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CONTENT GENERATION
[UNDER EDUSAT PROGRAMME]

ADVANCED COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING

[THEORY-2]

6 sem etc, diploma engg.

th

Under SCTE&VT, Odisha

PREPARED BY: -
1. Er. DEBI PRASAD PATNAIK
[Sr. Lecture, Dept of ETC, UCP Engg. School, Berhampur]

2. Er. PARAMANANDA GOUDA

[Lecturer (PT), Dept of ETC, UCP Engg. School, Berhampur]

3. Er. ASMAN KUMAR SAHU

[Lecturer (PT), Dept of ETC, UCP Engg. School, Berhampur]
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[CHAPTER-I]
----------------------- radar and navigation aids--------------------------
 RADAR means Radio Detection and Ranging. It is a device which can detect the presence of Target
and measure its Range.
 Radar is an electromagnetic system for detection and location of reflecting objects such as aircrafts,
ships, vehicles, people and natural environment etc.
 It operates by transmitting a particular type of wave form (for e.g. pulse modulated sine wave) into
space and detects the nature of echo signal reflected form an objects or targets.
 Radar can’t recognize colour of objects but it can recognize darkness, fog, smoke, rain, snow etc.
 SIMPLE RADAR SYSTEM:-
 A Simple Radar System consists of
Transmitter, Receiver and Antenna.
 A Transmitter generates an EM
Signal which is radiated into space
by Transmitting Antenna. A portion
of the transmitted energy is
intercepted by the target and re-
radiated in many directions. The
radiation directed towards the Radar
is collected by the receiving
Antenna and delivers into receiver.
 At the receiver the Signal is
processed to detect the presence of
target and determines its location.
 A Single Antenna is generally used
in a time shared basic for both
Transmitting and Receiving when the radar waveform is a repetitive series of pulses.
 The range or distance to a target is found by measuring the time it takes for the radar signal to travel
to the target and return back to the Radar.
 Radar can also provide information about nature of target being observed.
 If the target is in motion, there is a shift in the frequency of the echo signal due to the Doppler Effect.
This frequency shift is proportional to the velocity of the target related to the Radar which is known
as Radar velocity.
 NOTE: Doppler frequency shift is widely used in Radar as the basic for separating desired moving
target from fixed(Unwanted) clutter echoes reflected from natural environments such as see, Lake
Etc.
 The range of the target is determined by the time TR; It is the time taken by the pulse to travels to the
target and returns back.
 The EM Wave in the space travel in the speed of light i.e. 3×108 m/s. Thus the time taken for the
signal to travel to the target located at a Range ‘R’ and returned back to the Radar can found as: -
V=S/T =>T=S/V
[V≡Velocity≡C; S≡Distance≡R; T≡Time≡TR]
TR=2R/C R=CTR/2
NOTE:-
RKM = 0.15 TR (µs) RMtr = 150 TR (µs) RYard = 164 TR (µs) RFeet = 492 TR (µs)
Rnmi =0.081 TR (µs) [nmi= Nautical Miles] Rsmi =0.081 TR (µs) [smi= Statute Miles]
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 Un-Ambiguous Range:-
 Once the signal is radiated into space by Radar, Sufficient time must elapse to allow all echo signals
to return to the Radar before the next pulse is transmitted. The rate at which the next pulse transmitted
is determined by the longest range at which targets are accepted.
 If the time between pulses TP is too short an echo signal from long range target might arrive after the
transmission of next pulse and we mistakenly associated with that pulse rather than the actual pulse
transmitted earlier. This can result an incorrect or ambiguous measurement of Range.
 Echo that arrives after the transmission of next pulse are called second-time around echo. Such an
echo would appear to be at a closer range than the actual and its range measurement is called
misleading, if it were not known to be second-time around echo.
 Hence the range beyond which the target appears as second-time around echo is called Maximum
Unambiguous Range.
RUnamb = CTP/2 = C/2FP
Where, Tp = Pulse Repetition Period. & FP = Pulse Repetition Frequency.
 TYPES Of RADAR:-
 There are basic two types of Radar Detecter
 Pulse Radar System
 Contineous Wave (CW) Radar System
 Continuous Wave Radar System again classified into two categories such as: -
 CW Doppler Radar
 Frequency Modulated CW Radar (FM-CW Radar).
 APPLICATIONS Of RADAR:-
 Radar used in Different Fields like: -
 Military  Highway Safety
 Remote Sensing  Aircraft Safety and Navigation
 Air Traffic Control  Ship Safety
 Law Enforcement  Space Vehicles Control etc.
 Performance Factors of RADAR (OR) Radar Range Equations: -
 Radar Equation relates the Range of Radar to the characteristic of Transmitter, Receiver, Antenna,
Target, and Environment etc.
 It is used not just as a man for determining the maximum distance from Radar to a Target. But it can
serve both as a tool for understanding Radar Operation and a Basic form of Radar Design.
 In this section the simple form of Radar Equation is derived.
 For an isotropic antenna; If the Power of Radar Transmitter is denoted by Pt then the Power Density
(watts per unit area) at a distance ‘R’ is equal to the Transmitted Power Divided by the Surface Area
(4πR2) of an Imaginary Sphere with Radius ‘R’. Where Pi = Power Density from Isotropic Antenna.

Pi= ………………….……………. (1)

 Generally Radar uses Directive antennas to channels. In this case the radiated power Pt is in some
particular direction. If the gain (G) of an antenna is a measure of increased power radiated in the
direction of target as compared with power that would have been radiated. And is defined as,

Maximum Power Density Radiated by Directive Antenna

G=
Power radiated by a loss less Isotropic Antenna with same Power Input
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 So, The Power Density at the target form an Directive Antenna with a transmitting gain ‘G’ is

PD= ……………………..…………. (2)

 The target intercepts a portion of radiated power and re-radiated it in the various directions. The
measure of the amount of incident power intercepted by the target and re-radiated back in the Radar
Cross Section (σ) and is defined by the relation.
….…………. (3)
Power Density of the echo signal at Radar= × =
( )
 The Radar cross section (σ) as unit of area, it is the characteristic of a particular target and a measure
of its size as seen by the Radar.
 Like target the Receiving Antenna intercepts a portion of the re-radiated power which is proportional
to the Cross Sectional Area of the Receiving Antenna (Ae). The radar antenna captures a portion of the
echo power. If the effective area of the cross sectional area of receiving antenna is denoted as Ae. The
power receiving by the Radar is

Pr= × × Ae  Pr = .….………….…. (4)

( )

 The Maximum Radar Range i.e. Rmax is the distance beyond which the target cannot be detected. It
occurs when the received echo signal power Pr just equal to the Minimum Detectable Signal (Smin),

Smin=  (Rmax)4 =
( ) ( )

 (Rmax) = [ ]
……..……………….(5)
( )
 That is the Fundamental of the Radar Equation.
NOTE: - The importment antenna parameters are Transmitting Gain & the Receiving Effective Area.
 Antenna theory give the relation between Transmitting gain & receiving affective area of antenna i.e.,

G= & Ae= …………………. (6)

 Since the Radar generally use the same antenna both for Transmission and Reception, So we use these
values in fundamental equation of Radar.

Rmax= ×  Rmax= [ ] ……..(7)

( )

( ) Rmax=[ ]
Rmax=[ ] & ( ) ………..……….(8)

 These simplified versions of Radar equation don’t adequately describe the performance of actual
Radars, as many important factors are not included. Also Idealized conditions have been employed i.e.
neither the Effect of Ground nor Absorption and Interference is taken into account. Hence, the
maximum range in practice is often less than that of indicated by the Radar Range Equation.
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 Important Problems: -
 What is the duty cycle of Radar with a pulse width of 3µsec and a PRT of 6ms?

As Duty Cycle= =

×
Duty cycle = = = 0.5×10-3 = 0.0005
×
 Duty cycle also is expressed as ratio of average power to that of peak power.

Average power = Peak Power × Duty Cycle

 Calculate the average power when peak power is 100kw with PW of 3µs and PRT of 6ms?
×
Duty cycle = = = 0.5×10-3 = 0.0005
×
Peak Power = 100kw = 100×103 Watt
Average Power = Peak Power × Duty Cycle =100×103×0.5×10-3 = 50 watt
 Calculate the maximum range of a Radar system which operates at 3cm wave length with a peak
pulse power of 500kw and its minimum detectable signal Smin is 10-13watt, the aperture area of its
antenna is 5m2 and the Radar cross sectional area of the target is 20m2.
Given: Wave length, = 3cm = 0.03m
Peak Power, Pt= 500kw =500×103watt
Smin=10-13W, Aperture Area (Ae) =5m2 & σ = 20m2

Rmax= [ ]

× × ×
 Rmax = [ ]1/4  Rmax =686km =370nmi
×( . ) ×

 A Radar operating at 10GHz with the peak power of 500kW, the power gain of antenna is 5000
and the minimum power at the receiver is 10-14W. Calculate the maximum range of Radar if the
affective area of antenna is 10m2 and RADAR cross sectional area is 4m2?
Given: f = 10Ghz = 10×109Hz , Pt=500kw= 500x103 watt
G= 5000, Smin=10-14W, Aperture Area (Ae) =10m2 & σ = 4m2

(Rmax) = [ ]
( )

× × ×
 Rmax = [ ]1/4 = 501643.359m = 501.643km
×

----ALL------THE------BEST----------ALL------THE------BEST----
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 PULSE RADAR SYSTEM:-

 The operation of a typical Pulse Radar System is described by the help of block diagram.
 Generally it consists of Antenna, Transmitter and Receiver which are explained below.
1. ANTENNA: -
 The function of antenna during transmission is to concentrate the radiated energy into a shaped beam
which points in the desired direction in the space.
 On reception the antenna collects energy contained in the echo signal and deliveries it to the receiver.
 The two important input parameters of Antenna i.e. Transmitting Gain (G) and Effective Receiving
Area (Ae) are proportional to each other.
 An antenna with large effective receiving aperture implies a large transmitting gain.
 Different type of antenna can be used in Radar such as mechanically steered parabolic reflector,
electrically steered planned array antenna or electrically steered phase array antenna etc.
2. TRANSMITTER: -
 The Transmitter may be an oscillator such as a Magnetron i.e. pulsed [turned ON and OFF] by the
modulator to generate a repetitive train of pulse.
 The Magnetron most widely used for a various microwave generator for Radar.
 A Typical Radar for the detection of aircraft has the following points: -
 Ranges nearly equal to 100 to 200nmi.
 Transmitting power in the order of mega watt & Average power in order of several kilowatt;
 Pulse Width in the order of micro second.
 Pulse repetition frequency in the order of several 100 pulses per sec.
 Transmitting section consists of Waveform Generator, Pulse Modulator, Power Amplifier & Duplexer.
 The waveform generator generates repetitive train of pulse & is fed to pulse modulator for modulation.
 The pulse modulator modulates the train of pulses and gives the pulse modulated signal to the power
amplifier for amplification.
 The power amplifier amplifies the pulse modulated signal and fed to the duplexer. Generally audio
frequency amplifier is used for this purpose.
 The duplexer allows a single antenna to be used on a time sharing basis for transmitting and receiving.
 The duplexer is generally a gaseous device that produces a short circuited at input to the antenna
During Transmission. So that the high power is flows to the antenna not to the receiver.
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 The duplexer protects from damages caused by the high power of the transmitter. It also serves to
channel that the returned echo signal to the receiver and not to the transmitter.
 The duplexer might consist of two gassed discharged devices one known as TR (Transmit Receiver)
and ATR (Anti-Transmit Receiver).
 The TR protects the receiver during transmitting and the ATR directs the echo signal to the receiver
during reception.
3. RECEIVER SECTION: -
 The receiver is usually super heterodyne type. It consists of different part as explained bellow: -
 The 1st stage of the receiver is low noise R.F. transistor amplifier which reduces the noise level.
 The mixer and local oscillator converts the R.F. signal to intermediate frequency where it is amplified
by the IF amplifier.
 The signal Bandwidth of a super heterodyne receiver is determined by the bandwidth of the IF stage.
 The IF amplifier is designed as a Matched Filter that is one which maximizes the output peak-signal-
to-mean-noise ratio.
 Thus the basic function of matched filter is to maximize the detectability of weak echo signal &
attenuates the unwanted signal.
 The IF amplifier is followed by a critical diode which is called the second detector or demodulator. Its
purpose is to assist extracting the modulating signal from the modulated signal.
 The combination of IF amplifier, 2nd detector and video amplifier act as an envelope detector to pass
pulse modulation (envelop) and reject the carrier frequency.
 To detect the Doppler shift of the echo signal the enveloped detector replaced by phase detector which
is different from the envelope detector.
 The combination of the IF amplifier and video amplifier is designed to provide sufficient amplification
or gain to raise the level of the input signal to a magnitude where it can be seen in a display.
 At the end of the receiver a decision is made whether a target is present or not. The decision is based
on the magnitude of the receiver output.
 If the output is large enough to exceed a pre-determined threshold, the decision is that the target is
present. If it does not cross the threshold only noise is assumed to present.
 The display unit is usually a Cathode Ray Tube; the most common form of the CRT is Plane Position
Indicator (PPI) which maps location of the target is in Azimuth angle & Range in polar co-ordinates.
 B-scope display is similar to the PPI except that it utilizes the rectangular co-ordinate rather than the
polar co-ordinates to display Range Vs Angle.
 Another for display is A-scope which plots target Amplitude Vs Range for some fixed direction.
 CONTINUOUS WAVE RADAR (CW RADAR) :-
 Pulse Radar is used for detection of Stationary Objects; Where as to detect a Moving Target,
continuous wave type of Radar is used.
 CW Radar is of Two type: -
(1) CW Doppler Radar (2) FM CW Radar
 CW Doppler Radar uses the Doppler Effect for the Target Speed Measurement.
 FM CW Radar is used to measure Range as well as Velocity of the Target.
 DOPPLER EFFECT:-
 The aperant frequency of electromagnetic or sound waves depends on the relative radial motion of the
source or observer. If the source and observer one moving away from each other then the aperant
frequency will decrease and when they moving towards each other then the aperant frequency will
increase. This phenomenon was postulated by C. Doppler. So it is known as Doppler Effect.
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 If ‘R’ is the distance from the Radar to target then the total number of wavelength (λ) contained in the
two way path between the Radar and target is 2R/λ.
 Each wavelength corresponds to a phase change of 2π radian then the total phase change in the two
way propagation path is equal to (2Π x 2R/λ) i.e. Φ=4ΠR/λ.
 If the target is in motion w.r.t. the Radar then R and Φ are continuously changes. A change in Ф w.r.t.
time is equal to frequency and this is known as Doppler Angular Frequency (Wd).

