweight concrete.
The use of lightweight aggregates in concrete design will give us lightweight aggregates.
Aggregates are the important element that contributes to the density of the concrete. The
examples of light weight aggregates are the pumice, perlites, and scoria. The light weight
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concrete is applied for the protection of the steel structures and are also used for the construction
of the long span bridge decks. These are also used for the construction of the building blocks.
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3. High-Density Concrete
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The concretes that have densities ranging between 3000 to 4000 kg/m3 can be called as the
heavyweight concrete. Here heavy weight aggregates are used. The crushed rocks are used as the
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coarse aggregates. The most commonly used heavy weight aggregates is Barytes. These types of
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aggregates are most commonly used in the construction of atomic power plants and for similar
projects.
4. Air Entrained Concrete
These are concrete types into which air is intentionally entrained for an amount of 3 to 6% of the
concrete. The air entrainment in the concrete is achieved by the addition of foams or gas -
foaming agents. Some examples of air entraining agents are resins, alcohols, and fatty acids.
5. High-Strength Concrete
The concretes that have strength greater than 40MPa can be termed as high strength concrete.
This increased strength is achieved by decreasing the water-cement ratio even lower than
0.35.
6. High-Performance Concrete
These concretes conform to a particular standard but in no case, will be limited to strength. It has
to be noted that all the high strength concrete can be high-performance type. But not all high-
performance concrete (HPC) are high strength concrete. Standards that conform to the high-
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performance concrete are enlisted below:

o Strength gain in early age
o Easy placement of the concrete
o Permeability and density factors
o Heat of hydration
o Long life and durability
o Toughness and life term mechanical properties

5. Structural Steel: -
• Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon containing carbon from 0.25 to 1.25%.
• Steel is highly elastic, ductile, malleable, forgeable and weld- able.
Types of steel: -
a. Mild steel
b. TOR steel
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c. High tensile steel

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➢ Mild steel: -
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• Mild steel is a plain carbon steel.

• The % of carbon alloy is < 0.25%.
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• It used as structural as well as non-structural steel in form of various sections

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like I section, channel angle and in form of round bars as a reinforcement in

concrete.
• Mild steel bars are designated as Fe-250.
• Where 250 is yield strength in N/mm2.
• Fe denotes the ferrous metal.
➢ TMT OR TOR steel

Thermo Mechanically Treated or TMT bars are high-strength reinforcement bars that feature a
tough outer core and a soft inner core. To put it simply, it is a form of HYSD steel, where the steel
bars after undergoing the mandatory heat treatment process.

➢ High tensile steel wires (tendons)

• Two wires are spun together to form the strand.
• A group of strands or wires are placed together to form a pre-stressing tendon.
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• A group of tendons form a prestressing cable.

• Their ultimate strength ranges from 1500 to 2350 N/mm2.

Use of steel: -

• As a structural material in trusses, beams and in the form of various sections.

• As a non-structural component for grills, windows, doors.
• In the fabrications of steel pipes, tanks etc.
• Used as a corrugated sheets which act as roof over the structure.
• Mild steel is used as a distribution steel and TOR steel is used as a main steel in RCC.
• High tensile steel cable are used in pre-stressed concrete.

6. Wood
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1. Definition
Wood is a natural material obtained from trees, widely used in construction due to its strength,
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durability, workability, and aesthetic appeal. It is one of the oldest building materials.
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2. Classification of Wood
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a) Based on Origin
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• Softwoods (coniferous trees):

o Examples: Pine, Deodar, Cedar, Fir.
o Light, soft, easy to work, less durable.
o Commonly used for joinery, packing, plywood, doors, and windows.
• Hardwoods (deciduous trees):
o Examples: Teak, Oak, Sal, Rosewood, Mahogany.
o Dense, strong, resistant to wear and attack.
o Used for furniture, flooring, heavy construction, railway sleepers.
b) Based on Treatment
• Seasoned wood: Moisture removed → durable, less prone to decay.
• Unseasoned wood: High moisture → weak, decays easily.
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3. Properties of Good Timber (Construction Quality Wood)

1. Appearance – Uniform color, straight grains.
2. Strength – Should withstand heavy loads (Teak, Sal).
3. Durability – Resistance to decay, pests, fungi.
4. Hardness – Withstand wear and abrasion.
5. Easy to saw, plane, and nail.
6. Resistance – Against termites, insects, and moisture.
7. Low Shrinkage and Warping after seasoning.
4. Uses of Wood
• Building Construction:
o Doors, windows, roof trusses, flooring, staircases.
o Beams, columns (in traditional buildings).
• Temporary Works:
Scaffolding, centering, shuttering (formwork).
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• Furniture & Interiors:

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o Tables, chairs, cupboards, decorative paneling.

