27.11.

2025

ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

CONTENT

FOREWORD
01. LOADS ON STRUCTURES
DESIGN LOADS
02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES
STRENGTH
STIFFNESS
FORCE DISTRIBUTION AND STRESS CONCENTRATION
STABILTIY IN TERMS OF LATERAL SYSTEMS
OPTIMIZATION OF STRUCTURAL/ARCHITECTURAL CONFIGURATION
THE EFFECTS OF CONFIGURATION IRREGULARITY

[Link]

ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

FOREWORD

It is not intended that the lecture can turn the architect into a civil engineer, capable
of analysis and creating the engineering design for the building. The intent is to help
architects and engineers become better partners, not to further their separation,
and to encourage a new level of architect and engineer collaboration: Architecture
and engineering go hand-in-hand.

[Link]

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 27.11.2025

ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

01. LOADS ON STRUCTURES

All structures are subjected to different types of loads, such as

- Dead Load
- Live Load
- Snow Load DEAD LOAD LIVE LOAD SNOW LOAD
- Rain Load
- Wind Load
- Seismic Load
- Thermal Load
- Earth Load
- Flood Load

during their lifecycle.

RAIN LOAD WIND LOAD SEISMIC LOAD

So, they should be well designed with the right strength and serviceability
characteristics. Prior to start design process, it is essential to understand basic load
types, load flow on the structures and how our design effects the amount of load
subjected.

THERMAL
FLOOD LOAD
LOAD EARTH LOAD

ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

01. LOAD ON STRUCTURES

| DEAD (GRAVITY) LOAD

Dead loads are also known as permanent, static or gravitional loads. Dead loads
comprise the weight of the structure itself as well as things like mechanical
equipment, ceiling and floor finishes, cladding, façades, and parapets, etc.

They remain permanent and constant during the lifetime of the structure, such as
columns, beams, shear walls, partition walls, doors, windows, etc. So, the dead load
is essentially the amount of consistent weight that a building must support at all
times.

Dead loads can be calculated by multiplying the unit weight of materials used and
their volume. For a building made of a steel and reinforced concrete members, the
dead load coming from the skeleton itself can be calculated by using the values:

Steel: 7.850 Kg/m3

Reinforced Concrete: 2.400 Kg/m3

Then the weights of floor and ceiling finishes, facade and roof claddings, mechanical
equipments, etc. are going to be determined and subjected to the structure.

[Link]

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 27.11.2025

ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

01. LOAD ON STRUCTURES

| LIVE LOAD

Live loads include any temporary or transient forces that act on a building or
structural element. Typically, they include people, furniture, vehicles, and almost
everything else that can be moved throughout a building. Or in other words, all
unfixed items in a building in a 'live' load on the structure.

Here are some minimum design live loads can be used for floors based on thier
function:

ASCE 07-10 - Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures

ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

01. LOAD ON STRUCTURES

| LIVE LOAD

Live loads include any temporary or transient forces that act on a building or
structural element. Typically, they include people, furniture, vehicles, and almost
everything else that can be moved throughout a building. Or in other words, all
unfixed items in a building in a 'live' load on the structure.

The acceptable live load will vary considerably based on the occupancy and
expected use of a structure or structural element. For example, the live load for a
room in a single family residence will be significantly smaller than the live load for an
area of equal size at a movie theatre or sporting event.

Here are some minimum design live loads can be used for floors based on thier
function:

It is designer’s own judgment based on the facility. It should be considered carefully

the use of the structure and what its common occupancy will be throughout its
lifetime. Golden Gate Bridge on its 50th Anniversary in ay 1987.
A classic example of live loads overload. This unexpected live load almost destroyed
the bridge.

[Link]

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 27.11.2025

ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

01. LOAD ON STRUCTURES

| LIVE LOAD

Live loads include any temporary or transient forces that act on a building or
structural element. Typically, they include people, furniture, vehicles, and almost
everything else that can be moved throughout a building. Or in other words, all
unfixed items in a building in a 'live' load on the structure.

The acceptable live load will vary considerably based on the occupancy and
expected use of a structure or structural element. For example, the live load for a
room in a single family residence will be significantly smaller than the live load for an
area of equal size at a movie theatre or sporting event.

Here are some minimum design live loads can be used for floors based on thier
function:

It is designer’s own judgment based on the facility. It should be considered carefully

the use of the structure and what its common occupancy will be throughout its
lifetime. Golden Gate Bridge on its 50th Anniversary in ay 1987.
A classic example of live loads overload. This unexpected live load almost destroyed
the bridge.