Wd = 2πfd = = )= = Vr

Where fd = Doppler Frequency Shift & Vr = Radial Velocity of the Target w.r.t. Radar
 From the above expression, fd= 2Vr/λ. Put λ=C/ft ,We get fd=2Vrft/C.
Where ft=Radar frequency or Transmitted frequency.
 If fd in Hz, Vr in nmi & λ in meter then fd =1.03Vr/λ.
 With a CW Transmit frequency of 5GHz, Calculate the Doppler frequency seen by the Stationary
Radar when the Target radial velocity is 100km/hr.
Given that ft = 5 GHz = 5x109 Hz ; Vr =100Km/hr = 100x1000/3600 = 27.8m/s ; c = 3x108 m/s.
As λ= c/f = (3x108) / (5x109) = 0.06m
fd = 2Vr / λ = (2x 27.8) / 0.06 = 926 Hz.
 1. CW Doppler RADAR:-

 The CW Transmitter generates a continuous sine wave rather than pulse (Unmodulated) of frequency
ft which is radiated by the antenna. Since, here the transmission is continuous the Circulator is used to
provide isolation between transmitter & receiver. For continuous wave the use of duplexer is pointless.
 A Portion of radiated energy is intercepted by the target and scattered. Some of it in the direction of
Radar where it is collected by receiving antenna.
 If the target is in motion with a velocity of VR relative to the Radar, the received signal will be shifted
in frequency from the transmitted frequency ft by an amount of ±fd.
 The plus (+) sign associated with the Doppler frequency applied, if the distance between the target and
the Radar is decreasing (when they moving towards each other) i.e. when the received signal
frequency is greater than the transmitted signal frequency. The minus (-) sine applied if the distance is
increasing i.e. target is away going from the Radar.
 Hence the received echo signal at the frequency ft±fd enters to the Radar via antenna.
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 This signal is heterodyne in the detector (mixer) with a portion of transmitted signal ft to produce a
Doppler bit of frequency fd. The sign of the fd is losses in this process. So we cannot predict whether
the target is going away from the Radar or coming towards the Radar.
 The purpose of the Doppler amplifier is to eliminate echoes from stationary target and to amplify the
Doppler echo signal to a level where it can operate an indicating device like frequency counter.
 The counter is a normal one except that the output is shown as km or miles/hour rather than the actual
frequency in Hz.
 The main disadvantage of simple CW system is its lake of sensitivity. The type of diode detector that
is used to accommodate the high incoming frequency and is not a good device for the audio output
frequency. Thus an increment is in the following ways.

 CW Doppler RADAR With IF AMPLIFIER:-

 A small portion of a transmitter
output is mixed with output of
local oscillator and the sum is fed
to the receiver mixer by the help of
sideband filter.
 The receiver mixer also receives
the Doppler shifted signal from
receiving antenna and produces an
output difference frequency i.e.
typically 30MHz (Generated by the
IF oscillator) ±fd.
 The output of this mixer is
amplified by the amplifier and
demodulates again by the detector.
 The signal from the 2nd detector is
just the Doppler frequency (fd).
 This signal is again amplified by the Doppler amplifier so as to raise the signal level such as to meet
the frequency counter or indicator. Its sine is lost so that it not possible to tell whether the target is
approaching or receiving.
 Separate receiving and transmitting antenna have been used. A Circulator could be used as shown in
simple CW Radar system. Separate antenna is used to increase the isolation between transmitter and
receiver section of the Radar.
 ADVANTAGES: -
 CW Radar is capable of giving accurate measurement of relative velocity using low transmitting
power, simple circuitry low power consumption and equipment whose size is much smaller than that
of pulsed Radar equipment.
 It is unaffected by the presence of stationary target.
 With some additional circuitry CW Radar can measure the direction of the target along with its speed.
 LIMITATION: -
 It is limited to the maximum power it transmits and this naturally places a limit on its maximum range.
 It is easily confused by the presence of a large number of targets (Although it is capable of delaying
with more than one target if special filters are included).
 It is capable of indicating the range of the target. It can only show its velocity because the transmitted
signal is Unmodulated.
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 The receiver cannot sense which particular cycle of oscillation being received at that moment and
therefore cannot tell how long ago this particular cycle was transmitted, so that the range cannot be
measured.
 APPLICATION:-
 It is used in aircraft navigation for speed measurement.
 Another application is in a rate of climb meter for vertical take of planes such as Harrier.
 It is most commonly used in Radar speed meter used by police.

 2. FM CW RADAR:-
 The greatest limitation of Doppler
radar i.e. it is unable to measure the
range is over come if the transmitted
carrier is frequency modulate.
 If this is done it would be possible to
eliminate difficulty with CW Radar
i.e. its inability to distinguish one
cycle from other.
 The popular method in CW Radar is
to linearly frequency modulated the
waveform the modulation is
triangular which gives up eventually
and comes down.
 The transmitted signal is shown by the solid triangular waveform and the receiver signal is shown by
dashed line. Delay time, T=2R/C , Δf = Frequency deviation , Fm = Modulation frequency.
 The target is stationary w.r.t. the plane. A
frequency difference proportional to the
height of the plane will exist between the
receiver and transmitter signal is now
being received was sent at a time when
the instantaneous frequency was different.
 The rate of change of frequency with time
due to the FM process is known the time
difference between the sent and received
signal may be calculated.
 The above diagram is the block diagram
of a common application of the FM CW
Radar system. It is also known as air
borne altimeter as it is employed for measurement of altitude in air craft. Here we use a saw tooth
generator as we employing saw tooth frequency modulation for simplicity.
 A FM transmitter is used in which frequency modulation of the signal can be done and its output is
given to the mixer. The output of the mixer which produces the frequency difference (beat frequency)
as amplified by amplifier and limited to remove any amplitude fluctuation by limiter.
 This signal is fed to a frequency counter and to an indicator whose output is calibrated in meter or feet.
 APPLICATION:-
 FM CW Radar is mostly used in altimeter in aircraft due to shorter range & lower power requirement
as compared to pulse Radar. Smaller size for air craft installation & smaller transmitter power.
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 Moving Target Indicator Radar (MTI):-
 This Radar uses Doppler Effect for its operation many times it is not possible to distinguish a moving
target in the presence of static or permanent echoes of comparable appearance on the Radar screen.
 We have seen that in a PPI display, there is a
lot of clutter due to this stationary target
echoes. When it is desired to remove the
clutter due to the stationary target an MTI
Radar is employed.
 The basic principle of MTI Radar is to
compare a set of received echo with those
received during the previous. Sweep and
Cancelling out those whose phase has remain
unchanged.
 Moving target will give change of phase and
are not cancelled thus clutter due to the
stationary target are remove from display and
this allows easier detection of moving target.
 The side block diagram is the simple block
diagram of simple MTI Radar.
 The Transmitter frequency in the MTI Radar
System is the sum of the o/p of two
oscillators produced in mixer 2.
 The First oscillator is the Stalo (Stable Oscillator) and the Second one is Coho (Coherent Oscillator)
which operating same frequency as the intermediate frequency & providing coherent signal.
 The Coho is used for generating the R.F. signal as well as reference signal for the phase detector.
 The output of the duplexer is the combination of transmitted frequency and Doppler shift frequency.
 At the mixer-1 the Stalo frequency (fL) cancels out and feeds a signal of frequency fc±fd to I.F
amplifier for amplification.
 The reference signal from the Coho and the I.F echo signal are both feed into the mixer called phase
detector. The phase detector differs from the normal amplitude detector, since its output is
proportional to the phase difference between the two input signals.
 Since the output of this detector is phase sensitive and output will obtain for all fixed or moving target.
 The phase difference between transmitter & receiver signal will be constant for a fixed target where as
it will vary for a moving target. This variation of moving target is due to the Doppler frequency shift.
 The delay line canceller not only eliminate the DC component caused by clutter but also it
unfortunately rejects the any moving target whose Doppler frequency happens to be same as the PRF
(Pulse Repetition Frequency) or multiple of PRF. (fd = nfp)
 Those related target velocities which result is zero MTI response are called blind speed and is given by

Vn = nλ/2T = nλfp/2
Where n = 1, 2, 3…...
 An MTI RADAR operates at frequency 5GHz with a PRF of 800pps. Calculate the lowest three blind
speeds of this RADAR.
 Given that : f =5GHz = 5×109Hz , PRF =800pps
8 9
As λ= c/f = (3×10 ) / (5×10 ) = 3/50 = 0.06m
Vn1= nλfp/2=(1x0.06x800)/2=24m/s ,Vn2 = (2x0.06x800)/2=48m/s & Vn3 = (3x0.06x800)/2=72m/s
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 Radar Aids to Navigation:-
 The position of air craft or a ship can be found by use of radio navigation aids. This is achieved by
installation of radio transmitter and receiver at known location on the earth surface as well as at air
craft or ship which works in conjunction with those on earth.
 The rectilinear propagation and constant velocity of electromagnetic waves held this system to provide
navigation parameter like distance, direction, etc. by direct and indirect measurement of delay
occurring between transmission and reception of these waves.
 The measurement of direction, distance and the difference between two transmitters give an indication
of the position of an air craft or ship leading to correct navigation.
 Direction finding through radio is one of the very earliest methods of electronic navigational aids
widely used in ship and air craft even today.
 Aircraft Landing System:-
 Generally there are two types of landing system are used.
1. I.L.S. (Instrumental Landing System)
2. M.L.S. (Microwave Landing System)
 Instrument landing system is used for runway navigation in IFR condition in which by using some
specified component the landing can be made.
 If this type of system there are two category. In first category it guided on aircraft up to 200ft. In
second category it guided an aircraft up to a level of 100ft below which it cannot guided.
 I.L.S. system contains following Components: -
i.) Localizer: - In front the pilot with aero plane horizontal position w.r.t. runway centre line.
ii.) Glide Slope: - In front the pilot aero plane vertical position w.r.t. ground.
iii.) Outer Marker: - It stands in the same line with localizer and the runway center line four to
seven miles before the runway. When the aero plane approaches the runway from the right
direction it gives a signal by blinking the outer marker line.
iv.) Middle Marker: - It is positioned 0.8 miles before the runway when the aero plane is above the
middle marker the receiver blinks giving a chance to the pilot weather land or not.
v.) Inner Marker: - It is present in the runway when the aero plane touches the runway and stands
over it. The receiver blinks the light of inner marker.
vi.) Approach Light: - It includes medium or high intensity system for both inside and outside the
aero plane.
 NAVSAT:-
 NAVSTA stands for Navy-Navigation Satellite System. It is developed by USA in 1967 to monitor
the military activities and guiding of aero plane & warship. Satellite system means finding out the
position of an object from different angles through satellite placed artificially.
 Concept & Feature
 NASAT uses the Doppler shift of radio signal transform satellite to measure the relative velocity
between the satellite and navigator by knowing the satellite orbit position the navigator position can be
determined from the time rate of change of rate to the satellite.
 NAVSAT consists ten orbit satellite and three orbiting space. A network of working station
continuously monitors the satellite information. Each satellite is a circular polar orbit at an altitude of
6a. Usually five satellites are operating in the system.
 Generally four satellite can make the constellation and another one is used as a spare to find out the
position of a navigator at least information for four satellite taken.
 Each satellite contain receiver to receive the compound from the ground well equipped decoder and
memory, control circuit encoder to transmit digital data to phase modulation, ultra stable 5Hz
oscillator and a 1.5W transmitter to broadcast the carrier frequency of 150MHz to 400MHz.
 Page -13-
 GPS (Global Positioning System ) :-
 GPS stands for global positioning system which is
started in 14th Feb. 1989.
 A GPS system has three segments.
 Space Segment
 Control Segment
 User Segment
 Space segment:-
 In space segment system it contains 24 operational
satellite which are revolving around the earth in 6th
different orbit there are used an spare and there are
arranged in such a manner at least four satellite are
in view to an user at any time on a worldwide base.
 Out of four satellites three are for dimension one for
time.
 GPS Satellite Transmits Pseudo Random Noise
(PRM) frequency with cars acquisition and precision
code. This can be achieved by CDMA process to identify transmit a particular providing a unique
PRM number.
 Control segment:-
 It includes a master control station & number of monitory & general antenna allocated throughout the
world. They are all interlinked & all the information received is processed by master control system.
 After calculation of accuracy master control system it is transmitted to the antenna by which a position
can identify through satellite.
 User Segment:-
 User segment contain high, medium and low receiver the user equipment is so designed so that it
receives the signal and process all at a time or sequentially then the processer converted signal into
3-dimensaonal navigational information.
 FOUR STEPS FIND THE POSITION:
 Measuring travel time of satellite signal.
 Measurement of distance from satellite.
 Measurement of position of satellite.
 Trilateration.
 LIMITATION OF GPS
 Line-Of-Sight Essential – Signal cannot pass through building, it happens in urban area, i.e. Sydney
city circle.
 Long position time – Around 15 minutes, depends on how accuracy.
 Battery - Run out of the battery in GPS receiver, since long calculation time, 4 AA batteries can last
for 4 hours only.
 Need improvement? Cellular Network!

----ALL------THE------BEST----------ALL------THE------BEST----
 Page -14-

[CHAPTER-III]
---------- fiBer optics commUnication sYstem----------
 Fiber optics is a branch of science which deals with the study of propagation of light through transparent
dielectric medium such as optical fibers.
 Fiber optics is a relative new technology that used to transmit television, voice and digital data signal by light
waves over flexible hair like threads of glass and plastic.
 Optical fiber is the medium in which the communication signals are transmitted from one location to another in
the form of guided light.
 This signal can be voice information, data information, video information and any other information.
 The process of communicating using fiber optics involves the following basic steps.
I. Creating the optical signal along the fiber.
II. Relaying the signal along the fiber.
III. Ensuring that the signal does not become to distort or weak.
IV. Receiving the optical signal.
V. Converting it in to electrical signal.

