Sub: Engineering Chemistry; Sem: I/II

Module-2
Quantum Materials and Polymers

Quantum Dots: Introduction, size-dependent properties-quantum confinement effect, surface-to-

volume ratio & band gap. Synthesis of Cd-Se Quantum dots by wet chemical method and its
applications. Construction, working principle and applications of quantum dot sensitized solar cells
(QDSSCs).

Polymer: Introduction, number average and weight average molecular weight of the polymers and
numerical problems. Structure-properties relationship of polymers (Crystallinity, Strength,
Elasticity and chemical resistivity). Synthesis and properties of nylon-6,6 and its advantages in 3D
printing applications. Synthesis and properties of chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC), and
polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), and their uses in device applications.

Conducting polymers- Introduction, synthesis of polyaniline, conduction mechanism and its

engineering applications.

Introduction

Polymers are macromolecules that have high molecular mass built up by linkage together
of a large number of small molecules called monomers. In Greek Poly means many, mers
means units or parts. The molecular mass of polymers is high and ranges from 10,000 to
1,00,000.

Example: Polythene is a polymer formed by linkage of a large number of ethylene.

Polymerization: The chemical process in which the monomers are converted into polymers is
called Polymerization.

Degree of Polymerization: The number of times the unit is repeated in a homopolymer chain is
referred to as the degree of polymerization. High polymers have high degree of polymerization.

Addition polymerization: It is a process in which unsaturated monomers, typically containing

double or triple carbon-carbon bonds, repeatedly join together to form long polymer chains without
the elimination of any byproducts.

o Polyethylene (from ethene)

o Polypropylene (from propene)
o PVC (polyvinyl chloride, from vinyl chloride)

Condensation polymerization: The polymerization process involves the reaction of bifunctional

or multifunctional monomers, each containing two or more reactive groups such as –OH, –COOH,
or –NH₂. During the formation of the polymer, small molecules like water, hydrochloric acid, or
methanol are eliminated as byproducts.

• Nylon (e.g., Nylon-6,6 from hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid)

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• Terylene / PET (from ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid)

• Bakelite (from phenol and formaldehyde)

Molecular Mass of Polymer:

The substances like water, ammonia, benzene, etc., are monodispersed in nature i.e., their
molecules have same size whereas polymers contain molecules of different size depending on
their chain length. Therefore polymers supposed to have average molecular mass. The average
molecular mass can be calculated in two ways viz.

i) Number-average molecular mass (Mn)

ii) Weight-average molecular mass (Mw)

Number-average molecular mass (Mn): It is the ratio of total mass of all the molecules of a
sample to the total number of molecules.

Ex;- in a polymer sample, Suppose

N1 molecules have molecular mass M1 each.

N2 molecules have molecular mass M2 each.
In general, Ni molecules have molecular mass Mi each.
Then,

Total mass of all the N1 molecules = N1M1

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Total mass of all the N2 molecules = N2M2

In general, Total mass of all the Ni molecules = NiMi

So,
Total mass of all the molecules
Mn =
Total number of molecules
N M + N2 M 2 + ........ + Ni M i
i.e. Mn = 1 1
N1 + N2 + ........ + Ni
Mn =  i i
NM
In general
 Ni
Weight-average molecular mass (Mw): It is the ratio of products of total mass of groups of
molecules to the total mass of all molecules.

Products of total mass of groups of molecules

i.e. Mw =
Total mass of all molecules
w1M1 + w2 M 2 +........ + wi Mi
Mw =
w1 + w2 + ........ + wi
Since, w = NxM
NM 2+N M 2
+ ........ + N M 2
Mw = 1 1 2 2 i i
N1M1 + N2 M 2 + ........ + Ni M i

N M
2

In general Mw = i i

N M i i

Polydispersity Index: It is the measure of number of molecular species having different sizes,
equal to the ratio of weight average molecular mass to number average molecular mass.
Mw
i.e. PDI =  1 , higher the value, greater is the polydispersity.
Mn

Numerical Problems:
1. In a sample of a polymer, 100 molecules have molecular mass 103 g/mol, 200 molecules have
molecular mass 104 g/mol and 250 molecules have molecular mass 105 g/mol. Calculate the
number average, weight average molecular mass of the polymer and PDI.