[Link]

ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

01. LOAD ON STRUCTURES

| WIND LOAD

When wind interacts with a building, both positive and negative (i.e., suction)
pressures occur simultaneously. Critical facilities must have sufficient strength to
resist the applied loads from these pressures to prevent wind-induced building
failure. Loads exerted on the building envelope are transferred to the structural
system, where in turn they must be transferred through the foundation into the
ground. The magnitude of the pressures is a function of the following primary
factors.

Exposure: The characteristics of the terrain (i.e., ground roughness and surface
irregularities in the vicinity of a building) influence the wind loading. Codes define
different exposure categories, from the roughest terrain category to the smoothest.
Urban, suburban, and wooded areas have different exposure values than flat open
terrain with scattered obstructions and areas adjacent to water surfaces in
hurricane-prone regions.

Basic wind speed: Codes specify the basic wind speed for determining design wind
loads. The basic wind speed is measured for flat open terrain. If the building is
located in roughre area, an adjustment for the actual exposure is made.

AISC - Designing with Structural Steel - A Guide for Architects 2019

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

01. LOAD ON STRUCTURES

| WIND LOAD

Topography: Abrupt changes in topography, such as isolated hills, ridges, and

escarpments, cause wind to speed up. Therefore, a building located near a ridge
would receive higher wind pressures than a building located on relatively flat land.

Building height: Wind speed increases with height above the ground. Taller
buildings are exposed to higher wind speeds and greater wind pressures.

Internal pressure (building pressurization/depressurization): Openings through the

building envelope, in combination with wind interacting with a building, can cause
either an increase in the pressure within the building (i.e., positive internal
pressure), or it can cause a decrease in the pressure (i.e., negative internal pressure).
Building envelope openings occur around doors and window frames, and by air
infiltration through walls that are not absolutely airtight. A door or window left
open, or glazing that is broken during a storm, can greatly influence the magnitude
of the internal pressure.

AISC - Designing with Structural Steel - A Guide for Architects 2019

ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

01. LOAD ON STRUCTURES

| WIND LOAD

Building shape: The highest uplift pressures occur at roof corners because of
building aerodynamics (i.e., the interaction between the wind and the building). The
roof perimeter has a somewhat lower load compared to the corners, and the field of
the roof has still lower loads. Exterior walls typically have lower loads than the roof.
The ends (edges) of walls have higher suction loads than the portion of wall
between the ends. However, when the wall is loaded with positive pressure, the
entire wall is uniformly loaded. Figure 3-8 illustrates these aerodynamic influences.
The negative values shown in Figure 3-8 indicate suction pressure acting upward
from the roof surface and outward from the wall surface. Positive values indicate
positive pressure acting inward on the wall surface.

Roof shape (gable, saw tooth, etc.) may influence net uplift pressures from wind.
Curved roofs can actually experience both upward and downward pressure
simultaneously as the wind pushes down on the top part of the curve and pulls up
from the lower part of the curve. This distribution of downward and upward
pressures is similar the principles of air pressure and lift that act on an airplane
wing.

AISC - Designing with Structural Steel - A Guide for Architects 2019

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 27.11.2025

ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

01. LOAD ON STRUCTURES TS EN 1991-1-3 - Table MA.1 - Characteristic ground snow load (sk) values in kN/m2
Elevation from the
| SNOW LOAD sea level
Region
m I II III IV
Snow load (s) on the structure is calculated with the formula below: ≤ 200 0,75 0,75 0,75 0,75
300 0,75 0,75 0,75 0,80
s = μi x Ce x Ct x sk 400 0,75 0,75 0,75 0,80
500 0,75 0,75 0,75 0,85
600 0,75 0,75 0,80 0,9
sk is characteristic ground snow load 700 0,75 0,75 0,85 0,95
Ce is exposure coefficient 800 0,80 0,85 1,25 1,40
Ct is thermal coefficient 900 0,80 0,95 1,30 1,50
μi is snow load shape factor 1.000 0,80 1,05 1,35 1,60
The values for 1.000m are going to be increased for 10% for elevation less
> 1.000
than 1.500m and for 15% for elevation equal and more than 1.500m

The thermal coefficient should be used to account for the reduction of snow loads
on roofs with high thermal transmittance (> 1 W/m2 K) , in particular for some
glass covered roofs, because of melting caused by heat loss. For all other cases:
Ct = 1.00 .