 ADVANTAGE
 Attenuation in a fiber is lower than that of coaxial cable or twisted pair and is constant over a very wide range.
So transmission within wide range distance is possible without use of repeaters.
 Smaller size and lighter weight. So that it occupy much less space.
 Due to Electromagnetic Isolation the system is not vulnerable (risk) to interference, impulse noise or cross-talk.
 Fiber optical cable has much greater band width than copper wire.
 Fiber optic cable is less susceptible to signal degradation that copper wire.
 Data can be transmitted digitally and Data rate is much higher. As for example the data rate is 2 Gbps over
some kilometers in case of fiber optics where as for coaxial/twisted cable it is about 1 Mbps over one kilometer.
 Lower power transmitter can be used instead of the high voltage electrical transmitter used for the copper wire.
 Because of no electricity is passed through optical fiber it is nonflammable and immune to light.
 No cross-talk in optical fibers and hence transmission is more secure and private as it difficult to tap into fiber.
 DISADVANTAGE
 Fiber optics is the cables which are expensive to installation.
 The termination of fiber cable is complex and requires special tools.
 They are more fragile (easily broken) than co-axial cable.
 APPLICATIONS
 Used in Voice Communications. (Inter-Office, Intercity, Intercontinental links etc)
 Video Communications. ( TV Broadcast, Cable Television, Remote Monitoring, Wired City, Videophones etc)
 Data Transfer (Inter Office Data Link, Local Area Network, Satellite Ground Stations, Computers etc)
 Internet (Email, Access to remote information, Video Conferencing etc)
 Sensor System ( Point Sensor, Distributed Sensor, Smart Structure, Robotics etc)
 Also it used in other indirect fields like Entertainment (HDTV), Power System, Transportations, Health Care
(Endoscope),Military Defence(Guided Missile), Business Developments (CAD/CAM), Educations (CCTV) etc.
 Page -15-

 The block diagram of FOCS contains fallowing components. Light Signal, Transmitter, Optical Fiber, Photo
Detecting Receiver, Cable Splices, Connector, Regenerators, Beam Splitters and Optical Amplifier etc.
 Modern fiber optics communication system general includes an optical transmitter to convert an electrical
signal to an optical signal to send into the optical fiber.
 In this section the electrical signal is converted into optical signal with the help of light source and associated
circuit. We use light sources like semiconductor LED or LASER diodes since their light output can be
modulated rapidly by simply varying the bias current at the desired transmission rate.
 Optical fiber cables are the medium for the transmission of signal. It carries the data, audio or video information
in the form of optical signal. The cable containing bundles of multiple optical fiber that is routed through
underground and buildings.
 An optical receiver is used to recover the signal as an electrical signal. The information transmitted in typically
digital information generated by Computer, Telephone System or Television Company.
 In the receiver section a photo diode is there which treated the weakened optical signal and convert it to
electrical current referred to as photo current. This photo current in the form of electrical signal is amplified by
the amplifier.
 The signal restored will produce the required form of the signal at the output. Cable splices are used to joint
between the two fiber optical cables.
 Connectors are connected just the end of the transmitter and receiver to connect with fiber optics cable. Its
construction is more complex than that of splices. Beam splitter or optical couplers are used to split the optical
signal into different parts for different communication system.
 Different type of optical amplifier is there to amplify the optical signal. Regenerators are used for restoring the
signal shape characteristic.
 In a long distance transmission the degradation of optical signal takes place so to restore the signal shape
characteristic over a long distance regenerators are used. This is mainly used under sea where the longest cables
are employed.
 Page -16-
 Optical Fiber Cable Construction:-
 Optical fiber may be produced with good stable transmission characteristic in long lengths at a minimum cost
and with maximum reproducibility.
 The range of optical fiber type with regards to size, refractive indices, operating wave length, material etc is
available in order to fulfill many different system applications.
 The fiber may be converted into practical cable which can be handled in a similar manner to a electrical
transmission cable without any problem.
 For transmission point of view it is clear that a variation of refractive index inside the optical fiber (Core and
Cladding) is the fundamental necessity in the fabrication of fiber for light transmission.
 Hence at least two difference materials which are transparent to light over the current operating wave length
range are required.
 In practice these material must exhibit relatively low practical attenuation and they must therefore have low
intrinsic absorption and scattering losses.
 A number of organic and inorganic insulating substances are used to meet these conditions. We chose suitable
material for the fabrication of optical fibers to either glasses or glass like material & mono crystalline structure.
 It is used full in the case of graded index fiber that the refractive index of the material may be varied by suitable
doping with another compactable material.
 This is only achieved in glasses or glass like material and therefore mono crystalline material are not suitable
for the fabrication o graded index fiber but may be used for step index fiber.
 It is clear that glasses exhibit the best overall low loss optical fiber. Therefore it is used almost exclusively in
the preparation of fibers for telecommunication application.
 Structure of Optical Fiber:-
 The working of optical fiber is based on the principal of total internal reflection of light.
 The possible of light being guided through narrow jet of a communication system based on the propagation of
light with in a cylindrical wave guided called optical fiber.
 The light entering at one end of the fiber has to travels through the entire length and energy at the other end
without much loss.

 Optical fiber consists of three section such as

I. CORE
II. CLADDING
III. JACKET
 The CORE of an optical fiber is a hair thin
cylindrical fiber of glass any transparent dielectric
material like plastic. The Core is coated with a
layer of material with lower refractive index this
layer is called CLADDING.
 The core and cladding together guide optical
energy along the axis of fiber.
 The core diameter generally 5-100 micron while
the cladding diameter is around 125 micron.
 For greater strength and protection of fiber a soft
plastic coating or outer cover which is primary
which diameter is around 250 micron is used called JACKET or PRIMARY JACKET.
 This is often followed by another layer of hard protective material which is known as SECONDARY JACKET.
The entire unit is remaining flexible for use.
 Page -17-
 Propagation of Light in Optical Fiber:-
 In free space the light wave travels at speed C=3x108N/s upon entering to a dielectric and non conducting
medium the wave now travels at a speed ‘V’ and is less than that of ‘C’.
 The ratio of speed o light in vacuum to that of in a metal is known as Refractive Index of the material and is
given by

Typical values of Refractive Index is given by

n= 1 for Air, n=1.33 for Water, n=1.50 for Glass, n=2.42 foe Diamond etc.
 When a light ray encounters a boundary separating
two different media, part of the ray has reflected back
in to the 1st medium. Then the remainder is bending
or refracted as it enters to the second material.
 The bending or refraction of light ray at the interface
as a result of difference in the speed of light in two
materials that have different refractive indices.
 The relationship at the interface is known as Snell’s
Law and is given by

n1 Sin Φ1 = n2 Sin Φ2

 n1 Sin (90-θ1) = n2 Sin (90-θ2)

 n1 Cos θ1 = n2 Cos θ2

 The angle ф1 between the incident ray and the normal

to the surface is known as Angle of Incident.
 According to the Laws of Refraction the incident angle “θ” at which the incident ray strikes to the interface is
exactly equal to the angle that the reflected ray makes with the same interface.
 In addition the incident rays the normal to the interface and the reflected ray all lies on the same plane.
 As n1 is greater than n2 the angle of refraction is always greater than that of angle of incident.
 If the angle of incident ф is increased a point will eventually reached where the light ray in air is parallel to the
glass surface. This point is known as Critical Angle (фc) of the incident.
 The value of critical is given by
Sin θc = n2 / n1  θc = Sin-1 (n2 / n1)

 When θc = 90o then Sin 900 = n2/n1 = 1 n2 = n1.

 So we must choose the angle of incidence less than 90˚.
 When the angle of incidence is greater than that of the
critical angle. The light is reflected back into the medium
and is known as Total Internal Reflection.
 Acceptance Angle:-
 Any ray which are incidence into the fiber core at an angle
greater than θa will be transmitted to the core cladding
interface at an angle less than ‘фc’ will not be total internal
reflection.
 Page -18-

 From the above figure the incident ray ‘B’ at an angle greater than θa is refracted into the cladding and is
eventually loosed by the radiation.
 Thus for rays to be transmitted by total internal reflection within the fiber core, they must be incident on the
fiber core with in an acceptance angle and is also defined by Conical Half Angle (θa).
 Hence θa is the maximum angle to the axis at which light may enter to the fiber in order to propagate fully and
is refer as acceptance angle for the fiber.
 θ is some time refer as maximum or total acceptance angle .
 It may be noted that the output angle to the axis will be equal to the input angle for the ray assuming the ray
emerges in to a medium o the same refractive index from which it was input.
 NUMERICAL APERTURE:-
 It is possible to continue the ray theory analysis to obtain a relation between the acceptance angle and the
refractive indices of the three medium involve such as core, cladding and air.
 This leads to the definition of a more generally used term that the Numerical Aperture of the fiber.
 The figure of the next page shows a light ray incident on the fiber core at an angle θ1 to the fiber axis which is
less than the acceptance angle for the fiber θa.
 The ray enters to the fiber from a medium (Air) that the refractive index ‘n0’ and the fiber refractive index ‘n1’
which is slightly greater than the cladding refractive index ‘n2’.
 Page -19-
 Now applying Snell’s law at the interface
n0 Sinθ1= n1 Sinθ2
But θ2= π/2 – ф
 Sin θ2 = Sin (π/2 – ф) = Cos ф
So, n0 Sinθ1= n1 Cos ф ------- (1)
 n0 Sinθ1 = n1 (1- Sin2 ф)1/2 ------- (2)
 When limiting case for the total internal
reflection is consider ф becomes to the
critical angle for the core cladding interface
(фc) also in this limiting θ1 becomes the
acceptance angle (θc) for the fiber.
 Combining these limiting case, equation(2)
becomes,
n0 Sin θa = n1 (1- Sin2 фc)1/2  n0 Sin θa = n1[1- (n2/n1)2]1/2 { As Sin фc= n2/n1 }

n0 Sin θa = (n12- n22)1/2

 This equation relates the acceptance angle to the refractive indices serves for the basic definition of optical fiber
parameter i.e. Numerical Aperature.
 Hence the Numerical Aperature is given by NA = (n12- n22)1/2
 Since n0 is often used for air whose value is unity. So the Numerical Aperature is simply equals to Sin θa.
 Numerical Aperature may also be given in terms o Relative refractive index difference (Δ) between the core
and cladding which is denoted as

Δ = (n12- n22)/2n12  2n12 Δ = (n12- n22)  n1 2 2 1/2

= (n1 - n2 )

Thus, NA = n1
 This relationship for the NA is very use full measure of light collective ability of the fiber.
 MODES OF PROPAGATION:-
 Propagation of light along an optical fiber can be described in terms of a set of guided electromagnetic waves
called the MODES.
 Each guided mode corresponds to a patterns of electric and magnetic field distribution that is repeated along the
fiber at regular intervals. Only a certain discrete number of modes or patterns are capable of propagating along
the fiber.
 For monochromic light the amplitude of a mode traveling along the fiber axis (say the +ve z-direction) is
represented as
Ψ (z,t) = Ae j(wt-βz) ,Where w=2πv and β is the z-component of propagation vector k=2π/λ in z-direction.
 For guided modes, β can have only certain discrete values that satisfies the maxwell’s equation and the
boundary conditions. These modes are identified by solving maxwell’s EM wave equation under the boundary
condition of the wave guide surface.
 The modes can also be visualized by ray tracing method.
 A guided mode travelling along the fiber can be regarded to be assembly of a group of plane waves along the
axis with a common wave front.
 Since with any plane wave can associate a light ray that is normal to the wave front of the wave, group of waves
corresponding to a particular mode from a set of ray called a Ray Congruence.
 Each ray of this particular group is incident at the core cladding interface at the same angle. Note that any ray
that satisfies the condition (θ ≥ θc) can be transmitted in the fiber yet the constant phase condition is satisfied
only in limited cases. i.e. there will be limited number of ray congruence or modes.
 Page -20-
 The order of the mode m, is linked to the angle that the ray congruence makes with the fiber axis at the point of
incidence. In order that the mode rays satisfy the condition, θ > θc and also converge is in the same phase, the
path difference ΔP = mλ
Where m is an integer called the Mode Number. Note that the phase change on reflection should be
included in compating ΔP.
 Through the path difference between meridional ray and skew rays is large yet the phase should be the same for
transmission to be possible.
 The angle ф which a mode ray makes with the wall of the fiber is given by
Sin ф = ( / ) < 1, where (θ+ ф) = 900 , λ = Wavelength of light used & d = Fiber Diameter.
 Through a distinct mode is available with any integer value of m, number of modes are limited as Sin θ cannot
exceed unity for low value of m, value of ф is low.
 On the other hand the value of ф is more for higher order modes are due to steeper incident ray. What happens
for ф = 90˚ the wave front bounles back and forth from both the walls without advancing along the axis.

 When the fiber is very thin, the ray with a single low value of ф i.e. grazing incidence can enter into the fiber
the steeper ray with high value of ф will not enter into the fiber.
 This is a monomode transmission if the core diameter is large, angle of incidence can change over a range and
as such multimode transmission is possible as shown in figure above.
 Meridional Rays and Skew Rays:-
 The rays propagating through an optical fiber can be divided into two groups. They are
a) Meridinal Rays
b) Skew Rays
 Page -21-
 Meridinol Rays: -
 The rays said to be Meridinal if all of them comprising a mode pass through the longitudinal of z-axis o the
fiber core, they are confined to a single plane which contain the axis o symmetry in below figure and therefore
it is easy to trace its path in the fiber.
 Skew Rays: -
 The skew rays can propagate without passing through the axis of the fiber they are not contained to a single
plane but fallow a spiral or helical path due to reflection in different segment down to the fiber core in figure
below. It is difficult to track the path of skew rays in the fiber.

 The point of emergency of the skew rays from the fiber in air
depends on the number of reflection they undergo rather than the
input condition of the optical fiber.
 Some mode of propagation involving skew rays produces loss due
to leakage and radiation. But it has certain advantage too.
 Even when the light input to the fiber is not uniform the output
will be quite uniform because the skew rays will have a
smoothing effect on the distribution of transmitted light.
 Another advantage feature of the transmission of the skew rats in
that the effect numerical aperture will be greater than that for
Meridinal rays.
 Classification of Optical Fiber : -
 There are two methods of classification
1. According to Mode Capacity
2. According to Core Refractive Index
 Classification on the Basis of Mode : -
a. monomode fiBer : - The Monomode fiber allows only
one mode to propagate and hence this name fiber of this
type have very small core diameter ~ 2 to 10 micron.
B. mUltimode fiBer : - The core diameter is more than
50micron. Because of large diameter, It allows many
modes to transmit through the fiber.
 Classification on the Basis of Core
Refractive Index:-
a. step index fiBer: - In step index fiber the core has uniform refractive index n1, through its core section
and the cladding also has slightly less but uniform refractive index n2 through its cross section. The
refractive index profile, the figure shows a step like structure.
B. graded index fiBer:- Refractive index of the core is non-uniform being maximum along the axial and
gradually decreases towards the core-cladding interface. The cladding refractive index n2, however is
uniform the variation of refractive index of the core n with distance ‘x’ measure from the axis.
 Page -22-
 Advantage and Disadvantage of Optical Fiber:-
 Communication through plastic fiber or glass fiber has several Advantages over metallic conductor.
1. advantages: -
It has wider band width (10000 – 40000 GHz).
It has higher information capacity having less resistance.
It can transmit several G byte/sec with less resistance.
It eliminates cross falk.
It eliminates static interference.
It eliminates environmental resistance and it is not effect of weather changes.
It can be operated at thin temperature.
Optical fiber cables are safer and easier to install.
It is easy to storage due to flexibility in nature.
It is lower transmission loss.
It is more secure then metallic cable.
It has higher durability.
These are economic in nature.
It is easy to transport.
These are compact in size.
2. disadvantages: -
Optical fiber cable requires specialize tool and test equipment.
The repairing cost of optical fiber is higher than metallic cable.
 Electromagnetic Frequency and Spectrum:-
 The electromagnetic frequency spectrum contains subsonic frequency to cosmic ray frequency (1022).
 The light frequency spectrum is divided into three bands: -
1) intra red:
These are the light which to have length in between Optical fiber system generally operated in the entire range
or band.
2) visiBle light:
The wave length between 390x10-9 m – 770x109 m is known as visible light which is visible to human being.
3) Ultra violet:
Wave length 10NMt t 390NMt which are not visible human being. When detailing with high frequency the
calculation are mode by the equation
λ= Where λ = wave length, c = velocity of light, f = frequency
 LED(LIGHT EMITTING DIODE):-
 LED stands for Light Emitting Diode. These types of diodes are created by combination of a trivalent or
pentavalent material with some other material to produce light in different colour.
 Working principle:-
 When these diodes are forward biased there is a process of recombination takes place due to which the free
electrons release some energy in the form of light. The materials are so chosen that it creates a proton which is
radiated by changing the energy gap and by adding some other materials different visible and invisible light are
produced.
 LEDs are two types. Homo junction LED, Hetro junctio LED.
 INJECTION LASER DIODE (ILD):-
 It is constructed from either gases, liquid or solid. It is similar to the LED but at a specific threshold current it
gives oscillations.
 As current passes in forward biased PM junction light emitted in spontaneous form with a determined frequency
but where the threshold current reaches the minority carries due to which an opposite type of carrier is produced
therefore these two different type of protons are stimulated by each other creating a huge light with huge
current.
 Page -23-
 The construction is same as LED but these are polished at the end. In this process two protons are created one is
stimulated by other which creates more protons.
 The polished ends behave like mirror and trap the protons and stimulate free electrons to recombine with holes
at higher energy level which is known as Lasing.
 After the threshold current the energy increases suddenly due to lasing & it is dependent upon the temperature.
 PIN Diode:-
 It is a depletion layer photo diode PIM stands for P-type intrinsic N-type diode.
 It is used to defect light energy in optical fiber communication system.
 A very lightly dopped N-type semiconductor is sandwiched between two P and N type heavily dopped
semiconductor.
 There is a small window over the path which receives the light or proton energy. This is mode so thick that it
can observe all the proton energy.
 The Proton energy is observed by the valany band electrons of intrinsic semiconductor and make it a free
electron allowing current to flow through it.
 The current depends upon the number of photon energy. Generally silicon materials are used for this type of
diode construction.
 LASER:-
 Laser stands for Light Amplification Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
 It deals with the technical concentration of light into a very small and powerful beam.
 It was developed by [Link].
 There are four types of LASER.
I. GAS
II. LIQUID
III. SOLID
IV. SEMICONDUCTOR
 A active medium is taken from which laser is emitted. The active medium is polished for 100% internal
reflection exceed one side. A power source is connected over the medium. A flash tube with a trigger is used to
brust light. Due to continuous flashes the ionization increasing creating lasing and after some period again they
are grounded releasing protons.
 The protons strike other electrons and atoms creating a number of proton packs by which they try to escape
from the material and they escape from the material and escaped from unfinished part.
 Wave Length Division Multiplexing (WLDM):-
 Wave length division multiplexing is simply known wave division multiplexing (W.D.M).
 In this type of technology transmission of multiple digital signals can be made in difference wave length
without any interference.
 Using W.D.M a number of optical signal can be transmitted at a time by a signal fiber cable at the same time
with different wave length or frequencies.
 Transmitted in the same medium in different paths only and at the receiving section. They are reached at
different time interval.
 The wave lengths are created depending upon the colar and combination of these can be transmitted by
multimode step index profile creating paths for individual colour.