Solution, Given

N1 = 100, M1 = 103 g/mol,

N2 = 200, M2 = 104 g/mol,
N3 = 250, M3 = 105 g/mol

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We have

N1M1 + N2 M 2 + ........ + Ni M i
Mn =
N1 + N2 + ........ + Ni
(100x103) + (200x104 ) + (250x105)
Mn =
100 + 200 + 250
Mn = 49272g / mol
NM 2+N M 2
+ ........ + N M 2
Mw = 1 1 2 2 i i
N1M1 + N2 M 2 + ........ + Ni M i
100x(103)2 + 200x(104 )2 + 250x(105)2
Mw =
(100x103) + (200x104 ) + (250x105)
Mw = 92992g / mol
Mw 92992
PDI = = = 1.89
Mn 49272

2. In a polymer sample, 20 % of molecules have molecular mass 12000 g/mol 30% molecules
have molecular mass 20000 g/mol, remaining molecules have molecular mass 22000 g/mol.
Calculate the number average, weight average molecular mass of the polymer and PDI.

Solution, Given

N1 = 20, M1 = 12000 g/mol,

N2 = 30, M2 = 20000 g/mol,
N3 = 50, M3 = 22000 g/mol

N1M1 + N2 M 2 + ........ + Ni M i
Mn =
N1 + N2 + ........ + Ni
(20x12000) + (30x20000) + (50x22000)
Mn =
20 + 30 + 50
Mn = 19400g / mol
NM 2+N M 2
+ ........ + N M 2
Mw = 1 1 2 2 i i
N1M1 + N2 M 2 + ........ + Ni M i
20x(12000)2 + 30x(20000)2 + 50x(22000)2
Mw =
(20x12000) + (30x20000) + (50x22000)
Mw = 20144g / mol

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Mw 20144
PDI = = = 1.04
Mn 19400

3. A polymer sample contains

100 molecules with the formula -(CH3- CHCI)1000
200 molecules with the formula -(CH3- CHCI)2000
300 molecules with the form ula -(CH3- CHCI)4000
Calculate the number average, weight average molecular mass of the polymer and PDI.

Solution,

Molecular mass of -(CH3- CHCI)- = 62.5 g/mol

Therefore

N1 = 100, M1 = 62.5 x 1000 = 62500 g/mol,

N2 = 200, M2 = 62.5 x 2000 = 125000 g/mol,
N3 = 300, M3 = 62.5 x 4000 = 250000 g/mol

We have

N1M1 + N2 M 2 + ........ + Ni M i
Mn =
N1 + N2 + ........ + Ni
(100x62500) + (200x125000) + (300x250000)
Mn =
100 + 200 + 300
Mn = 177083g / mol
NM 2+N M 2
+ ........ + N M 2
Mw = 1 1 2 2 i i
N1M1 + N2 M 2 + ........ + Ni M i
100x(62500)2 + 200x(125000)2 + 300x(250000)2
Mw =
(100x62500) + (200x125000) + (300x250000)
Mw = 209558g / mol
Mw 209558
PDI = = = 1.18
Mn 177083

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Assignment numerical:

1. A polymer has following composition 100 molecules of molecular mass 1000 g/mol, 2000
molecules of molecular mass 2000g/mol and 500 molecules of molecular mass 5000 g/mol.
Calculate the number average and weight average molecular weight of the polymer. (June-
2016)

2. In a polymer sample, 20% molecules have molecular mass 15000 g/mol, 45% molecules
have molecular mass 25000 g/mol remaining molecules have molecular mass 27000 g/mol.
Calculate the number average and weight average molecular weight of the polymer. (Dec
2015)

3. In a polymer sample, 20% of molecules have molecular mass 15000g/mol, 35% molecules
have molecular mass 25000 g/mol and remaining molecules have molecular mass 20000
g/mol. Calculate the number and weight average molecular weights of the polymer.
4. A polymer sample contains 100,200,300 and 400 molecules having molecular mass 1000,
2000, 3000 and 4000 respectively. Calculate the number and weight average molecular
weights of the polymer.

5. A polymer sample containing 50, 100 and 150 molecules having molar mass 1000, 2000
and 3000 respectively. Calculate the number and weight average molecular weights of
polymer. [Dec.2015/ Jan 2016]

6. In a polymer sample, 20% of molecules have molecular mass 15000g/mol, 45% molecules
have molecular mass 25000 g/mol and remaining molecules have molecular mass 27000
g/mol. Calculate the number and weight average molecular weights of the polymer.
[Dec.2015/ Jan 2016]

7. A polymer sample contains 200 molecules of molecular mass 2000, and 200 molecules of
molecular mass 40,000 g/mol. Calculate the number and weight average molecular weights
of polymer.