TS EN 1991-1-3 Yapılar Üzerindeki Etkiler - Bölüm 1-3: Genel Etkiler - Kar Yükleri (Eurocode 1)

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

01. LOAD ON STRUCTURES EN 1991-1-3 - Table 5.1 - Recommended Ce values of for different topographies

| SNOW LOAD Topography Ce

Windswept a 0,80
Snow load (s) on the structure is calculated with the formula below: Normal b 1,00
Sheltered c 1,20
s = μi x Ce x Ct x sk a
Windswept topography: flat unobstructed areas exposed on all sides without, or little
shelter afforded by terrain, higher construction works or trees.
sk is characteristic ground snow load b
Normal topography: areas where there is no significant removal of snow by wind on
Ce is exposure coefficient construction work, because of terrain, other construction works or trees.
Ct is thermal coefficient c
Sheltered topography: areas in which the construction work being considered is
μi is snow load shape factor considerably lower than the surrounding terrain or surrounded by high trees and/or
surrounded by higher construction works.

The thermal coefficient should be used to account for the reduction of snow loads
on roofs with high thermal transmittance (> 1 W/m2 K) , in particular for some
glass covered roofs, because of melting caused by heat loss. For all other cases:
Ct = 1.00 .

TS EN 1991-1-3 Yapılar Üzerindeki Etkiler - Bölüm 1-3: Genel Etkiler - Kar Yükleri (Eurocode 1)

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 27.11.2025

ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

01. LOAD ON STRUCTURES The thermal coefficient should be used to account for the reduction of snow loads
| SNOW LOAD on roofs with high thermal transmittance (> 1 W/m2 K) , in particular for some
glass covered roofs, because of melting caused by heat loss. For all other cases:
Snow load (s) on the structure is calculated with the formula below: Ct = 1.00 .

s = μi x Ce x Ct x sk

sk is characteristic ground snow load

Ce is exposure coefficient
Ct is thermal coefficient
μi is snow load shape factor

TS EN 1991-1-3 Yapılar Üzerindeki Etkiler - Bölüm 1-3: Genel Etkiler - Kar Yükleri (Eurocode 1)

13

ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

01. LOAD ON STRUCTURES TS EN 1991-1-3 - Table 5.2 - Snow load shape factor (μi)
Angle of pitch of roof, α 0° < α < 30° 30° < α < 60° α > 60°
| SNOW LOAD
μ1 0,8 0,8(60 - α)/30 0,0
μ2 0,8 + 0,8α/30 1,6 -
Snow load (s) on the structure is calculated with the formula below:

s = μi x Ce x Ct x sk

sk is characteristic ground snow load

Ce is exposure coefficient
Ct is thermal coefficient
μi is snow load shape factor

Low slope roofs retain snow more so than pitched roofs. Steeper roof slopes shed
snow more effectively. Thus, greater roof slopes are common on buildings in the
north and in mountainous snow-prone regions.

TS EN 1991-1-3 Yapılar Üzerindeki Etkiler - Bölüm 1-3: Genel Etkiler - Kar Yükleri (Eurocode 1)

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

01. LOAD ON STRUCTURES

| SNOW LOAD

Snow load (s) on the structure is calculated with the formula below:

s = μi x Ce x Ct x sk

sk is characteristic ground snow load

Ce is exposure coefficient
Ct is thermal coefficient
μi is snow load shape factor

Low slope roofs retain snow more so than pitched roofs. Steeper roof slopes shed
snow more effectively. Thus, greater roof slopes are common on buildings in the
north and in mountainous snow-prone regions.

Roof construction comes in many forms. The geometry has an influential role in the
distribution of roof snow loads. Snow loads on an open flat roof, free of obstructions
and rooftop equipment tend to be uniform, whereas roofs with defining geometric
irregularities and obstructions accumulate snow in an unbalanced pattern.

TS EN 1991-1-3 Yapılar Üzerindeki Etkiler - Bölüm 1-3: Genel Etkiler - Kar Yükleri (Eurocode 1)

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

01. LOAD ON STRUCTURES

| SNOW LOAD

Unbalanced Snow
Unbalanced snow loading is the condition in which snow accumulates at different
depths in different locations on a roof, resulting in differential snow load.
Unbalanced snow load poses a greater risk to the roof structural system than a
uniform snow load. Hence, the danger of drifting and sliding snow is that both
create an unbalanced snow load condition.