---------------- ALL THE BEST -------------------------- ALL THE BEST ----------------

 Page -24-

[CHAPTER-II]
-------------------------- satellite commUnication --------------------------
2. 1 Satellite Orbital patterns and Elevation (LEO, MEO & GEO) Categories
The use of satellites as platforms for remote sounding is based on some very fundamental physics.
Newton's Laws of Motion and Gravitation (1686)
→ The basis for classical mechanics
Laws of Motion:
(1) Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless it is compelled to
change that state by a force impressed upon it.
(2) The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the impressed force and is in the same direction as
that force. Momentum = mass × velocity, so Law (2) becomes

(3) For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Law of Gravitation: The force of attraction between any two particles is
• Proportional to their masses
• Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them

(Treating the masses as points)

Where G = gravitational constant = 6.673 × 10-11 Nm2/kg2
These laws explain how a satellite stays in orbit.
Law (1): A satellite would tend to go off in a straight line if no force were applied to it.
Law (2): An attractive force makes the satellite deviate from a straight line and orbit Earth.
Law of Gravitation: This attractive force is the gravitational force between Earth and the [Link]
provides the inward pull that keeps the satellite in orbit. Assuming a circular orbit, the gravitational force
must equal the centripetal force.
Where
v = tangential velocity
r = orbit radius = RE + h (i.e. not the altitude of the orbit)
RE = radius of Earth
h = altitude of orbit = height above Earth’s surface
m = mass of satellite
mE = mass of Earth
 Page -25-

So v depends only on the altitude of the orbit (not on the satellite’s mass).
The period of the satellite’s orbit is

Again, this is only dependent on the altitude, increasing as the orbit’s altitude increases.

The acceleration of the satellite is determined using

Kepler's Laws for Orbits

So far, we have assumed that satellites travel in circular orbits, but this is not necessarily true in practice.
Newton’s Laws can be used to derive the exact form of a satellite’s orbit.
However, a simpler approach is to look at Kepler’s Laws, which summarize the results of the full
derivation. Kepler’s Laws (1609 for 1,2; 1619 for 3) were based on observations of the motions of planets.
(1) All planets travel in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus.
→ defines the shape of orbits
(2) The radius from the Sun to the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
→ determines how orbital position varies in time
(3) The square of the period of a planet’s revolution is proportional to the cube of its semi major axis.
→ suggests that there is some systematic factor at work
For satellites, substitute “satellite” for planet, and “Earth” for Sun.

orBital elevation (leo, meo & geo) categories

LEO Basics (Lower Earth Orbit)

With Low Earth Orbit extending from 200 km to 1200 km it means that it is relatively low in altitude, although well
above anything that a conventional aircraft can reach.

However LEO is still very close to the Earth, especially when compared to other forms of satellite orbit
including geostationary orbit.
 Page -26-
The low orbit altitude of leads to a number of characteristics:

 Orbit times are much less than for many other forms of orbit. The lower altitude means higher velocities are
required to balance the earth's gravitational field. Typical velocities are very approximately around 8 km/s,
with orbit times sometimes of the order of 90 minutes, although these figures vary considerably with the
exact details of the orbit.
 The lower orbit means the satellite and user are closer together and therefore path losses a less than for
other orbits such as GEO
 The round trip time, RTT for the radio signals is considerably less than that experienced by geostationary
orbit satellites. The actual time will depend upon factors such as the orbit altitude and the position of the
user relative to the satellite.
 Radiation levels are lower than experienced at higher altitudes.
 Less energy is expended placing the satellites in LEO than higher orbits.
 Some speed reduction may be experienced as a result of friction from the low, but measurable levels of
gasses, especially at lower altitudes. An altitude of 300 km is normally accepted as the minimum for an
orbit as a result of the increasing drag from the presence of gasses at low altitudes.

Applications for LEO Satellites

A variety of different types of satellite use the LEO orbit levels. These include different types and
applications including:

 Communications satellites - some communications satellites including the Iridium phone system use LEO.
 Earth monitoring satellites use LEO as they are able to see the surface of the Earth more clearly as they are
not so far away. They are also able to traverse the surface of the Earth.
 The International Space Station is in an LEO that varies between 320 km (199 miles) and 400 km (249
miles) above the Earth's surface. It can often be seen from the Earth's surface with the naked eye.

MEO Basics (Middle Earth Orbit)

A medium earth orbit (MEO) satellite is one with an orbit within the range from a few hundred miles to a
few thousand miles above the earth's surface. Satellites of this type orbit higher than low earth orbit (LEO)
satellites, but lower than geostationary satellites.
The orbital periods of MEO satellites range from about two to 12 hours. Some MEO satellites orbit in near
perfect circles, and therefore have constant altitude and travel at a constant speed.
Other MEO satellites revolve in elongated orbits. The perigee(lowest altitude) of an elliptical-orbit
satellite is much less than its apogee (greatest altitude). The orbital speed is much greater near perigee
than near apogee.
As seen from a point on the surface, a satellite in an elongated orbit crosses the sky in just a few minutes
when it is near perigee, as compared to several hours when it is near apogee.
Elliptical-orbit satellites are easiest to access near apogee, because the earth-based antenna orientation
does not have to be changed often, and the satellite is above the horizon for a fairly long time.
 Page -27-
A fleet of several MEO satellites, with orbits properly coordinated, can provide global wireless
communication coverage. Because MEO satellites are closer to the earth than geostationary satellites,
earth-based transmitters with relatively low power and modest-sized antennas can access the system.
Because MEO satellites orbit at higher altitudes than LEO satellites, the useful footprint (coverage area on
the earth's surface) is greater for each satellite. Thus a global-coverage fleet of MEO satellites can have
fewer members than a global-coverage fleet of LEO satellites.
One very popular orbit format is the geostationary satellite orbit. The geostationary orbit is used by many
applications including direct broadcast as well as communications or relay systems.
The geostationary orbit has the advantage that the satellite remains in the same position throughout the
day, and antennas can be directed towards the satellite and remain on track.
This factor is of particular importance for applications such as direct broadcast TV where changing
directions for the antenna would not be practicable.
It is necessary to take care over the use of the abbreviations for geostationary orbit. Both GEO and GSO
are seen, and both also used for geosynchronous orbit.

GEO (Geo stationary Earth Orbit)

The idea of a geostationary orbit has been postulated for many years. One of the possible originators of
the basic idea was a Russian theorist and science fiction writer, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky.
However it was Herman Oberth and Herman Potocnik who wrote about orbiting stations at an altitude of
35 900 km above the Earth that had a rotational period of 24 hours making it appear to hover over a fixed
point on the equator.
The next major step forwards occurred when Arthur C Clarke, the science fiction write, published a
serious article in Wireless World, a major UK electronics and radio publication, in October 1945. The
article was entitled "Extra-Terrestrial Relays: Can Rocket Stations Give World Coverage?"
Clarke extrapolated what could be done with the German rocket technology of the day and looked at what
might be possible in the future. He postulated that it would be possible to provide complete global
coverage with just three geostationary satellites.
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2.2 The Concept of Geostationary Satellite , calculate its height, velocity & round trip
time delay & their advantage & disadvantage over other system

Geostationary Orbit basics

As the height of a satellite increases, so the time for the satellite to orbit increases. At a height of 35790
km, it takes 24 hours for the satellite to orbit. This type of orbit is known as a geosynchronous orbit, i.e. it
is synchronized with the Earth.
One particular form of geosynchronous orbit is known as a geostationary orbit. In this type of orbit the
satellite rotates in the same direction as the rotation of the Earth and has an approximate 24 hour period.
This means that it revolves at the same angular velocity as the Earth and in the same direction and
therefore remains in the same position relative to the Earth.
In order to ensure that the satellite rotates at exactly the same speed as the Earth, it is necessary to clarify
exactly what the time is for the rotation of the Earth. For most timekeeping applications, the Earth's
rotation is measured relative to the Sun's mean position, and the rotation of the earth combined with the
rotation around the Sun provide the length of time for a day. However this is not the exact rotation that we
are interested in to give a geostationary orbit - the time required is just that for one rotation. This time
period is known as a sidereal day and it is 23 hours 56 minutes and 4 seconds long.
Geometry dictates that the only way in which an orbit that rotates once per day can remain over exactly
the same spot on the Earth's surface is that it moves in the same direction as the earth's rotation. Also it
must not move north or south for any of its orbit. This can only occur if it remains over the equator.

Geostationary orbit can only be over the Equator

Different orbits can be seen from the diagram. As all orbital planes need to pass through the geo-centre of
the Earth, the two options available are shown. Even if both orbits rotate at the same speed as the Earth,
the one labelled geosynchronous will move north of the equator for part of the day, and below for the
other half - it will not be stationary. For a satellite to be stationary, it must be above the Equator.

Geostationary Satellite Drift

Even when satellites are placed into a geostationary orbit, there are several forces that can act on it to
change its position slowly over time.
Factors including the earth's elliptical shape, the pull of the Sun and Moon and others act to increase the
satellite orbital inclination.
 Page -29-
In particular the non-circular shape of the of the Earth around the Equator tends to draw the satellites
towards two stable equilibrium points, one above the Indian Ocean and the other very roughly around the
other side of the World.. This results in what is termed as an east-west libration or movement back and
forth.
To overcome these movements, fuel is carried by the satellites to enable them to carry out "station-
keeping" where the satellite is returned to its desired position. The period between station-keeping
manoeuvres is determined by the allowable tolerance on the satellite which is mainly determined by the
ground antenna beamwidth. This will mean that no re-adjustment of the antennas is required.
Often the useful life of a satellite is determined by the time for which fuel will allow the station-keeping to
be undertaken. Often this will be several years. After this the satellite can drift towards one of the two
equilibrium points, and possibly re-enter the Earth's atmosphere. The preferred option is for the satellites
to utilise some last fuel to lift them into a higher and increasing orbit to prevent them from interfering with
other satellites.

Geostationary Orbit Coverage

A single geostationary satellite obviously cannot provide complete global coverage. However, a single
geostationary satellite can see approximately 42% of the Earth's surface with coverage falling off towards
the satellite is not able to "see" the surface. This occurs around the equator and also towards the polar
regions.

Geostationary satellite coverage

For a constellation of three satellites equally spaced around the globe, it is possible to provide complete
coverage around the equator and up to latitudes of 81° both north and south.
The lack of polar coverage is not a problem for most users, although where polar coverage is needed,
satellites using other forms of orbit are needed.
Height, velocity & round trip time delay
Height of GEO satellite can be given as
r (orbit radius) = RE( Radius of the Earth)+ h
Round trip time delay is given as following
 Page -30-
And the velocity can also be given as

2.3 Satellite frequency allocation and frequency bands.

What is Frequency Management

• Combination of administrative, scientific and technical procedures to ensure efficient operation of the
various radiocommunication services without causing harmful interference. It has national and
international aspects.

Allocation (of a frequency band): Entry in the Table of Frequency Allocations of a given frequency band
for the purpose of its use by one or more terrestrial or space radiocommunication services or the radio
astronomy service under specified conditions. This term shall also be applied to the frequency band
concerned.

Radio Frequency Spectrum

• Radio Frequency Spectrum (RFS) and associated satellite orbits, including Geostationary-Satellite Orbit
(GSO) are limited natural resources. Radio waves are defined as electromagnetic waves of frequencies
arbitrarily from 3 kHz to 3000 GHz, propagated in space without artificial guide.

Radio frequency waves do not respect geographical boundary, and these cannot be confined to national
boundaries. Radio waves are susceptible to harmful interference and requires application of complex
engineering tools to ensure interference-free operation of various wireless networks.

The utilisation of radio frequency spectrum is governed by international treaties, namely, the Constitution,
the Convention and the Radio
 Page -31-
Regulations of the International elecommunication Union (ITU) as well as by the bilateral agreements
between two countries.

• All frequency bands are available for use in all countries, including India, in accordance with
international table of Frequency allocations and associated radio regulatory provisions. National
Frequency Allocation Plan forms the basis for development, manufacturing and spectrum utilisation
activities in the country.