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• Railway & Transport:

o Sleepers, boat building, vehicle bodies.
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• Other Uses:
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o Sports goods, tool handles, packaging, musical instruments, plywood and veneers.

STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF A BUILDING

1. Foundation
2. Plinth
3. Lintel
4. Chejja
5. Masonry wall
6. Column
7. Beam
8. Slab
9. Flooring
10. Staircase
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1. Foundation

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▪ A Foundation is the lowest part of the building structure resting on soil below ground
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level.
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▪ This is the first structural unit to be constructed for any building construction.
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▪ Its main function is

o Transfer All loads of building through beam and column arrangement.
o Distribute the load evenly and safely to the ground.
o Prevents settlement of the building.
Types of Foundation

Following are different types of foundations used in construction:

1. Shallow foundation
o Individual footing or isolated footing
o Combined footing
o Strip foundation
o Raft or mat foundation
2. Deep Foundation
o Pile foundation
o Drilled Shafts or caissons
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2. Plinth
▪ The plinth is a part of the foundation constructed either at or above the ground.
▪ Plinth is the offset created between ground level and the superstructure of the building.
▪ It is made by constructing a brick/stone wall or RCC beam from the ground level to the
flooring level of the building.
▪ Plinth constructed by RCC beam is called a Plinth beam.
▪ Its main function is
o To prevent the entry of moisture from the ground surface to the building
superstructure
o To take up the load of the wall coming over it.
3. Lintel
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▪ Lintels are constructed above the wall openings like doors, windows, etc.
▪ Normally, lintels are constructed by reinforced cement concrete.
▪ In residential buildings, lintels can be either constructed from concrete or brick or stone
masonry.
▪ Its main function is to support the weight of the wall coming over the opening.
Types of Lintel
1. Timber Lintel
2. Stone Lintel
3. Reinforced Brick Lintel
4. Steel Lintel
5. RCC Lintel
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4. Chejja

▪ This is a structure that is generally constructed above the window and projected outside
from the window face.
▪ Chejjas can also be provided above doors.
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▪ Chejjas are constructed from reinforced cement concrete.

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Advantages of providing Chejja

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• It protects the house from external sunlight.

• It protects the house by providing a barrier for rain water to enter.
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• It can be used to place the compressor of AC.

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• Chajja helps to protect the wooden windows from rain and sun.
• Chajja serves as an aesthetic decoration to the building.
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5. Masonry Wall

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▪ Walls are vertical elements of a building which support the roof.

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▪ They provide an enclosure and protect against wind, sunshine, rain etc.
▪ Doors and Window openings are provided in the walls for ventilation and access to the
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building.
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▪ It can be constructed using stones, bricks, concrete blocks, etc.

▪ Different types of bonds are used for constructing walls.
▪ The main function of masonry wall is to provide an enclosure and protect against wind,
sunshine, rain etc.
▪ The main components of masonry wall are
o Masonry Units: Mud bricks, Cement concrete bricks, hollow bricks
o Masonry Mortar: Mortar is used between the joints of the brick layers.

Types of Masonry Wall

1. Load-bearing masonry wall

2. Reinforced masonry wall
3. Hollow/Cavity masonry wall
4. Composite masonry wall
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5. Precast masonry wall

6. Columns

▪ Columns are vertical members constructed above the ground level to support any structural
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frame.
▪ Load Coming from the Slab and Beams are transferred to the columns and columns
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transfer the load to the footing safely.

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▪ Columns can be of two types:

o Architectural columns: They are constructed to improve the building's aesthetics
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o Structural columns: They take the load coming from the slab above and transfers it
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safely to the foundation.

Types of Columns
1. Rectangular/Square Columns
2. Circular Columns
3. Short Columns
4. Long Columns
5. Axially Loaded Columns
6. Column with Uniaxial Eccentric Loading
7. Column with Biaxial Eccentric Loading
8. Composite Columns
 1BESC104A_204A_BUILDING SCIENCE AND MECHANICS

7. Beams

▪ Beam is a horizontal structural member used to carry vertical load, shear load and
sometime horizontal load.
▪ It is the major component of building structures. It mainly used in construction of bridges,
trusses, and other structures which carry vertical load.
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Types of Beams
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Based on Geometry
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1. Straight beam
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2. Curved Beam
3. Tapered Beam
Based on Material
1. Timber Beam
2. Reinforced Concrete beam
3. Steel Beam
Based on Cross section
1. Rectangular Beam
2. T – Beam
3. I – Beam
Based on Type of support
1. Simply Supported Beam
2. Fixed Beam
3. Continuous Beam
 1BESC104A_204A_BUILDING SCIENCE AND MECHANICS