Figures illustrate various unbalanced snow load scenarios resulting from drifting and
sliding snow. Notice the snow is deeper at roof protrusions, obstructions, and
elevation changes than in more open sections of the roof.

- Gable Roof / Aerodynamics Shade

- Roof Obstructions / Dormer Window / Chimney
- Falling / Sliding Snow
- Roof Valley

They seem small on residiential structure scale, but it can be a very big problem for
larger roofs with shapes cause snow accumulation.

FEMA P-957 - Snow Load Safety Guide 2013

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

01. LOAD ON STRUCTURES

| SNOW LOAD

Unbalanced Snow
So, snow shape coefficients are used for arrangements due to exceptional snow
drifts for the following types of roofs

- Multi-span roofs
- Roofs abutting and close to taller construction works
- Roofs where drifting occurs at projections, obstructions and parapets

FEMA P-957 - Snow Load Safety Guide 2013

17

ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

01. LOAD ON STRUCTURES

| SNOW LOAD

Unbalanced Snow
So, snow shape coefficients are used for arrangements due to exceptional snow
drifts for the following types of roofs

- Multi-span roofs
- Roofs abutting and close to taller construction works
- Roofs where drifting occurs at projections, obstructions and parapets

FEMA P-957 - Snow Load Safety Guide 2013

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

01. LOAD ON STRUCTURES

| SEISMIC (EARTHQUAKE) LOAD

Although, the key figures in ensuring safe seismic design are the seismologist and
the structural engineer, the architect initiates the building design and determines a
number of issues relating to its configuration that have a major influence on the
building’s seismic performance. Configuration is defined as the building’s size and
three-dimensional shape, the form and location of the structural elements, and the
nature and location of nonstructural components that may affect seismic
performance. So, architect plays the key role in ensuring the satisfactory seismic
performance of a building.

To develop an effective seismic design, the architect and engineer must work
together from the inception of the project so that seismic issues and architectural
requirements can be considered and matched at every stage of the design process.

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

01. LOAD ON STRUCTURES

| SEISMIC (EARTHQUAKE) LOAD

PERIOD AND RESONANCE

Natural Periods
A very important characteristic of earthquake waves is their period or frequency;
that is, whether the waves are quick and abrupt or slow and rolling. This
phenomenon is particularly important for determining building seismic forces.

All objects have a natural or fundamental period; this is the rate at which they will
move back and forth if they are given a horizontal push (see Figure). In fact, without
pulling and pushing it back and forth, it is not possible to make an object vibrate at
anything other than its natural period.

When a child in a swing is started with a push, to be effective this shove must be as
close as possible to the natural period of the swing. If correctly gauged, a very small
push will set the swing going nicely. Similarly, when earthquake motion starts a
building vibrating, it will tend to sway back and forth at its natural period.

FEMA 454 Designing for Earthquakes: A Manual for Architects, 2006

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 27.11.2025

ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

01. LOAD ON STRUCTURES

| SEISMIC (EARTHQUAKE) LOAD

PERIOD AND RESONANCE

Natural Periods
A very important characteristic of earthquake waves is their period or frequency;
that is, whether the waves are quick and abrupt or slow and rolling. This
phenomenon is particularly important for determining building seismic forces.

All objects have a natural or fundamental period; this is the rate at which they will
move back and forth if they are given a horizontal push (see Figure). In fact, without
pulling and pushing it back and forth, it is not possible to make an object vibrate at
anything other than its natural period.

When a child in a swing is started with a push, to be effective this shove must be as
close as possible to the natural period of the swing. If correctly gauged, a very small
push will set the swing going nicely. Similarly, when earthquake motion starts a
building vibrating, it will tend to sway back and forth at its natural period.

Period is the time in seconds that is needed to complete one cycle of a seismic
wave. Frequency is the inverse of this—the number of cycles that will occur in a
second—and is measured in “Hertz”. One Hertz is one cycle per second.

FEMA 454 Designing for Earthquakes: A Manual for Architects, 2006

21

ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

01. LOAD ON STRUCTURES

| SEISMIC (EARTHQUAKE) LOAD

Natural Periods (Cont’d)

Natural periods vary from about 0.05 seconds for a piece of equipment, such as a
filing cabinet, to about 0.1 seconds for a one-story building. A four-story building will
sway at about a 0.5 second period (so it will vibrate at 1/0.5=2 cycles per second
means 2 Hertz), and taller buildings between about 10 and 20 stories will swing at
periods of about 1 to 2 seconds.