Frequency Allocations For Satellite Services or Fixed Satellite Service (FSS) (Frequency Bands)

5925-6425 MHz FOR UP-LINK (C-BAND)

3700-4200 MHz FOR DOWNLINK (C BAND)
6725-7075 MHz FOR UPLINK (UPPER EXT C)
4500-4800 MHz FOR DOWNLINK (UPPER EXT C)
6425-6725 MHz FOR UPLINK (LOWER EXT-C)
3400-3700 MHz FOR DOWNLINK (LOWER EXT-C)
10.95 - 11.2 GHz (down-links)
11.45 - 11.7 GHz (down-links)
11.7 - 12.2 GHz (down-links) (Region 2 only)
12.5 - 12.75 GHz (down-links) (Region 1 only)
14.0 - 14.5 GHz (up-links)
17.7 - 21.2 GHz (down-links)
27.5 - 31.0 GHz (up-links)

2.4 General structure of satellite Link system (Uplink, Down link, Transponder,
Crosslink)

DIGITAL SATELLITE UPLINK CHAIN

1. Digital data is sent to the modulator which takes the data and converts it into a modulated signal in the
Intermediate Frequency range (70-140 Mhz). The modulators use standards such as Digital Video
Broadcast to organize communication over the microwave link.
2. The Intermediate Frequency is piped to an "up converter" (usually via shielded coaxial cable) which mixes
the intermediate frequency with a higher frequency to produce a final frequency which carries the
modulated data.
3. Noise is removed from the signal via either a band pass filter or other means and then it is amplified in a
Klystron, Travelling Wave Tube or Solid State amplifier.
4. The final cleaned signal is transmitted down the wave guide to the dish.
5. The feed horn at the focal point of the dish emits the high frequency radio transmission, which the dish
focuses into a directional transmission at the satellite.
6. Computer data is sent through a serial cable to a modulator. The modulator takes the data and produces a
radio freqency from it. This frequency is usually in what is called the 'L-band' range (70-140Mhz). The
modulator passes the information over coaxial cable to an 'up converter', which converts the radio
frequency from 'L-band' up to microwave freqencies in the C, S, X, Ka, and Ku band ranges (frequencies
above 1,000 Mhz). Once the final signal has been produced, it's amplified to increase its total effective
output power. The signal is then sent out a dish via the feed horn.
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DOWNLINK CHAIN

Downlink is a telecommunication term pertaining to data which is sent out or downwards from a higher
level or portion of a network.

Traditionally, it refers to a satellite communications process where data is sent from a satellite down to an
earthbound terminal or device, hence the word "down."

It is also used in other fields of networking like cellular and computer networking, where it is used in a
similar manner but may or may not involve the directional meaning of up or down.

In satellite communications, downlink simply refers to the process when a satellite beams down
information toward earthbound terminals or devices. The opposite of this is uplink, where the satellite
receives data from an earthbound terminal.

In cellular networking, downlink can be seen from the user perspective as receiving some sort of message
or data. A cellular device or phone receives direct communication from a cellular base station.

An example of this is receiving a text message or an image from someone—that message is received the
through a downlink communication process.

The term is used in the same way in computer networking. Edge terminals or nodes receive data from the
network core or from higher-level network nodes such as routers and servers, and is commonly known as
downloading. Therefore, the downloading of images and videos is done through the downlink process.
 Page -33-
TRANSPONDER

An earth station transmits information to the satellite. The satellite contains a receiver, which picks up the
transmitted signal, amplifies it and translates it to another frequency. This new frequency is then
retransmitted to the receiving stations back on earth.

The original signal being transmitted from the earth station to the satellite is called the uplink. The
retransmitted signal from the satellite to the receiving stations is called downlink. Usually the down link
frequency is lower than the uplink frequency. A typical up link frequency is 6GHz and a common down
link frequency is 4 GHz.

The transmitter – receiver combination in the satellite is known as transponder. The basic function of
a transponder is amplification and frequency translation.

The reason for frequency translation is that the transponder cannot transmit and receive on the
same frequency. Transponders are wide bandwidth units so that they may receive and retransmit more
than one signal. An amplified, translated and receiver’s bandwidth will be amplified, translated and
retransmitted on a different frequency.

Eventhough the typical transponder has a wide bandwidth, it is only used with a single signal to
minimize interference and improve communications reliability. Most satellites contain multiple
transponders, each operating at a different frequency.

A typical communications satellite has 12, 2 or more transponders. Each transponder represents an
individual communications channel.
CROSSLINK
A crosslink is when satellites communicate directly with eachother, instead of communicating with a
ground station which, in turn, communicates with other satellites. Frequencies that are quickly attenutated
in the atmosphere are commonly used, making the link undetectable and unjamable from the ground.
 Page -34-

2.5 The operation of Direct Broadcast System (DBS)

Systems for transmitting television and other program material via satellite directly to individual homes
and businesses. Direct broadcasting satellite (DBS) systems operate at microwave frequencies, in a
portion of the Ku band; in North and South America these systems operate in the frequency range 12.2–
12.7 GHz.

Although direct broadcasting satellites had been operating in Europe and Japan for a number of years, the
first United States direct broadcasting satellite was launched on December 17, 1993, and the second in
July 1994, followed by additional satellites in subsequent years.

DBS systems use a satellite in geostationary orbit to receive television signals sent up from the Earth's
surface, amplify them, and transmit them back down to the surface. The satellite also shifts the signal
frequency, so that a signal sent up to the satellite in the 17.3–17.8-GHz uplink band is transmitted back
down in the 12.2–12.7-GHz downlink band. The downlink signal is picked up by a receive antenna
located atop an individual home or office; these antennas are usually in the form of a parabolic dish, but
flat square phased-array antennas are sometimes used, and may eventually become commonplace.
 Page -35-
The receive antenna may be permanently pointed at the satellite, which is at a fixed point in the sky, in a
geostationary orbit.

It is difficult to build receivers to operate at the microwave downlink frequencies, so the signal from the
dish antenna is first passed to a downconverter, usually mounted outdoors on the antenna, that shifts it to
(typically) the 0.95–1.45-GHz band.

This signal is then conducted by cable to the receiver atop the television set. The receiver contains the
channel selector, as well as a decoder to permit the user to view authorized channels. The receiver is
connected by an additional cable to the television set

A typical direct broadcasting satellite contains 16 transponders, or amplifiers, the maximum permitted
under present regulations, each with a radio-frequency power output in the range 120–240 W. Two or
more direct broadcasting satellites may be located at any of the orbital locations assigned to the United
States, for a maximum of 32 transponders.

DBS satellites in the United States typically use digital signals; a single 24-MHz satellite transponder can
carry an error-corrected digital signal of 30 megabits per second or greater. A wide variety of
communications services can be converted to digital form and carried as part of this digital signal,
including television, high-definition television (HDTV), stereo audio, one-way videoconference,
information services (such as news retrieval services), and digital data.

Modern digital signal compression technology greatly increases the capacity of a satellite transponder. It
is possible to compress up to perhaps 10 television signals into the bandwidth of a DBS transponder,
depending on the amount of motion in the picture and the amount of screen resolution required. Since
some common programming (for example, sports) contains a good deal of motion, the average
compression factor for a DBS system will typically be lower than 10. See Data compression

DBS systems, like all satellite systems operating in the Ku band, are subject to attenuation of their signals
by rain. The combination of satellite power and receive-dish antenna size is chosen to enable reception for
all but the heaviest rainfall periods of the year, corresponding to an outage period of perhaps 7 h per year
at any particular location. The DBS customer can further reduce this expected outage period by
purchasing a slightly larger dish antenna.

2.6 The operation of VSAT system.

VSAT System
A very small aperture terminal (VSAT) is a small telecommunication earth station that receives and
transmits real-time data via satellite. A VSAT transmits narrow and broadband signals to orbital satellites.
The data from the satellites is then transmitted to different hubs in other locations around the globeT.

VSAT end users have a box that acts as an interface between the computer and the external antenna or
satellite dish transceiver. The satellite transceiver sends data to and receives data from the geostationary
satellite in orbit.

The satellite sends and receives signals from an earth station, which acts as the hub for the system. Each
end user is connected to this hub station through the satellite in a star topology. For one VSAT user to
communicate with another, the data has to be sent to the satellite.
 Page -36-
Then the satellite sends the data to the hub station for further processing. The data is then retransmitted to
the other user via a satellite. The majority of VSAT antennas range from 30 inches to 48 inches. Data rates
typically range from 56 Kbps up to 4 Mbps.

VSATs are most commonly used to transmit:

 Narrowband data. This includes point of sale transactions such as credit card, polling or radio-frequency
identification (RFID) data, or supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) data
 Broadband data, for the provision of satellite Internet access to remote locations, Voice over Internet
Protocol (VoIP) or video

VSATs are also used for transportable, on-the-move communications (using phased array antennas) and mobile
maritime communications.

2.7 Define multiple accessing & name various types.

MULTIPLE-ACCESS TECHNIQUES

Cellular systems divide a geographic region into cells where a mobile unit in each cell communicates with
a base station. The goal in the design of cellular systems is to be able to handle as many calls as possible
(this is called capacity in cellular terminology) in a given bandwidth with some reliability. There are
several different ways to allow access to the channel. These include the following.

 Frequency Division Multiple-Access (FDMA)

 Time Division Multiple-Access (TDMA)
 Time/Frequency Multiple-Access
 Random Access
 Code Division Multiple-Access (CDMA)
o Frequency-Hop CDMA
o Direct-Sequence CDMA
o Multi-Carrier CDMA (FH or DS)

As mentioned earlier, FDMA was the initial multiple-access technique for cellular systems. In this
technique a user is assigned a pair of frequencies when placing or receiving a call.
 Page -37-
One frequency is used for downlink (base station to mobile) and one pair for uplink (mobile to base). This
is called frequency division duplexing. That frequency pair is not used in the same cell or adjacent cells
during the call. Even though the user may not be talking, the spectrum cannot be reassigned as long as a
call is in place.
Two second generation cellular systems (IS-54, GSM) use time/frequency multiple-access whereby the
available spectrum is divided into frequency slots (e.g., 30 kHz bands) but then each frequency slot is
divided into time slots. Each user is then given a pair of frequencies (uplink and downlink) and a time slot
during a frame. Different users can use the same frequency in the same cell except that they must transmit
at different times. This technique is also being used in third generation wireless systems (e.g., EDGE).

Code division multiple-access techniques allow many users to simultaneously access a given frequency
allocation. User separation at the receiver is possible because each user spreads the modulated waveform
over a wide bandwidth using unique spreading codes. There are two basic types of CDMA. Direct-
sequence CDMA (DS-CDMA) spreads the signal directly by multiplying the data waveform with a user-
unique high bandwidth pseudo-noise binary sequence.

The resulting signal is then mixed up to a carrier frequency and transmitted. The receiver mixes down to
baseband and then re-multiplies with the binary {± 1} pseudo-noise sequence. This effectively (assuming
perfect synchronization) removes the pseudo-noise signal and what remains (of the desired signal) is just
the transmitted data waveform. After removing the pseudo-noise signal, a filter with bandwidth
proportional to the data rate is applied to the signal. Because other users do not use completely orthogonal
spreading codes, there is residual multiple-access interference present at the filter output.

This multiple-access interference can present a significant problem if the power level of the desired signal
is significantly lower (due to distance) than the power level of the interfering user. This is called the near-
far problem. Over the last 15 years there has been considerable theoretical research on solutions to the
near-far problem beginning with the derivation of the optimal multiuser receiver and now with many
companies (e.g., Fujitsu, NTT DoCoMo, NEC) building suboptimal reduced complexity multiuser
receivers. The approach being considered by companies is either successive interference cancellation or
parallel interference cancellation.

One advantage of these techniques is that they generally do not require spreading codes with period equal
to the bit duration. Another advantage is that they do not require significant complexity (compared to a
minimum mean square error-MMSE-detector or a decorrelating detector). These interference cancellation
detectors can also easily be improved by cascading several stages together.
2.8 Time Division Multiple Accessing (TDMA) & its advantages & Dis-advantages.
Time division multiple access (TDMA) is a channel access method (CAM) used to facilitate channel
sharing without interference. TDMA allows multiple stations to share and use the same transmission
channel by dividing signals into different time slots.

Users transmit in rapid succession, and each one uses its own time slot. Thus, multiple stations (like
mobiles) may share the same frequency channel but only use part of its [Link] of TDMA
include IS-136, personal digital cellular (PDC), integrated digital enhanced network (iDEN) and the
second generation (2G) Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM).
 Page -38-
TDMA allows a mobile station's radio component to listen and broadcast only in its assigned time slot.
During the remaining time period, the mobile station may apply network measurements by detecting
surrounding transmitters in different frequencies.

This feature allows interfrequency handover, which differs from code division multiple access (CDMA),
where frequency handover is difficult to achieve. However, CDMA allows handoffs, which enable mobile
stations to simultaneously communicate with up to six base stations.

TDMA is used in most 2G cellular systems, while 3G systems are based on CDMA. However, TDMA
remains relevant to modern systems. For example, combined TDMA, CDMA and time division duplex
(TDD) are universal terrestrial radio access (UTRA) systems that allow multiple users to share one time
slot.

Advantages of TDMA:

 TDMA can easily adapt to transmission of data as well as voice communication.

 TDMA has an ability to carry 64 kbps to 120 Mbps of data rates.
 TDMA allows the operator to do services like fax, voice band data, and SMS as well as
bandwidth-intensive application such as multimedia and videoconferencing.
 Since TDMA technology separates users according to time, it ensures that there will be no
interference from simultaneous transmissions.
 TDMA provides users with an extended battery life, since it transmits only portion of the time
during conversations.
 TDMA is the most cost effective technology to convert an analog system to digital.

Disadvantages of TDMA:

 Disadvantage using TDMA technology is that the users has a predefined time slot. When moving
from one cell site to other, if all the time slots in this cell are full the user might be disconnected.
 Another problem in TDMA is that it is subjected to multipath distortion. To overcome this
distortion, a time limit can be used on the system. Once the time limit is expired the signal is
ignored
 Code Division Multiple Accessing
 Page -39-
(CDMA) & ITS ADVANTAGES & DIS-ADVANTAGES.

Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a digital cellular network standard that utilizes spread-spectrum
technology. This technology does not constrict bandwidth’s digital signals or frequencies but spreads it
over a fully-available spectrum or across multiple channels via division.

Thus, there is improved voice and data communication capability and a more secure and private line. The
CDMA digital standard is a leading communications network standard in North America and parts of
Asia. Qualcomm, a US-based wireless communications company, patented CDMA and commercialized
this technology.

CDMA technology was initially used in World War II military operations to thwart enemy attempts to
access radio communication signals. In the early 1990s, Qualcomm introduced the possibility of using the
same concept with publicly-available cellular network technology.

During this time, an alternative mobile networking arena digital standard gained traction, proving to be a
challenge to CDMA proponents. Despite adamant negativity and discouragement from prominent industry
figures, CDMA’s supports successfully convinced these leaders to consider, use and eventually accept the
newly introduced CDMA standard.

Essentially, CDMA offers more airspace capacity than the time division multiple access (TDMA) based
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) standard. Furthermore, CDMA also uses less power.
Another advantage boasted by CDMA technology is its ability for soft handoffs between base stations,
i.e., less likelihood of cut-off calls. The usual analogy given in comparing CDMA with other channel
access methods like FDMA or TDMA is that of people each carrying out a conversation with a friend in a
crowded room. The room, in this case, represents a channel (a.k.a. carrier frequency).