8. A polymer sample contains 100 molecules of molecular mass 20,000 g/mol , 300 molecules
of molecular mass 3000 and 500 molecules of molecular mass 5000. Calculate the number
and weight average molecular weights of polymer. [June/July- 2016]

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Nylon-6,6:
Nylon-6,6 is produced when equal amounts of adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine
undergo polycondensation reaction with form an amide bond, releasing water as a
byproduct.

𝑛 HOOC-(CH2)4 − COOH + 𝑛 H2N-(CH2)6 − NH2 → [−OC-(CH2)4 − CO-NH-(CH2)6 − NH −]𝑛 + (2𝑛 − 1) H2O

Adipic acid Hexamethylene diamine Nylon 6,6

Properties of Nylon-6,6 (Simple Bullet Points):

• They have a dense molecular structure and high [Link] These are extremely elastic.
• They are very resilient and durable Nylon is an abrasion-resistant material The
fabric is water-resistant in nature.
• The fiber is unaffected by most mineral acids, except hot mineral acids. The fiber
dissolves with partial decomposition in concentrated solutions of hydrochloric acid,
sulphuric acid and nitric acid.
• Nylon fabric has resistance to stains, heat, UV rays, and chemicals High tensile
strength.
• Very strong and can handle heavy loads.
• Hard to stretch or break.
• Does not wear out easily, even with movement.
• Can handle high heat (up to 255–265°C).
• Resists oils, greases, and many chemicals.
• Light in weight (lighter than many metals).
• Absorbs less moisture than other plastics.
Advantages in 3D Printing:
• Makes strong, flexible, and tough printed parts.
• Works well for prototypes and mechanical components.
• High melting point prevents warping in hot conditions.
• Durable, even with regular use.
• Resists damage from chemicals and oils—great for industrial parts.

Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride (CPVC):

Synthesis of CPVC is carried out in two main steps as follows:

Step I: Preparation of PVC

Vinyl chloride monomers (VCM) undergo free-radical addition polymerization in the presence of
a peroxide initiator under controlled heat and pressure to form polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
Heat, Polymerization
𝒏 𝐂𝐇𝟐 = 𝐂𝐇𝐂𝐥 ...............→ [−𝐂𝐇𝟐 − 𝐂𝐇𝐂𝐥 −]𝒏
Peroxide

Step II: Chlorination of PVC

The obtained PVC is exposed to chlorine gas under UV irradiation, during hydrogen atoms in the
PVC chain are replaced by chlorine atoms, leading to the formation of chlorinated polyvinyl

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chloride (CPVC).
UV light
[−𝐂𝐇𝟐 − 𝐂𝐇𝐂𝐥 −]𝒏 + 𝒎 𝐂𝐥𝟐.................................. → [−𝐂𝐇𝐂𝐥 − 𝐂𝐇𝐂𝐥 −]𝒏 + 𝒎 𝐇𝐂𝐥

Properties of CPVC:
• CPVC is stronger and tougher than normal PVC.
• CPVC is readily workable, including machining, welding, and forming.
• It exhibits fire-retardant properties.
• Possesses excellent corrosion resistance at elevated temperatures, CPVC is ideally suited for
self-supporting constructions where temperatures up to 93 °C are present.
• The ability to bend, shape, and weld CPVC enables its use in a wide variety of processes and
applications.
• CPVC can withstand corrosive water at temperatures greater than PVC, typically greater by
40–50 °C.
• It is typically very difficult to ignite and tends to self-extinguish when not in a directly applied
flame.
• It has higher chlorine content, which makes it more rigid.
• It has good resistance to corrosion and many chemicals.
• CPVC is fire-retardant due to its high chlorine content.
• It shows good dimensional stability and does not warp easily.
• It is resistant to hot and cold water, so it is used in plumbing.
• CPVC has long service life and good mechanical strength.
• It can be easily processed by extrusion and molding.
Applications
• Used in hot and cold water delivery pipes and industrial liquid handling.
• Water-piping systems in residential and commercial construction.
• CPVC, like PVC, is deemed safe for the transport and use of potable water.

Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) or Plexiglass

PMMA is synthesized by the free-radical bulk polymerization under an inert atmosphere using
methyl methacrylate (MMA) monomers using initiators such as benzoyl peroxide or potassium
persulfate and heat by addition polymerization.
Polymerization
𝒏 𝐂𝐇𝟐 = 𝐂(𝐂𝐇𝟑)𝐂𝐎𝐎𝐂𝐇𝟑 . .................... → [−𝐂𝐇𝟐 − 𝐂(𝐂𝐇𝟑)(𝐂𝐎𝐎𝐂𝐇𝟑) −]𝒏
Initiator, Heat

Properties of PMMA
1. Transparency:
PMMA is highly transparent, allowing approximately 92% of visible light to pass through, making it an
excellent alternative to glass in applications where optical clarity is essential.
2. High Impact Resistance:
Despite its glass-like appearance, PMMA is significantly more impact-resistant than glass, making it
less prone to shattering or breaking.
3. Lightweight:
PMMA is lightweight, which makes it easier to handle and transport compared to glass or other
materials with similar properties.
4. Recyclability:
PMMA is recyclable, and its scrap or waste can be reprocessed to produce new PMMA products.

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5. Low Water Absorption:

PMMA has low water absorption properties, which helps maintain its mechanical and
optical properties in humid conditions

PMMA in Device Applications

• Optical devices: Used in lenses, optical fibers, and light guides due to high transparency.
• Display panels: Utilized in LCD and LED screens for light transmission.
• Medical devices: Applied in intraocular lenses, bone cement, and dentures.
• Solar cells: As a transparent protective layer and encapsulant.
• Microfluidic devices: Due to easy machining and chemical resistance.
• Automobile parts: Headlight covers and indicator lamps because of clarity and weather
resistance.
• Protective shields: Used as a glass substitute in safety windows and aquariums.

Conducting Polymers

Conducting polymers are obtained by doping an oxidizing or a reducing agent into organic
polymers with conjugated backbone consisting of alternating double and single carbon – carbon
bonds.

Conducting polymers are classified as extrinsic and intrinsic conducting polymers. Extrinsic
conducting polymers are prepared by mixing polymers with conducting fillers like metal fibres,
metal oxides, carbon black etc. In these polymers’ conductivity is not due to matrix polymer but
due to added conducting fillers. In intrinsic conducting polymers, conductivity is due to organic
polymers themselves which start conducting upon doping with suitable agents.

The important doping methods are

a) Oxidative doping (p-type doping): The polymer is treated with an oxidizing agent like
iodine, aluminium chloride, perchloric acid etc. Oxidizing agent takes away electrons from π-
back bone of the chain creating a hole. Thus, polymer becomes p-type conductor as it conducts
by the movement of holes.

b) Reductive doping (n-type doping): The polymer is treated with a reducing agent like
sodiumor lithium naphthalids. Reducing agents supplies electrons to π- back bone of the chain.
The polymer becomes n-type conductor as it conducts by free mobile electrons.

Synthesis of Polyaniline:

When n number of aniline molecules undergo oxidative polymerization in presence of dil HCl
and ammonium persulfate to form polyaniline.

n C6H5NH2 + 2n (NH4)2S2O8 + n HCl → (C6H4NH)n + 2n (NH4)HSO4

Mechanism of conduction in Polyaniline (PANI)

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The synthesis of conducting polyaniline is an example of a doping technique. In this

technique, current-carrying species ( -ve / +ve ) are created by the protonation of imine nitrogen.

Polyaniline exists in several different oxidation states of which only emaraldine salt (Reduced
form aniline) conducting.

Polyaniline is partially oxidized using a suitable oxidizing agent, into a base form of aniline which
contains alternating reduced and oxidized forms of aniline polymer back bone.
Base form of aniline treated with aqueous HCl (1M), undergoes protonation of imine nitrogen
atom, creating current-carrying species (+ve) in the polymer backbone. These charges are
compensated by the anions (Cl-) of the doping agent, giving the corresponding salt.
Applications:

• Conductive coatings for electronics and textiles (antistatic applications).

• Corrosion protection on metals through protective coatings.
• Chemical and biosensors for detecting gases, humidity, and biomolecules.
• Electrode material in batteries, supercapacitors, and rechargeable devices.
• Flexible electronics such as OLEDs, wearable sensors, and smart textiles.
• Electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding in electronic devices.
• Environmental and biomedical applications, including water purification and drug
delivery.
Structure property relationship:
Crystallinity:

• Linear polymers have straight chains without side branches or large groups sticking out.
This lets the chains pack closely and neatly, making them crystalline.