Building height, building weight, building shape, building material and base
connection are the main factors determine the natural period of the building.

FEMA 454 Designing for Earthquakes: A Manual for Architects, 2006

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 27.11.2025

ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

01. LOAD ON STRUCTURES

| SEISMIC (EARTHQUAKE) LOAD

Natural Periods (Cont’d)

Natural periods vary from about 0.05 seconds for a piece of equipment, such as a
filing cabinet, to about 0.1 seconds for a one-story building. A four-story building will
sway at about a 0.5 second period (so it will vibrate at 1/0.5=2 cycles per second
means 2 Hertz), and taller buildings between about 10 and 20 stories will swing at
periods of about 1 to 2 seconds.

Building height, building weight, building shape, building material and base
connection are the main factors determine the natural period of the building.

How does one "tune" a building, or change its period, if it is necessary to do so? One
could change the natural period of a simple structure such as a flag pole by any or all
combinations of the methods shown in figure.

- Changing the position of the weight to a lower height

- Changing the height of the pole
- Changing the sectional area or shape of the pole
- Changing the material
- Altering the fixity of the base anchorage

FEMA 454 Designing for Earthquakes: A Manual for Architects, 2006

23

ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

01. LOAD ON STRUCTURES

| SEISMIC (EARTHQUAKE) FORCE

Natural Periods (Cont’d)

Natural periods vary from about 0.05 seconds for a piece of equipment, such as a
filing cabinet, to about 0.1 seconds for a one-story building. A four-story building will
sway at about a 0.5 second period (so it will vibrate at 1/0.5=2 cycles per second
means 2 Hertz), and taller buildings between about 10 and 20 stories will swing at
periods of about 1 to 2 seconds.

Building height, building weight, building shape, building material and base
connection are the main factors determine the natural period of the building.

How does one "tune" a building, or change its period, if it is necessary to do so? One
could change the natural period of a simple structure such as a flag pole by any or all
combinations of the methods shown in figure.

- Changing the position of the weight to a lower height

- Changing the height of the pole
- Changing the sectional area or shape of the pole
- Changing the material
- Altering the fixity of the base anchorage

Let’s watch the video to understand Building Response better.

FEMA 454 Designing for Earthquakes: A Manual for Architects, 2006

Youtube Video: DartmouthX - The Engineering of Structures Around Us

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

01. LOAD ON STRUCTURES

| SEISMIC (EARTHQUAKE) FORCE

Resonance
When a vibrating or swinging object is given further pushes that are also at its
natural period, its vibrations increase dramatically in response to even rather small
pushes and, in fact, its accelerations may increase as much as four or five times. This
phenomenon is called resonance.

The natural period of ground varies from about 0.4 seconds to 2 seconds, depending
on the nature of the ground (as the ground softens the period increases).

Since this range is well within the range of common building periods, it is quite
possible that the pushes that earthquake ground motion imparts to the building will
be at the natural period of the building. This may create resonance, causing the
structure to encounter accelerations of perhaps 1g when the ground is only vibrating
with accelerations of 0.2g. Because of this, buildings suffer the greatest damage
from ground motion at a frequency close or equal to their own natural frequency.

Let’s watch the video to understand Resonance better.

FEMA 454 Designing for Earthquakes: A Manual for Architects, 2006

25

ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

01. LOAD ON STRUCTURES

| SEISMIC (EARTHQUAKE) LOAD

Site Response Spectrum

It can be seen that buildings with different periods will respond in widely differing
ways to the same earthquake ground motion. Conversely, any building will act
differently during different earthquakes, so for design purposes, it is necessary to
represent the building’s range of responses to ground motion. Such a representation
is termed as the site response spectrum. A site response spectrum is a graph that
plots the maximum response values of acceleration, velocity, and displacement
against. Response spectra are very important tools in earthquake engineering.

The figure shows a maximum acceleration response at a period of about 0.3

seconds—the fundamental period of a midrise building. This shows how building
response varies with building period: as the period lengthens, accelerations
decrease and displacement increases. On the other hand, one- or two-story
buildings with short periods undergo higher accelerations but smaller
displacements.

The response spectrum enables the engineer to identify the resonant frequencies at
which the building will undergo peak accelerations. Thus, the building design might
be adjusted to ensure that the building period does not coincide with the site period
of maximum response.