TDMA is likened to the method by which communication is carried out by speaking one at a time (hence
the name ‘time division’). FDMA, on the other hand, is likened to the method wherein communication is
made by speaking at different pitches (hence, frequency division).
 Page -40-
Finally, CDMA is likened to people speaking simultaneously but in different languages. Because only
those who speak the same language can understand each other, it is possible for multiple conversations to
take place in the room at the same time. The basic concept in CDMA is that users who wish to
communicate through it are given a shared code.

While multiple codes may occupy the same channel, only those users having the same code can
communicate with each other. Because CDMA and GSM standards each have unique pros and cons, the
preferred technology standard choice is now in the hands of potential subscribers.

Advantages of CDMA:

 One of the main advantages of CDMA is that dropouts occur only when the phone is at least twice
as far from the base station. Thus, it is used in the rural areas where GSM cannot cover.
 Another advantage is its capacity; it has a very high spectral capacity that it can accommodate
more users per MHz of bandwidth.

Disadvantages of CDMA:

 Channel pollution, where signals from too many cell sites are present in the subscriber.s phone but
none of them is dominant. When this situation arises, the quality of the audio degrades.
 When compared to GSM is the lack of international roaming capabilities.
 The ability to upgrade or change to another handset is not easy with this technology because the
network service information for the phone is put in the actual phone unlike GSM which uses SIM
card for this.
 Limited variety of the handset, because at present the major mobile companies use GSM
technology.

2.9 Satellite Application- Communication .Satellite, Digital Satellite Radio.

Communication Satellite

It is difficult to go through a day without using a communications satellite at least once. Do you know
when you used a communications satellite today? Did you watch T.V.? Did you make a long distance
phone call, use a cellular phone, a fax machine, a pager, or even listen to the radio? Well, if you did, you
probably used a communications satellite, either directly or indirectly.

Communications satellites allow radio, television, and telephone transmissions to be sent live anywhere in
the world. Before satellites, transmissions were difficult or impossible at long distances.

The signals, which travel in straight lines, could not bend around the round Earth to reach a destination far
away. Because satellites are in orbit, the signals can be sent instantaneously into space and then redirected
to another satellite or directly to their destination.

The satellite can have a passive role in communications like bouncing signals from the Earth back to
another location on the Earth; on the other hand, some satellites carry electronic devices called
Transponders for receiving, amplifying, and re-broadcasting signals to the Earth.
 Page -41-
Communications satellites are often in geostationary orbit. At the high orbital altitude of 35,800
kilometers, a geostationary satellite orbits the Earth in the same amount of time it takes the Earth to
revolve once.

From Earth, therefore, the satellite appears to be stationary, always above the same area of the Earth. The
area to which it can transmit is called a satellite's footprint. For example, many Canadian communications
satellites have a footprint which covers most of Canada.

Communications satellties can also be in highly elliptical orbits. This type of orbit is roughly egg-shaped,
with the Earth near the top of the egg. In a highly elliptical orbit, the satellite's velocity changes depending
on where it is in its orbital path.

When the satellite is in the part of its orbit that's close to the Earth, it moves faster because the Earth's
gravitational pull is stronger. This means that a communications satellite can be over the region of the
Earth that it is communicating with for the long part of its orbit. It will only be out of contact with that
region when it quickly zips close by the Earth.

Digital Satellite Radio.

Satellite radio is just what its name suggests: a radio service that uses satellites circling Earth to broadcast
its programming. In 1992, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) allocated a satellite spectrum
(the "S" band, 2.3 GHz) for the broadcasting of satellite-based digital audio radio service (DARS).

It eventually granted two licenses, one to Sirius Satellite Radio (formerly CD Radio) and one to XM
Satellite Radio (formerly American Mobile Radio Corporation). The world's biggest satellite radio
provider, 1worldspace, is available in Europe and several other countries but not in the United States.
 Page -42-
As the satellites orbit the earth, programs are beamed to them from broadcast stations. The satellites then
transmit the signal to special antennas on homes, cars and portable radios. Terrestrial repeaters throughout
the country also receive the signal and help ensure that it's transmitted to receivers, especially in areas
with tall buildings that might block the signal

There are two big pluses for satellite radio listeners. First, every channel, whether it's on XM or Sirius, is
largely commercial-free, which should appeal to radio listeners tired of having advertisements screamed
into their ears while they sit in traffic.

Most music channels have no advertising at all. Second, no matter where you are in the continental United
States, you get the same reception as long as the skies are relatively clear. Unlike traditional radio, which
loses reception once you're too far away from a certain station, satellites ensure you receive a signal no
matter where you are in America. A driver could trek all the way from New York City to Los Angeles and
never have to change the channel.

For about $13 a month, plus the cost of equipment and a small activation fee, both Sirius and XM listeners
can receive more than 100 channels of satellite radio, including music ranging from classical to heavy
metal, plus news, sports, talk and entertainment. But there are some notable differences between the two
services, too.

The type of technologies used by XM and Sirius differs slightly, and the specific programming offered by
both companies can vary, especially when it comes to news, sports and celebrities with contracts for their
own shows. On the next two pages we'll take a look at those differences.

2.10 GPS Receiver & Transmitter

There are two range-type measurements that can be made on the GPS signals:
Pseudo-ranges, and
Carrier phase observations.

Both are a product of the operation of the GPS receiver (that is, the acquisition and maintenance of
signal tracking), both are used for GPS navigation (position, velocity and time -- PVT -- determination),
and both have a role in the specialised data processing that characterises GPS surveying.
 Page -43-
Before studying these measurements it is useful to consider the overall GPS hardware tracking operation
(in a much abbreviated form!). The received satellite signal level is actually less than the background
noise level, hence correlation techniques are used to obtain the satellite signals.

A typical satellite tracking sequence begins with the receiver determining which satellites are visible
above the horizon. Satellite visibility is estimated from predictions of present PVT, and on the stored
satellite almanac information residing within the receiver. (If no stored almanac information exists, or
only a very poor estimate of PVT is available, the receiver will carry out a "sky search", attempting to
randomly locate and lock onto a signal.

The receiver will then decode the Navigation Message and read the almanac information about all the
other satellites in the constellation.) A carrier-tracking loop is used to track the carrier frequency while a
code-tracking loop is used to track the C/A and/or P code signals. The two tracking loops have to work
together in an iterative manner, aiding each other in order to acquire and track the satellite signals.

The receiver's carrier-tracking loop will locally generate an L1 carrier frequency (or L2 if the receiver is
capable of tracking this frequency) which differs from the received carrier signal due to a Doppler offset
of the carrier frequency.

This Doppler offset is proportional to the relative velocity along the line-of-sight to the satellite. In order
to maintain lock on the carrier, the carrier-tracking loop must, in effect, adjust the frequency of the
receiver-generated carrier until it matches the incoming carrier frequency.

The amount of this offset is the "beat" frequency which can be processed to give a periodic carrier phase
measurement. The derivative of this phase measurement is the "Doppler" measurement, which is used to
determine the receiver's velocity.

What role does the code-tracking loop play in this process? In order for the carrier-tracking loop
to acquire the incoming satellite signal in the first place the carrier signal must be made visible above the
background noise.

This is generally done by the code-tracking loop using the code-correlating technique to "reconstruct"
the carrier wave (see discussion below under "Carrier Phase Measurements"). A by-product of code-
tracking are the pseudo-range measurements.
GPS Transmitter
Phase locked loops (PLLs) are common to many communications systems, including in WiMAX Access
Points (AP). By performing an analysis of the phase-noise contributions of the PLLs within a WiMAX AP
frequency chain, which is essentially the string of PLLs in the system starting with the frequency
reference in the controller and ending with the transmitter local oscillator (LO) in the RF head, it is
possible to better understand the impact that each PLL has on overall system performance.

Figure 1 provides a block diagram for a hypothetical frequency chain in a WiMAX AP. Each box in the
block diagram represents a PLL that serves a unique purpose in the AP design. Since all the PLLs are
connected in series, the signal and noise at the output of each PLL feeds the input port of the next PLL in
the chain.
 Page -44-
All seven PLLs in this example contribute to the ultimate signal and noise performance at the output of the
chain. For practical analysis purposes, the chain begins with the reference oscillator in the site controller.

This special loop is locked to the Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver, but the loop bandwidth is so
low that the only noise at the site controller reference PLL's output is the phase noise of the oven-
controlled crystal oscillator (OCXO).

To review the essentials of PLL design,1-3 a PLL is a control loop that typically locks the phase and
frequency of a tunable signal source, such as a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO), at the output of the
loop to the frequency and phase of a presumably stable signal at the input of the loop. Figure 2 shows the
major elements of a PLL.
The frequency of the loop output (FOUT) is related to the frequency at the loop input (FIN) by

N = the loop frequency multiplication factor,

R = the reference oscillator divider, and
P = the output divider, which is optional.

Designing for a higher-than-needed frequency and then dividing the output to reach the desired frequency
is an approach that can be used to improve noise performance.

Post-loop frequency division can also be used to lower the output frequency that is sometimes needed by
the reference divider of a subsequent stage. Most, if not all, PLLs act as phase-noise filters to the input
signal (with each PLL exhibiting a unique lowpass response) and also as phase-noise generators. Some
important points to note about PLL noise theory are that:

1. Each PLL has a unique lowpass response, most often characterized by the closed-loop 3-dB banwidth.
2. At frequencies above the loop bandwidth, the loop attenuates the phase noise of the input signal and
also attenuates the phase noise of the phase detector and charge pump inside the loop.
3. At frequencies below the loop bandwidth, the loop attenuates the phase noise of the VCO or other
voltage-controlled element in the loop.
 Page -45-

[CHAPTER-IV]
-------------------------- telecommUnication sYstem--------------------------
4.1 The operation of Electronic Telephone System. (Telephone Set)

The Basic Telephone Set Fundamental Functions

 The basic telephone set connected to the telephone network we are all very comfortable with using,
has 4 basic functions:
 To provide a signal to the telephone company that a call is to be made (off-hook) or a call is complete
(on-hook).
 To provide the telephone company with the number the caller wishes to call.
 To provide a way for the telephone company to indicate that a call is coming in or ringing.
 To convert voice frequencies to electrical signals that can be transmitted at the transmitter and convert
those electrical signals back to voice frequencies at the receiver.
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has set standards for the above features and all
manufacturers selling telephones in this country must match these standards or the phone will not work
properly.
In addition many modern telephones also come with features like speed dial, redial, memory, caller ID,
voice mail, etc. These are all additional features that are not necessary to make or receive calls.
Let's look at Telephone Set Function 1: To provide a signal to the telephone company that a call is to be
made (off-hook) or a call is complete (on-hook).
The switchhook gets its name from the old telephones that had a hook on the side. On modern phones the
switchhook is a button that is depressed when the handset is put on the cradle of the telephone.
According to Telephone Company specifications individual telephone set DC resistance should be 200 Ω
but in reality most telephones range between 150 and 1000 Ω of DC resistance.
When a user picks up a connected telephone handset to make a call the switch hooks in the figure below
(S1 and S2) close (off-hook condition) and the local loop circuit is complete.
 Page -46-
When a handset is picked up, a DC current ranging between 20 and 120 mA flows on the pair of wires
connecting the telephone to the CO. This current flow causes a relay coil to magnetize and it's contacts
close.

In the CO current flows through a relay coil attached to the local loop wire pair. The coil energizes, it’s
contacts close and the CO switch knows a phone is off hook somewhere.

A line feeder in the CO switch looks for the off-hook signal, finds it and sets up a connection. In the CO
switch a dial-tone generator is connected to the line so the caller knows they can dial a number.

4.2 The function of Switching System & Call Procedures

Switching system
When there are many devices, it is necessary to develop suitable mechanism for communication between
any two devices. One alternative is to establish point-to-point communication between each pair of
devices using mesh topology.

However, mesh topology is impractical for large number of devices, because the number of links increases
exponentially (n(n-1)/2, where n is the number of devices) with the number of devices. A better alternative
is to use switching techniques leading to switched communication network.

In the switched network methodology, the network consists of a set of interconnected nodes, among
which information is transmitted from source to destination via different routes, which is controlled by the
switching mechanism. A basic model of a switched communication is shown in Fig. 4.1.1.

The end devices that wish to communicate with each other are called stations. The switching devices are
called nodes. Some nodes connect to other nodes and some are to connected to some stations.

Key features of a switched communication network are given below:

 Network Topology is not regular.

 Uses FDM or TDM for node-to-node communication.
 There exist multiple paths between a source-destination pair for better network reliability.
 The switching nodes are not concerned with the contents of data.
 Their purpose is to provide a switching facility that will move data from node to node until they
reach the destination.

The switching performed by different nodes can be categorized into the following three types:
Circuit Switching
Packet Switching
Message Switching
 Page -47-

Basic Call Procedure:

Fig. Shows a simplification diagram illustrating how two telephone sets (subscribers) are
interconnected through a central office dial switch. Each subscriber is connected to the switch through
a local loop. The switch is most likely some sort of an electronic switching system (ESS machine).
The local loop are terminated at the calling and called station s in telephone sets and at the central
office ends to switching machines.
 Page -48-
When the calling party’s telephone set goes off hook (i.e., lifting the handset off the cradle), the switch hook in the
telephone set is released, completing a dc path between the tip and the ring of the loop trough the microphone .

The ESS machine senses a dc current in the loop and recognizes this as an off-hook condition. Completing a local
telephone call between two subscribers connected to the same telephone switch is accomplished through a standard
set of procedure that includes the 10 steps listed next.

1. Calling station goes off hook.

2. After detecting a dc current flow on the loop, the switching machine returns an audible dial tone to the calling
station, acknowledging that the caller has access to the switching machine.

3. The caller dials the destination telephone number using one of the two methods: Mechanical dial pulsing or, more
likely, electronic dual-tone multi frequency (Touch-Tone) signals.

4. When the switching machine detects the first dialled number, it removes the dial tone from the loop.

5. The switch interprets the telephone number and then locates the loop for the destination telephone number.

6. Before ringing the destination telephone , the switching machine tests the destination loop for dc current to see if
tt is idle (on hook) or in use (off hook). At the same time, the switching machine locates a signal path through the
switch between the two local loops.

7. (a) If the destination telephone is off hook, the switching machine sends a station busy signal back to the calling
station.

(b) If the destination telephone is on hook, the switching machine sends a ringing signal to the destination telephone
on the local loop and the same time sends a ring back signal to the calling station to give the caller some assurance
that something is happening.

8. When the destination answers the telephone, it completes the loop, causing dc current to flow.

9. The switch recognizes the dc current as the station answering the telephone. At this time, the switch removes the
ringing and ring-back signals and completes the path through the switch, allowing the calling and called parties to
begin conversation.

10. When either end goes on hook, the switching machine detects an open circuit on that loop and then drops the
connections through the switch.

4.3 The principle of space and time switching.

Space Switching

Circuit switching uses any of the three technologies: Space-Division switches, Time-Division switches or a
Combination of both.