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For example, polyethylene has a repeating unit:

−𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝐻2 −, so the chain is straight, allowing the sections to line up
easily.

• Polymers like polyvinyl acetate have branches:

These branches keep the chains from fitting closely, making them less crystalline.
• Factors increasing crystallinity:
o Linear and regular chains, especially with polar groups, boost crystallinity.
o Isotactic polymers, where all side groups are on the same side, are more crystalline than
atactic polymers (random side groups).
How Crystallinity Affects Properties
• High crystallinity makes polymers stronger, stiffer, opaque, and less soluble in solvents.
• As crystallinity increases, solubility decreases.
Tensile strength:
Tensile strength is the maximum stress that the material can withstand. Tensile strength of a
polymer depends on the molecular weight. Tensile strength increases with molecular weight up to
2,000 and thereafter increase is negligible.

Low molecular weight polymers are soft and gummy, but high molecular mass polymers are tough
and heat resistant. Cross-linked polymers are stronger than linear polymers and less than branched
polymer.

Elasticity:
Elasticity is the ability of a polymer to stretch when a force is applied and to return to its original
shape when the force is removed. This behavior occurs because the molecular chains uncoil during
stretching and recoil when the force is released. Polymers exhibit elasticity as long as the chains
do not separate from each other, preventing breakage during extended stretching.
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Elasticity can be enhanced by:

• Introducing cross-links at appropriate molecular positions to connect the chains,

• Avoiding bulky groups such as aromatic and cyclic structures in the repeating units, which
hinder chain movement,

• Incorporating more non-polar groups in the chain to increase cohesion between chains,
thereby reducing chain separation during stretching.

Chemical Resistivity:
• Chemical resistivity of a polymer refers to its ability to resist swelling, softening,
dissolving, and loss of strength when exposed to solvents or chemicals.
• Polymers containing polar groups such as –OH or –COOH are typically dissolved by polar
solvents like water or alcohols.
• Polymers with non-polar groups such as –CH₃ and C₆H₅ are not easily dissolved by polar
solvents but dissolve readily in non-polar solvents like petrol, benzene, and carbon
tetrachloride.
• Polymers with a higher degree of crystallinity exhibit greater chemical resistance than their
amorphous counterparts.
• Chemical resistivity increases as the degree of cross-linking in the polymer structure
increases.

Quantum dots (QDs):

Quantum dots (QDs) are nanoscale semiconductor particles typically ranging from 2 to 10
nanometres in size. Due to their quantum confinement effects, QDs exhibit unique optical and
electronic properties, such as size-dependent light emission. These properties make them highly
valuable in various applications including display technology, solar cells, biomedical imaging, and
quantum computing. Their ability to emit specific wavelengths of light by simply changing their
size makes them a versatile tool in nanotechnology and materials science.

Surface-to-Volume Ratio:

As quantum dots decrease in size, their surface-to-volume ratio increases significantly. A greater
proportion of atoms are located on the surface, which can influence chemical reactivity, electronic
states, and optical behaviour.

Band Gap Variation:

The band gap in quantum dots is not fixed, unlike in bulk semiconductors. Due to quantum
confinement, reducing the size of the QD increases its band gap energy. This size-dependent
tunability of the band gap allows precise control over the color of light absorbed or emitted by the
QD, making them highly useful in applications such as LEDs, lasers, and biomedical imaging.

Quantum Confinement Effect:

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quantum confinement effect when they are very small—around the size of a few nanometers. At
this tiny scale, the movement of electrons and holes inside the QD is limited in all directions. This
causes the energy levels to become separate, like steps, instead of being continuous. As the size of
the QD gets smaller, the gap between energy levels (called the band gap) becomes larger. Because
of this, small QDs give off blue light, while bigger ones give off red light. So, the color of light
from a QD depends on its size.

Synthesis of Cd-Se Quantum Dots by Wet Chemical Method

• Principle:
Cd-Se quantum dots (QDs) are semiconductor nanocrystals whose optical properties
depend on particle size. They are synthesized by controlled wet
chemical routes using cadmium and selenium precursors in the
presence of stabilizers/capping agents.

Selection of Precursors

• Cadmium source: CdCl₂, Cd(CH₃COO)₂, or Cd(NO₃)₂.