FEMA 454 Designing for Earthquakes: A Manual for Architects, 2006

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

01. LOAD ON STRUCTURES

| SEISMIC (EARTHQUAKE) LOAD

Site Response Spectrum

It can be seen that buildings with different periods will respond in widely differing
ways to the same earthquake ground motion. Conversely, any building will act
differently during different earthquakes, so for design purposes, it is necessary to
represent the building’s range of responses to ground motion. Such a representation
is termed as the site response spectrum. A site response spectrum is a graph that
plots the maximum response values of acceleration, velocity, and displacement
against. Response spectra are very important tools in earthquake engineering.

The figure shows a maximum acceleration response at a period of about 0.3

seconds—the fundamental period of a midrise building. This shows how building
response varies with building period: as the period lengthens, accelerations
decrease and displacement increases. On the other hand, one- or two-story
buildings with short periods undergo higher accelerations but smaller
displacements.

The response spectrum enables the engineer to identify the resonant frequencies at
which the building will undergo peak accelerations. Thus, the building design might
be adjusted to ensure that the building period does not coincide with the site period
of maximum response.

Earthquake analysis are done based on the response spectra with fault zones are
mapped and local soil conditions.
FEMA 454 Designing for Earthquakes: A Manual for Architects, 2006
[Link]

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INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

We have reviewed the loads on the structures. Now, what are the functions of the
structure to provide?: Strength, Stiffness, and Stability

Strength is the capacity to resist forces. The strength of a material is its ability to
withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation depends upon
material properties. The strength of a material depends on its capacity to withstand
strength
axial stress, shear stress, bending, and torsion.

Stiffness is the ability to retain shape under action of forces. Or in other words,
stifness is the extent to which an object resists deformation in response to an
applied force.

Stability is the maintenance of equilibrium under the action of external loads and
internel stresses.

stiffness stability

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INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| STRENGTH

External loads are transferred from the application point (roof, facade, floor, etc.) to
the ground by being distributed over the structural members which create internal
forces on them: Tension, compression, shear, bending and torsional forces.

Strength of materials basically considers the relationship between the external

loads applied to a material and the resulting deformation or change in material
dimensions. In designing structures, it is important to consider these factors, in
order that the material selected will have adequate strength to resist applied loads
and retain its original shape. Strength of a material is its ability to withstand this
applied load without failure or plastic deformation.

To describe strength, instead load (force), we can use the force per unit of area,
called stress, which is constant (until deformation occurs) for a given material
regardless of size of the component part.

F
σ=
A
σ is stress (N/mm2 or MPa)
F is applied force (N)
A is cross-sectional area (mm2)

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INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| STRENGTH

Strain is also very important variable, since it defines the deformation of an object.

ΔL
ε=
L0
ε is strain
ΔL is deformation
L0 is reference (initial) length

The mechanical behavior of solids is usually defined by constitutive stress-strain

relations. In case of tensional stress of a uniform bar (stress-strain curve), the
Hooke’s law describes behavior of a bar in the elastic region. In this region, the
elongation of the bar is directly proportional to the tensile force and the length of
the bar and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area and the modulus of
elasticity. According to the Hooke’s law, the stress is proportional to the strain (in
the elastic region), and the slope is Young’s modulus.

σ
E=
ε
σ is stress (N/mm2 or MPa)
ε is strain
E is the modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus (N/mm2 or MPa)

In 1678 an English scientist named Robert Hooke ran experiments that provided data that showed that in the
elastic range of a material, strain is proportional to stress.

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INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| STRENGTH

A deformation is called elastic deformation, if the stress is a linear function of strain.

In other words, stress and strain follows Hooke’s law. Beyond the linear region,
stress and strain show nonlinear behavior. This inelastic behavior is called plastic
deformation.

Elastic deformation and elastic strain is a transitory dimensional change that exists
only while the initiating stress is applied and disappears immediately upon removal
of the stress. When a metal is subjected to a load (force), it is distorted or deformed,
no matter how strong the metal or light the load. This deformation may or may not
be permanent. Up to a limiting stress, a body will be able to recover its dimensions
on removal of the load. The applied stresses cause the atoms in a crystal to move
from their equilibrium position. All the atoms are displaced the same amount and
still maintain their relative geometry. When the stresses are removed, all the atoms
return to their original positions and no permanent deformation occurs.