In Space-division switching, the paths in the circuit are separated with each other spatially, i.e. different ongoing
connections, at a same instant of time, uses different switching paths, which are separated spatially.

This was originally developed for the analog environment, and has been carried over to the digital domain. Some of
the space switches are crossbar switches, Multi-stage switches (e.g. Omega Switches).

A Crossbar switch is shown in Fig. Basic building block of the switch is a metallic crosspoint or semiconductor
gate that can be enabled or disabled by a control unit.
 Page -49-

[Figure Schematic diagram of a crossbar switch]

Limitations of crossbar switches are as follows:

• The number of cross points grows with the square of the number of attached stations.
• Costly for a large switch.
• The failure of a cross point prevents connection between the two devices whose lines intersect at that
cross point.
• The cross points are inefficiently utilized.
• Only a small fraction of cross points are engaged even if all of the attached devices are active. Some of
the above problems can be overcome with the help of multistage space division switches.
• By splitting the crossbar switch into smaller units and interconnecting them, it is possible to build
multistage switches with fewer cross points.

[Fig- A three-stage space division switch]

Figure shows a three-stage space division switch. In this case the number of crosspoints needed goes
down from 64 to 40. There is more than one path through the network to connect two endpoints, thereby
increasing reliability. Multistage switches may lead to blocking.

The problem may be tackled by increasing the number or size of the intermediate switches, which also
increases the cost. The blocking feature is illustrated in Fig. 4.1.6. As shown in Fig. 4.1.6, after setting up
connections for 1-to-3 and 2-to-4, the switch cannot establish connections for 3-to-6 and 4-to-5.
 Page -50-
Time Division Switching
Both voice and data can be transmitted using digital signals through the same switches. All modern circuit
switches use digital time-division multiplexing (TDM) technique for establishing and maintaining circuits.
Synchronous TDM allows multiple low-speed bit streams to share a high-speed line.

A set of inputs is sampled in a round robin manner. The samples are organized serially into slots
(channels) to form a recurring frame of slots.

During successive time slots, different I/O pairings are enabled, allowing a number of connections to be
carried over the shared bus. To keep up with the input lines, the data rate on the bus must be high enough
so that the slots recur sufficiently frequently.

For 100 full-duplex lines at 19.200 Kbps, the data rate on the bus must be greater than 1.92 Mbps. The
source-destination pairs corresponding to all active connections are stored in the control memory.

Thus the slots need not specify the source and destination addresses. Schematic diagram of time division
switching is shown in Fig.

Time-division switching uses time-division multiplexing to achieve switching, i.e. different ongoing
connections can use same switching path but at different interleaved time intervals.

There are two popular methods of time-division switching namely, Time-Slot Interchange (TSI) and the
TDM bus.

TSI changes the ordering of the slots based on desired connection and it has a random-access memory to
store data and flip the time slots as shown in Fig. 4.1.8.

The operation of a TSI is depicted in Fig.1 As shown in the figure, writing can be performed in the
memory sequentially, but data is read selectively.

In TDM bus there are several input and outputs connected to a high-speed bus. During a time slot only one
particular output switch is closed, so only one connection at a particular instant of time as shown in Fig.2
 Page -51-

Figure 1 Operation of a TSI Figure 2 TDM bus switching

4.4 The principle of PDH and SDH modes of transmission.

The Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) In a PDH network you have different levels of Multiplexers.

Figure 1 shows three levels of multiplexing:-

· 2Mbit/s to 8Mbit/s
· 8Mbit/s to 34Mbit/s
· 34Mbit/s to 140Mbit/s

So to carry a 2Mbit/s data stream across the 140Mbit/s trunk requires it to be multiplexed up through the
higher order multiplexers into the 140Mbit/s trunk and then to be multiplexed down through the lower
order multiplexers.

Because Plesiochronous is not quite Synchronous each of the multiplexers need a little bit of overhead on
their high speed trunks to cater for the slight differences in data rates of the streams on the low speed
ports.

Some of the data from low speed ports (that are running too fast) can be carried in the trunk overhead, and
this can happen at all multiplexing levels. This is known as Justification or Bit Stuffing.
 Page -52-
PDH Multiplexing Hierarchy Figure 2 shows that there are two totally different hierarchies, one for the
US and Japan and another for the rest of the world.

The other thing to notice is that the different multiplexing levels are not multiples of each other. For
example CEPT2 supports 120 Calls but it requires more than 4 times the bandwidth of CEPT1 to achieve
this.

This is because PDH is not exactly synchronous and each multiplexing level requires extra bandwidth to
perform Bit Stuffing. So the Plesiochronous Hierarchy requires “Bit Stuffing”, at all levels, to cater for the
differences in clocks.

This makes it particularly difficult to locate a particular 2Mbit/s stream in the 140Mbit/s trunk unless you
fully de-multiplex the 140Mbit/s stream all the way down to 2Mbit/s. Drop & Insert a 2Mbit/s stream To
drop & insert a 2Mbit/s stream from a 140Mbit/s trunk you need to break the 140Mbit/s trunk and insert a
couple of “34Mbit/s to 140Mbit/s” multiplexers.

We can then isolate the appropriate 34Mbit/s stream and multiplex the other 34Mbit/s streams back into
the 140Mbit/s trunk. Then you de-multiplex the 34Mbit/s stream, isolate the appropriate 8Mbit/s Stream
and multiplex the other 8Mbit/s streams through the higher layer multiplexer, into the 140Mbit/s trunk.

The Limitations of PDH:-

 DH is not very flexible
P

As previously explained, it is not easy to identify individual channels in a higher order bit stream. You
must multiplex the high rate channel down through all multiplexing levels to find a particular lower speed
channel. This requires an expensive and complex “multiplexer mountain”.

 ack of Performance
L

It is not easy to provide good performance if you can’t monitor the performance in the first place. For
PDH there is no international standard for performance monitoring and no agreed management channels.

There are some spare overhead bits that are being used for management but they have limited bandwidth
and are hard to locate in a 140 Meg stream without de-multiplexing.
 Page -53-
 ack of standards
L

Not only does PDH have two totally different multiplexing hierarchies but it is quite weak on standards.
For example there are no standards for data rates above 140Mbit/s and no standards for the line side of a
“Line Transmission Terminal”.

The Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)

SDH, like PDH is based on a hierarchy of continuously repeating, fixed length frames designed to carry
isochronous traffic channels. SDH was specifically designed in such a way that it would preserve a
smooth interworking with existing PDH networks.

The developers of SDH also addressed the weaknesses of PDH. They recognised that it was necessary to
adopt not only a Synchronous frame structure but one that also preserves the byte boundaries in the
various traffic bit streams.

Because SDH is synchronous it allows single stage multiplexing and de-multiplexing. This eliminates
hardware complexity. You don’t need multiplexer mountains.

SDH Multiplexing levels

Figure 4 shows the SDH multiplexing levels.

The US and Japan use SONET while most of the rest of the world use SDH.

Apart from using some different terminology, thereis very little difference between SONET and SDH.
You can see that the data rates are the same except SDH doesn’t specify a 51 Meg rate.

STM-1 forms the basis of the SDH frame structure. For example an STM-4 is a frame consisting of 4 x
STM-1s. In Sonet, the STS levels refer to the speed of the bit stream. When these bits are converted to a
train of optical pulses in a fibre, they are called an Optical Carrier (OC).

You may also see “OC-3c” referred to. This is simply the same bit rate as OC-3, but interpreted as one
channel instead of 3 multiplexed OC-1s. The “c” stands for “Concatenated”.
 Page -54-
SDH Network Elements

Figure 5 shows the elements that make up an SDH network.

Path Terminating Element

4.5 The operation of ATM , ISDN network.

ATM

Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) is one of many network transmission protocols included in Windows
Server 2003. The most commonly used transmission protocol included in Windows Server 20003 is
TCP/IP, which is a connectionless protocol.

As such, TCP/IP cannot offer some of the advantages that a connection-oriented, virtual circuit, packet-
switching technology, such as ATM, can. Unlike most connectionless networking protocols, ATM is a
deterministic networking system — it provides predictable, guaranteed quality of service.

The ideal environment in which to use ATM is one that combines computer, voice, and video networking
into a single network, and the combination of existing networks into a single infrastructure.
 Page -55-
ATM Architecture
ATM is a combination of hardware and software that can provide either an end-to-end network or form a
high-speed backbone. The structure of ATM and its software components comprise the ATM architecture,
as the following illustration shows. The primary layers of ATM are the physical layer, the ATM layer, and
the ATM Adaptation layer.

ATM Architectural Diagram

Each layer and sublayer is described briefly in the following table, “ATM Layers.”
atm laYers

Physical Layer
The physical layer provides for the transmission and reception of ATM cells across a physical medium
between two ATM devices. This can be a transmission between an ATM endpoint and an ATM switch, or
it can be between two ATM switches. The physical layer is subdivided into a Physical Medium Dependent
sublayer and Transmission Convergence sublayer.

PMD Sublayer
The Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayer is responsible for the transmission and reception of
individual bits on a physical medium. These responsibilities encompass bit timing, signal encoding,
interacting with the physical medium, and the cable or wire itself.

ATM does not rely on any specific bit rate, encoding scheme or medium and various specifications for
ATM exist for coaxial cable, shielded and unshielded twisted pair wire, and optical fiber at speeds ranging
from 64 kilobits per second to 9.6 gigabits per second.

In addition, the ATM physical medium can extend up to 60 kilometers or more by using single-mode fiber
and long-reach lasers.

Thus it can readily support wide-range connectivity, including a private metropolitan area network. The
independence of ATM from a particular set of hardware constraints has allowed it to be implemented over
radio and satellite links.

Transmission Convergence Sublayer

The Transmission Convergence (TC) sublayer functions as a converter between the bit stream of ATM
cells and the PMD sublayer. When transmitting, the TC sublayer maps ATM cells onto the format of the
PDM sublayer, such as the DS-3 interface or Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) frames.
 Page -56-
Because a continuous stream of bytes is required, unused portions of the ATM cell stream are filled by
idle cells. These idle cells are identified in the ATM header and are silently discarded by the receiver.
They are never passed to the ATM layer for processing.

The TC sublayer also generates and verifies the Header Error Control (HEC) field for each cell. On the
transmitting side, it calculates the HEC and places it in the header. On the receiving side, the TC sublayer
checks the HEC for verification.

If a single bit error can be corrected, the bit is corrected, and the results are passed to the ATM layer. If
the error cannot be corrected (as in the case of a multibit error) the cell is silently discarded.

Finally, the TC sublayer delineates the ATM cells, marking where ATM cells begin and where they end.
The boundaries of the ATM cells can be determined from the PMD layer formatting or from the incoming
byte stream using the HEC field.

The PMD performs the HEC validation per byte on the preceding 4 bytes. If it finds a match, the next
ATM cell boundary is 48 bytes away (corresponding to the ATM payload). The PMD performs this
verification several times to ensure that the cell boundaries have been determined correctly.

ATM Layer

The ATM layer provides cell multiplexing, demultiplexing, and VPI/VCI routing functions. The ATM
layer also supervises the cell flow to ensure that all connections remain within their negotiated cell
throughput limits.

If connections operate outside their negotiated parameters, the ATM layer can take corrective action so the
misbehaving connections do not affect connections that are obeying their negotiated connection contract.
The ATM layer also maintains the cell sequence from any source.

The ATM layer multiplexes and demultiplexes and routes ATM cells, and ensures their sequence from
end to end. However, if a cell is dropped by a switch due to congestion or corruption, it is not the
responsibility of the ATM layer to correct the dropped cell by means of retransmission or to notify other
layers of the dropped cell. Layers above the ATM layer must detect the lost cell and decide whether to
correct it or disregard it.

In the case of interactive voice or video, a lost cell is typically disregarded because it takes too long to
resend the cell and place it in the proper sequence to reconstruct the audio or video signal. A significant
number of dropped cells in time-dependent services, such as voice or video, results in a choppy audio or
video playback, but the ATM layer cannot correct the problem unless a higher Quality of Service is
specified for the connection.

In the case of data (such as a file transfer), the upper layer application must sense the absence of the cell
and retransmit it. A file with randomly missing 48-bytes chunks is a corrupted file that is unacceptable to
the receiver. Because operations, such as file transfers, are not time dependent, the contents of the cell can
be recovered by incurring a delay in the transmission of the file corresponding to the recovery of the lost
cell.
 Page -57-
ATM Layer Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
ATM layer multiplexing blends all the different input types so that the connection parameters of each
input are preserved. This process is known as traffic shaping.
ATM layer demultiplexing takes each cell from the ATM cell stream and, based on the VPI/VCI, either
routes it (for an ATM switch) or passes the cell to the ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) process that
corresponds to the cell (for an ATM endpoint).
ATM Adaptation Layer
The ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) creates and receives 48-byte payloads through the lower layers of
ATM on behalf of different types of applications. Although there are five different types of AALs, each
providing a distinct class of service, Windows Server 2003 supports only AAL5.
ATM Adaptation is necessary to link the cell-based technology at the ATM Layer to the bit-stream
technology of digital devices (such as telephones and video cameras) and the packet-stream technology of
modern data networks (such as frame relay, X.25 or LAN protocols such as TCP/IP or Ethernet).
ATM Cell Structure
At either a private or a public User-Network Interface (UNI), an ATM cell always consists of a 5-byte
header followed by a 48-byte payload. The header is composed of six elements, each detailed in the
following figure, “Cell Header Structure.”

Cell Header Structure

ISDN
Integrated Service Digital Network, or ISDN, is the original high-speed internet service. It sparked the
high-speed internet development between service providers during the 1990's and, of course,
revolutionized internet use. Much like its predecessor, the dial-up internet service, ISDN utilizes a phone
line. In fact, it set the standard for telephone data service.

ISDN internet service was the improvement upon dial-up, and it also paved the way for DSL and cable-
modem internet service thereafter. It can be considered the step of internet evolution that lies between
dial-up and DSL/Cable. Modernizing internet use and bringing high-speed access inside the home, ISDN
became the standard by which rival broadband internet service providers competed.
 Page -58-
Although ISDN internet service still exists, like the dial-up connection it is being replaced by faster and
cheaper services that the broadband companies are providing. Regardless, broadband high-speed internet
service is still compared with ISDN today since they both represent the standard of their times.

ISDN internet service is basically a telephone-based network system that operates by a circuit switch, or
dedicated line. It can transmit data and phone conversations digitally over normal telephone wires. This
makes it both faster and of higher quality than dial-up internet service.

During the 1990's this revolutionized the way people did business. No longer would you have to miss a
call in order to access your internet, or shut down the internet to make a telephone call. As such, ISDN
internet service made video teleconferencing not only possible, but very popular at this time as well.

There are two different types, or lines, of ISDN internet service. The first is a basic rate ISDN line. Called
a Basic Rate Interface (BRI), this line has two data, or bearer, channels that operate at 64 kbit/sec. Two or
more ISDN-BRI lines can be combined as well, yielding speeds of 256 kbit/sec. Combining these lines is
common for video conferencing use or for transmitting data at higher speeds.