4. Cantilever Beam
5. Over hanging Beam

8. Slabs

• Slabs are constructed to provide flat surfaces, usually horizontal in building floors,
roofs, bridges, and other types of structures.
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• The slab may be supported by walls or by reinforced concrete beams usually cast
monolithically with the slab or by structural steel beams or by columns, or by the ground.
U
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Types of Slabs
1. One way slabs
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2. Two way slabs

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3. Flat slabs
4. Grid slabs
5. Precast slab
6. Composite slab
7. Hollow core slab
8. Sunken slabs
9. Waist Slab
10. Projected slab
 1BESC104A_204A_BUILDING SCIENCE AND MECHANICS

9. Flooring
1. Definition
Flooring is the finished surface of a floor on which occupants move inside a building. It forms the
functional, wear-resistant, and decorative surface placed over the base floor (concrete, earth, or
structural slab).
2. Requirements of Good Flooring
• Be durable and strong to withstand wear and loads.
• Be resistant to abrasion, dampness, fire, and chemicals (where required).
• Have a smooth, even, and non-slippery surface.
• Be easy to clean and maintain.
• Provide good appearance and comfort.
• Be economical and suited to the type of building (residential, industrial, commercial).
3. Types of Flooring
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1. Mud Flooring
o Made of well-tamped and leveled soil mixed with cow dung.
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o Very cheap, used in rural houses.

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o Drawback: Not durable, requires frequent maintenance.

2. Brick Flooring
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o Bricks laid flat or on edge over sand cushion and compacted.

A

o Used in go-downs, warehouses, cheap houses.

o Economical but less attractive.
3. Stone Flooring
o Stones like granite, marble, slate, or sandstone laid in proper patterns.
o Durable, hard-wearing, decorative.
o Used in public buildings, temples, hospitals.
o Marble/granite → luxurious finish.
4. Cement/Concrete Flooring
o Most common; plain cement concrete (PCC) or mosaic topping over it.
o Strong, durable, economical.
o Suitable for schools, residential, offices, godowns.
5. Terrazzo (Mosaic) Flooring
o Cement concrete base with marble chips topping, polished after curing.
o Smooth, shiny, decorative.
 1BESC104A_204A_BUILDING SCIENCE AND MECHANICS

o Used in houses, hotels, theatres.

6. Tile Flooring
o Glazed or vitrified ceramic/porcelain tiles fixed over cement mortar bed.
o Easy to clean, available in many colors/patterns.
o Widely used in kitchens, bathrooms, living rooms.
7. Wooden Flooring
o Timber planks or parquet laid over joists or concrete.
o Gives warmth and good appearance.
o Used in auditoriums, residential buildings, sports halls.
o Drawback: Costly, affected by termites and dampness.
8. Glass Flooring
o Used in modern commercial buildings for aesthetic/lighting effects.
o Expensive, requires special support.
9. PVC / Vinyl Flooring
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o Plastic sheets or tiles fixed with adhesive.

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o Smooth, lightweight, resistant to chemicals.

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o Used in hospitals, labs, offices.

10. Rubber Flooring
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o Rubber tiles/sheets laid with adhesive.

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o Resilient, sound-proof, non-slippery.

o Used in gyms, play areas, schools.

[Link] Case

• A stair is a sequence of steps that connects different floors in a building structure.

• The space occupied by a stair is called as the stairway.
 1BESC104A_204A_BUILDING SCIENCE AND MECHANICS

• Stairs can be constructed by wood, Steel, Brick or Stone, R.C.C etc.

• Its main function is
o To provide an access from one floor to another.
o To provide a safe means of travel between floors.
o To provide a suitable means of escape in case of fire

Types of stairs
1. Straight Stair: A stair with a single straight flight or successive straight flights without
change in direction.
2. Dog-legged Stair: A stair with two flights running in opposite directions with a landing
between them and no open space.
3. Open Newel Stair: A stair with two flights running in opposite directions separated by an
open well (space) between them.
4. Circular Stair: A stair arranged along the circumference of a circle, usually without a
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central post.
5. Spiral Stair: A compact stair with steps radiating around a central vertical post.
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6. Bifurcated Stair: A wide stair that splits into two narrower flights after a landing.
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D
A