Plastic deformation and plastic strain is a dimensional change that does not
disappear when the initiating stress is removed. It occurs, if the limiting load is
exceeded then the body will experience some permanent deformation on removal
of the load. Plastic deformation occurs in material bodies after stresses have
attained a certain threshold value known as the elastic limit or yield stress, and are
the result of slip, or dislocation mechanisms at the atomic level.

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INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| STRENGTH

Tensile stress. One of the most common mechanical stress–strain tests is performed
in tension. Tensile stress is that type of stress in which the two sections of material
on either side of a stress plane tend to pull apart or elongate. The capacity of a
material or structure to withstand loads tending to elongate is known as ultimate
tensile strength (UTS). Ultimate tensile strength is measured by the maximum stress
that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before breaking. In the
study of strength of materials, tensile strength, compressive strength, and shear
strength can be analyzed independently. Because tensile and compressive loads
produce stresses that act across a plane, in a direction perpendicular (normal) to the
plane, tensile and compressive stresses are called normal stresses.

Compressive stress. Compressive stress is the reverse of tensile stress. Adjacent

parts of the material tend to press against each other through a typical stress plane.
Compressive stress to bars, columns, etc. leads to shortening. Compressive stress is
defined in the same way as the tensile stress but it has negative values so as to
express the compression since delta L has the opposite direction. One can increase
the compressive stress until compressive strength is reached. Then materials will
react with ductile behavior or with fracture in case of brittle materials. The ability of
a material to react to compressive stress or pressure is called compressibility.

[Link]

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INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| STRENGTH

Shear stress. Shear stress exists when two parts of a material tend to slide across
each other in any typical plane of shear upon application of force parallel to that
plane.
F
τ=
A
τ is shear stress (N/mm2 or MPa)
F is applied force (N)
A is cross-sectional area (mm2)

We can extend the same idea of relating stress to strain to shear applications in the
linear region, relating shear stress to shear strain to create Hooke’s law for shear
stress:

𝜏𝑥𝑦
G=
𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝜏xy is shear stress (N/mm2 or MPa)
𝛾xy is shear stress
G is the shear modulus (N/mm2 or MPa)

[Link]

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| STRENGTH

For isotropic materials within the elastic region, you can relate Poisson’s ratio (ν),
Young’s modulus of elasticity (E), and the shear modulus of elasticity (G):

E = 2G (1 + 𝑣)
where
v is the Poisson’s ratio
E is the modulus of elasticity (N/mm2 or MPa)
G is the shear modulus (N/mm2 or MPa)

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INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| STRENGTH

A schematic diagram for the stress-strain curve of low carbon steel at room
temperature is shown in the figure. There are several stages showing different
behaviors, which suggests different mechanical properties. The following points
describe the different regions of the stress-strain curve and the importance of
several specific locations.

Proportional limit. The proportional limit corresponds to the location of stress at

the end of the linear region, so the stress-strain graph is a straight line, and the
gradient will be equal to the elastic modulus of the material. For tensile and
compressive stress, the slope of the portion of the curve where stress is
proportional to strain is referred to as Young’s modulus and Hooke’s Law applies.
Between the proportional limit and the yield point the Hooke’s Law becomes
questionable between and strain increases more rapidly.

Yield point. The yield point is the point on a stress-strain curve that indicates the
limit of elastic behavior and the beginning plastic behavior. Yield strength or yield
stress is the material property defined as the stress at which a material begins to
deform plastically whereas yield point is the point where nonlinear (elastic + plastic)
deformation begins. Prior to the yield point, the material will deform elastically and
will return to its original shape when the applied stress is removed. Once the yield
point is passed, some fraction of the deformation will be permanent and non-
reversible.

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| STRENGTH

Ultimate tensile strength. The ultimate tensile strength is the maximum on the
engineering stress-strain curve. This corresponds to the maximum stress that can be
sustained by a structure in tension. If this stress is applied and maintained, fracture
will result. Often, this value is significantly more than the yield stress (as much as 50
to 60 percent more than the yield for some types of metals). When a ductile
material reaches its ultimate strength, it experiences necking where the cross-
sectional area reduces locally. The stress-strain curve contains no higher stress than
the ultimate strength. Even though deformations can continue to increase, the
stress usually decreases after the ultimate strength has been achieved. It is an
intensive property; therefore its value does not depend on the size of the test
specimen. However, it is dependent on other factors, such as the preparation of the
specimen, the presence or otherwise of surface defects, and the temperature of the
test environment and material.