The second type of ISDN line is called a primary rate line, or Primary Rate Interface (PRI). This line had
23 bearer channels and has a total speed of 1,544 kbit/sec. It is used mostly for telephone communication
rather than data transmission, particularly within companies that have large, private telephone exchange
systems operating inside their business.

The advantages of having ISDN internet service definitely lies in the data lines themselves. Not only do
you have constant data speed via these lines, each bearer channel runs at 64 kbit/sec with the ability to be
combined to reach greater speeds. ISDN internet serviced also allows for multiple data transmission, so
telephone calls and data downloading are no longer mutually exclusive.

The disadvantages, however, is that the digital clarity of ISDN voice communication and its speedy data
transmission come at an extra cost. ISDN is billed like a phone line, but with an added cost for service.
And although its operational distance from the ISDN central office is greater than that for DSL, its
terminal adaptor (similar to a modem) is more expensive than DSL or cable modems.

While this equipment and service continue to remain costly, it is leaving the way open for other internet
services, like broadband, to quickly replace ISDN's share of the marketplace.

4.6 The numbering plan of telephone networks (National Schemes & International
Numbering)
INTRODUCTION

The National Numbering Plan was last reviewed during 1993. The plan covered basic as well as other
services like cellular mobile, paging etc. Though the 1993 Numbering Plan could cater to the needs of
existing and new services for another few years, yet it was felt to rationalise and review the existing
National Numbering Plan because of introduction of a large number of new telecom services and opening
up of the entire telecom sector for private participation.

The existing Numbering Plan was formulated at a time when there was no competition in the basic
telecom services and the competition in cellular mobile services had just started, paging services were in a
stage of infancy and Internet services were not available in the country.
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The main objectives of the plan are –
i) To plan in conformity with relevant and applicable ITU standards to the extent possible.

ii) To meet the challenges of the changing telecom environment.

iii) To reserve numbering capacity to meet the undefined future needs.

iv) To support effective competition by fair access to numbering resources.

v) To meet subscriber needs for a meaningful and user-friendly scheme. Only the decimal character set 0-
9 has been used for all number allocations. Letters and other non-decimal characters shall not form part of
the National (Significant) Number [N(S)N]. Dialling procedure as per ITU Recommendation E.164 has
been followed.

The Short Distance Charging Area (SDCA) based linked numbering scheme with 10-digit N(S)N has been
followed. This would expand the existing numbering capacity to ten times.

NATIONAL NUMBERING SCHEME

Level ‘0’:

Sub level ‘000’:

The prefix ‘000’ shall be used for home country direct service (Bilateral) and international toll free service
(Bilateral). The format used is: ‘000 + Country Code + Operator Code’ except ‘000800’ which is used for
bilateral international toll free service.

Sub level ‘0010’ - INTERNATIONAL CARRIER ACCESS (Prefix) CODE: The prefix ‘0010’ shall be
used for selection of international carrier. It will be followed by International Carrier Identification Code
(ICIC), Country Code (CC) and N(S)N. The format shall be as under:

Initially ICIC shall be a two-digit code. This will be sufficient for allotment to 50 international long
distance service providers considering that maximum of two codes may be allotted to each service
provider depending upon toll quality and non-toll quality network. However, to take care of all possible
future requirements, length of ICIC may be reviewed and changed to 3- digit code as and when required.
The allotment of ICIC may start from ‘10’ and codes ‘00’ to ‘09’ may be kept reserved.

Sub level ‘00’ - INTERNATIONAL PREFIX:

The prefix ‘00’ shall be used for International dialling. It will be followed by country code and the N(S)N
of the country to which that call is attempted. The format is as per ITU Recommendation E.164:
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Sub level ‘010’ - NATIONAL CARRIER ACCESS (Prefix) CODE:

The prefix ‘010’ shall be used for selection of national long distance carrier. It will be followed by
(National) Carrier Identification Code (CIC) and N(S) N. The format shall be as under:

Initially CIC shall be a two-digit code. This will be sufficient for allotment to 40 NLDOs (including
NLDOs licensed for basic services) and 10 BSOs licensed only for basic services, considering that
maximum of two codes may be allotted to each service provider depending upon toll quality and non-toll
quality network. However to take care of all possible future requirements, length of CIC may be reviewed
and changed to 3-digit code in future.

The allotment of CIC may start from ‘10’ and codes ‘00’ to ‘09’ may be kept reserved. For intra circle
long distance service, the carrier access code shall be the same as applicable for NLD service. The CIC
from ‘10’ to ‘79’ shall be allotted to NLD service providers. For the NLD service providers, who are also
Basic Service Operators (BSOs), same CIC shall be applicable for intra circle (service area) calls. CIC
from ‘80’ to ‘99’ shall be allocated to the BSOs who are not licensed to provide NLD service.

4.7 Operation PBX & Digital EPABX.

PBX

What is a PBX Phone System?

PBX stands for Private Branch Exchange, which is a private telephone network used within a company or
organization. The users of the PBX phone system can communicate within their company or organization
and the outside world, using different communication channels like Voice over IP, ISDN or analog. A
PBX also allows you to have more phones than physical phone lines (PTSN) and allows free calls
between users. It also provides features like transfers, voicemail, call recording, interactive voice menus
(IVRs) and ACD call queues.
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PBX phone systems are available as Hosted or Virtual solutions (sometimes also called Centrix), and as
inhouse solutions to be used on your own hardware.

PBX phone systems are usually much more flexible than proprietary systems, as they are using open
standards and interfaces. Modern PBX phone systems are based on standard hardware, which is cheaper
and can easier be replaced than a closed systems.

Switching to an IP PBX offers many benefits

With an IP phone system all your internal telephony is routed through the existing LAN (local computer
network). This way a separate network for telephony is not required.

Even though the internal telephony is routed through the LAN, it is also possible to connect your IP-PBX
via gateways to the PSTN. Of course, VoIP (Voice over IP, telephony via the internet) is also possible.

Since IP telephony is mostly using the open SIP standard, an IP phone system gives you a lot more
freedom in your choice of phones.

Basically any SIP compatible phone (VoIP phone) will work with an IP PBX. Furthermore an IP PBX
doesn’t limit the growth of a company.

Since VoIP phones don’t have to be connected physically to the phone system, it doesn’t require a free
port in the phone system like it used to be with traditional phone systems.

IP phones can not only be connected via the LAN but also via the internet, using for example a VPN
connection. Because of this, multiple locations and offices can easily be connected.

There is a huge variety of VoIP providers on the internet which provide SIP trunking (telephony services)
for cheaper call rates than traditional telephony providers. Internal calls via an IP phone system are free
general.

Practical advantages of IP telephony

Interconnecting teams and mobile working is one of the huge advantages of IP phone systems. No matter
if team members are on the road, are located in a different country or work from home, they can connect
via IP desk phone, smart phone or laptop to the PBX in the office.

This way all calls within the company are free and clients will not realize if en employee is in the office or
somewhere else around the world. The same also applies for conferences, these can be hosted directly on
the own IP PBX with as many participants as required. This safes traveling time and money.

Digital EPABX

As shown in the figure EPABX/PBX facilitates use of one external telephone line by many internal users
in the office premises. In the office each employee is provided one telephone set and all the telephones are
connected with PBX.

All the employees within the office premises can communicate using 3-digit or 4-digit number
programmed in EPABX/PBX without any charge.
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EPABX/PBX is connected to PSTN (Public switched Telephone network) via trunk lines; hence all can
use one external voice line in time shared basis.

PSTN is connected with MSC (Mobile switching centre) of cellular networks such as
GSM/CDMA/UMTS. By this mobile bile cell phone user can connect to any telephone set in the office
premises using extension number.

Similar to voice line EPABX/PBX can be used for Data applications. As shown in figure Data port of
PBX is connected to LAN where so many PCs are connected and are using same external internet
connection line from ISP via Modem/router. The same facility of PBX can extended for WLAN users too.

4.8 Define units of Power Measurement.

The watt (symbol: W) is a derived unit of power in the International System of Units (SI), named after the Scottish
engineer James Watt (1736–1819).
1819). The unit is defined as joule per second[1] and can be used to express the rate
of energy conversion or transferr with respect to time. It has dimensions of

L2MT-3

When an object's velocity is held constant at one meter per second against constant opposing force of
one newton the rate at which work is done is 1 watt.

In terms of electromagnetism,, one watt is the rate at which work is done when one ampere (A) of
current flows through an electrical potential difference of one volt (V).

Two additional unit conversions for watt can be found using the above equation and Ohm's Law.

Where ohm ( ) is the SI derived unit of electrical resistance

resistance.
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Femtowatt
The femtowatt is equal to one quadrillionth (10−15) of a watt. Technologically important powers that are
measured in femtowatts are typically found in reference(s) to radio and radar receivers. For example,
meaningful FM tuner performance figures for sensitivity, quieting and signal-to-noise require that the RF
energy applied to the antenna input be specified.
These input levels are often stated in dBf (decibels referenced to 1 femtowatt). This is 0.2739 microvolt
across a 75-ohm load or 0.5477 microvolt across a 300 ohm load; the specification takes into account the
RF input impedance of the tuner.
Picowatt
The picowatt is equal to one trillionth (10−12) of a watt. Technologically important powers that are
measured in picowatts are typically used in reference to radio and radar receivers, acoustics and in the
science of radio astronomy.
Nanowatt
The nanowatt is equal to one billionth (10−9) of a watt. Important powers that are measured in nanowatts
are also typically used in reference to radio and radar receivers.
Microwatt
The microwatt is equal to one millionth (10−6) of a watt. Important powers that are measured in
microwatts are typically stated in medical instrumentation systems such as the EEG and the ECG, in a
wide variety of scientific and engineering instruments and also in reference to radio and radar receivers.
Compact solar cells for devices such as calculators and watches are typically measured in microwatts.
Milliwatt
The milliwatt is equal to one thousandth (10−3) of a watt. A typical laser pointer outputs about five
milliwatts of light power, whereas a typical hearing aid for people uses less than one milliwatt.
Kilowatt
The kilowatt is equal to one thousand (103) watts, or one sthene-metre per second. This unit is typically
used to express the output power of engines and the power of electric motors, tools, machines, and
heaters. It is also a common unit used to express the electromagnetic power output of broadcast radio and
television transmitters.
One kilowatt is approximately equal to 1.34 horsepower. A small electric heater with one heating element
can use 1.0 kilowatt, which is equivalent to the power of a household in the United States averaged over
the entire year.
Also, kilowatts of light power can be measured in the output pulses of some lasers.
A surface area of one square meter on Earth receives typically about one kilowatt of sunlight from the sun
(the solar irradiance) (on a clear day at mid day, close to the equator).
Megawatt
The megawatt is equal to one million (106) watts. Many events or machines produce or sustain the
conversion of energy on this scale, including lightning strikes; large electric motors; large warships such
as aircraft carriers, cruisers, and submarines; large server farms or data centers; and some scientific
research equipment, such as supercolliders, and the output pulses of very large lasers.
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A large residential or commercial building may use several megawatts in electric power and heat. On
railways, modern high-powered electric locomotives typically have a peak power output of 5 or 6 MW,
although some produce much more.
The Eurostar, for example, uses more than 12 MW, while heavy diesel-electric locomotives typically
produce/use 3 to 5 MW. U.S. nuclear power plants have net summer capacities between about 500 and
1300 MW.
The earliest citing of the megawatt in the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) is a reference in the
1900 Webster's International Dictionary of English Language. The OED also states that megawatt
appeared in a 28 November 1947 article in the journal Science
Gigawatt
The gigawatt is equal to one billion (109) watts or 1 gigawatt = 1000 megawatts. This unit is often used
for large power plants or power grids. For example, by the end of 2010 power shortages in China's Shanxi
province were expected to increase to 5–6 GW and the installed capacity of wind power in Germany was
25.8 GW. The largest unit (out of four) of the Belgian Nuclear Plant Doel has a peak output of 1.04 GW.
HVDC converters have been built with power ratings of up to 2 GW.[11] The London Array, the world's
largest offshore wind farm, is designed to produce a gigawatt of power
Terawatt
The terawatt is equal to one trillion (1012) watts. The total power used by humans worldwide
(about 16 TW in 2006) is commonly measured in this unit. The most powerful lasers from the mid-1960s
to the mid-1990s produced power in terawatts, but only for nanosecond time frames. The
average lightning strike peaks at 1 terawatt, but these strikes only last for 30 microseconds.
Petawatt
The petawatt is equal to one quadrillion (1015) watts and can be produced by the current generation of
lasers for time-scales on the order of picoseconds (10−12 s). One such laser is the Lawrence
Livermore's Nova laser, which achieved a power output of 1.25 PW (1.25 × 1015 W) by a process
called chirped pulse amplification. The duration of the pulse was about 0.5 ps (5 × 10−13 s), giving a total
energy of 600 J, or enough energy to power a 100 W light bulb for six seconds
4.9 OPERATION AND PRINCIPLE OFInternet Protocol Telephony (IP Telephony)
Internet Protocol Telephony (IP Telephony) is the use of IP-based networks to build, provide and access voice, data
or other forms of telephonic communications. IP telephony provides traditional telephonic communication over an
IP-based network, the Internet - via an Internet service provider (ISP) - or directly from a telecommunications
service provider.

IP telephony is designed to replace the telecommunications' infrastructure of circuit switched public data
networks (CSPDN) and public switched telephone networks (PSTN) with packet switched IP
communication networks. In a consumer IP telephony solution, a soft IP phone application and backend
Internet connection enable voice and data communication, such as calling and faxing.

A user may call other soft phone users, send or receive faxes and even communicate with circuit switched
and cellular communication services. In an enterprise environment, IP telephony is implemented through
physical IP phones that work on top of an IP network infrastructure. An IP phone's built-in firmware
provides the complete functionality for initiating and managing telephonic communications.
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Moreover, IP telephony also supports video communication between two or more users. Voice over
Internet Protocol (VoIP), a popular IP telephony implementation, only supports voice communication
over IP.
How do IP phone systems work?
The “IP” in IP phone system refers to Voice over IP, or having your phone calls routed over the internet or
your local network (LAN). This is great for many reasons. First of all, you don’t have to use the telephone
network of your telephony service provider for making calls, which will reduce your costs for phone calls.

At the same time you are gaining many technical advantages by using IP technology for your telephony.
Users of an VoIP phone system simply plug their IP phone into the nearest LAN port. Then, the IP phone
registers automatically at the VoIP phone system.

The IP phone always keeps its number, and behaves exactly the same way, no matter where you plug it in
– on your desk, in the office next door or on a tropical island. All of this works because of the SIP
protocol.

It is a standard widely used by ISPs, VoIP phone systems and VoIP phones world-wide. It makes
expensive proprietary phones obsolete, and helps that all devices can talk to each other.

IP phone systems are usually built on standard PC or embedded hardware which are more cost-effective
and powerful than the hardware of the traditional phone manufacturers.

At the same time, ip phone systems are scalable, as they are not limited to a certain number of physical
phone ports. That means you don’t need to replace your phone system when your company grows.

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