CdCl₂ → Cd²⁺ + 2Cl⁻
• Selenium source: Na₂Se, or Na₂SeO₃
Na₂SeO₃ + 4NaBH₄ + 7H₂O → Na₂Se + 4B(OH)₃ + 14H₂↑

• Preparation of Reaction Medium: Dissolve cadmium precursor in aqueous or organic

solvent. Adjust pH to mildly alkaline if needed.

• Addition of Stabilizer / Capping Agent: Agents like mercaptoethanol, thioglycolic acid

(TGA), or trioctylphosphine oxide (TOPO) are added. These prevent aggregation and
control nanoparticle growth.
CdSe + R-SH → CdSe-(SR)surface

• Nucleation and Growth: Controlled heating (50–100 °C) with constant stirring. Selenium
precursor is slowly introduced into the cadmium solution. Reaction is often carried out
under inert atmosphere (nitrogen/argon) to prevent oxidation. Particle size (2–8 nm) is
tuned by varying temperature, precursor ratio, and reaction time.

Cd²⁺ + Se²⁻ → CdSe (Quantum Dots)

• Separation and Purification: The quantum dots are precipitated, centrifuged, and washed
with solvents. Excess unreacted species and surfactants are removed.

• Final Product: Stable colloidal

Cd-Se quantum dots with size-dependent
photoluminescence (emission colours
ranging from blue to red).

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Applications:

Optoelectronics: Used in light-emitting diodes (QLED displays), lasers, and photovoltaic

cells.
Biological Imaging: Serve as fluorescent probes due to tunable emission and high
photostability.
Solar Cells: Improve efficiency of quantum dot-sensitized solar cells (QDSSCs).
Sensors: Employed in chemical and biosensors for detecting heavy metals, biomolecules,
and pH changes.
Photocatalysis: Useful in degradation of pollutants and water splitting for hydrogen
production.
Medical Applications: Potential use in targeted drug delivery and cancer therapy (though
toxicity issues exist due to Cd).
Quantum Computing: Investigated for qubit development due to discrete energy levels.

Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSC):

Introduction
• Quantum dots (QDs) are often referred to as artificial atoms.

• They are semiconductor nanocrystals, only a few nanometers in size, with unique optical and
electronic properties distinct from bulk materials.

• A Quantum Dot Solar Cell (QDSC) is a photovoltaic device that uses QDs as the primary
light-absorbing material.

• QDs can replace conventional bulky materials such as silicon or copper indium gallium
selenide.

• Their band gap can be tuned by simply altering the size of the dots, making them highly
adaptable across a wide range of energy levels.

Construction

• Photoanode: A conducting glass substrate is coated with a semiconductor layer (commonly

TiO₂). The outer surface is then sensitized with QDs.
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• Electrolyte: A redox electrolyte, usually polysulfide, acts as a hole conductor and facilitates
charge transfer.

• Cathode electrode: It helps regenerate the electrolyte and completes the circuit.

Working Principle

1. QDs absorb sunlight and electrons are excited from the valence band to the conduction band.
2. The excited electrons are transferred to the semiconductor layer, leaving holes behind on the
QD surface.
3. The electrolyte captures these holes and undergoes reduction reactions:
𝑆2− + 2ℎ+ → 𝑆 ; 𝑆 + 𝑆2− → 𝑆2− (𝑥 = 2
𝑥 𝑥+1

4. Electrons move from the photoanode to the cathode through the external circuit, producing
current.
5. At the cathode, the electrolyte is regenerated by gaining electrons:
𝑆2− → 𝑆 + 𝑆2− ; 𝑆 + 2𝑒− → 𝑆2−
𝑥 𝑥−1

Advantages

• High power-to-weight ratio with excellent efficiency.

• Low power consumption during operation.

• Cost-effective with improved electrical performance.

• Flexible in use, enabling applications not limited to rooftops but also windows and other
transparent surfaces.
Disadvantages

• Cadmium selenide (CdSe)-based QDs are highly toxic and require a stable polymer shell for
safe use.

• Cadmium and selenium ions are cytotoxic, raising environmental and health concerns.
Applications
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• Biological labelling and imaging.

• Detection systems and fluorescence resonance energy transfer donors.
• Used in LEDs, photodetectors, photoconductors, and photovoltaic devices.
• Biomedical and environmental applications.
• Catalysis and chemical reactions.

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