Fracture point: The fracture point is the point of strain where the material physically
separates. At this point, the strain reaches its maximum value and the material
actually fractures, even though the corresponding stress may be less than the
ultimate strength at this point. Ductile materials have a fracture strength lower than
the ultimate tensile strength (UTS), whereas in brittle materials the fracture strength
is equivalent to the UTS. If a ductile material reaches its ultimate tensile strength in
a load-controlled situation, it will continue to deform, with no additional load
application, until it ruptures. However, if the loading is displacement-controlled, the
deformation of the material may relieve the load, preventing rupture.

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| STRENGTH

Ultimate tensile strength. The ultimate tensile strength is the maximum on the
engineering stress-strain curve. This corresponds to the maximum stress that can be
sustained by a structure in tension. If this stress is applied and maintained, fracture
will result. Often, this value is significantly more than the yield stress (as much as 50
to 60 percent more than the yield for some types of metals). When a ductile
material reaches its ultimate strength, it experiences necking where the cross-
sectional area reduces locally. The stress-strain curve contains no higher stress than
the ultimate strength. Even though deformations can continue to increase, the
stress usually decreases after the ultimate strength has been achieved. It is an
intensive property; therefore its value does not depend on the size of the test
specimen. However, it is dependent on other factors, such as the preparation of the
specimen, the presence or otherwise of surface defects, and the temperature of the
test environment and material.

Fracture point: The fracture point is the point of strain where the material physically
separates. At this point, the strain reaches its maximum value and the material
actually fractures, even though the corresponding stress may be less than the
ultimate strength at this point. Ductile materials have a fracture strength lower than
the ultimate tensile strength (UTS), whereas in brittle materials the fracture strength
is equivalent to the UTS. If a ductile material reaches its ultimate tensile strength in
a load-controlled situation, it will continue to deform, with no additional load
application, until it ruptures. However, if the loading is displacement-controlled, the
deformation of the material may relieve the load, preventing rupture.

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| STRENGTH

Ductile Materials. Ductility is the ability of a material to undergo large plastic

deformations prior to failure and it is one of very important characteristics that
engineers consider during design. Ductile material will deform (elongate) more than
brittle material. Ductile materials show large deformation before fracture. In ductile
fracture, extensive plastic deformation (necking) takes place before fracture. Ductile
fracture (shear fracture) is better than brittle fracture, because there is slow
propagation and an absorption of a large amount energy before fracture. Ductility is
an important factor in allowing a structure to survive extreme loads, such as those
due large pressure changes, earthquakes and hurricanes, without experiencing a
sudden failure or collapse. It may be expressed as percent elongation or percent
area reduction from a tensile test.

Brittle Materials. Brittle materials, when subjected to stress, break with little elastic
deformation and without significant plastic deformation. Brittle materials absorb
relatively little energy prior to fracture, even those of high strength. In brittle
fracture, no apparent plastic deformation takes place before fracture. Cracks
propagate rapidly.

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INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| STRENGTH

Ductile vs. Brittle – Stress-strain curves

The following figure shows a typical stress-strain curve of a ductile material and a
brittle material. A ductile material is a material, where the strength is small, and the
plastic region is great. The material will bear more strain (deformation) before
fracture. A brittle material is a material where the plastic region is small and the
strength of the material is high.

The tensile test supplies three descriptive facts about a material. These are the
stress at which observable plastic deformation or “yielding” begins; the ultimate
tensile strength or maximum intensity of load that can be carried in tension; and the
percent elongation or strain (the amount the material will stretch) and the
accompanying percent reduction of the cross-sectional area caused by stretching.
The rupture or fracture point can also be determined.

Some materials break very sharply, without plastic deformation, in what is called a
brittle failure. Others, which are more ductile, including most metals, experience
some plastic deformation and possibly necking before fracture. It is possible to
distinguish some common characteristics among the stress–strain curves of various
groups of materials. On this basis, it is possible to divide materials into two broad
categories; namely:

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| STRENGTH

Ductile – Brittle Transition Temperature

The distinction between brittleness and ductility isn’t readily apparent, especially
because both ductility and brittle behavior are dependent not only on the material
in question but also on the temperature (ductile-brittle transition) of the material.

The effect of temperature on the nature of the fracture is of considerable

importance. Many steels exhibit ductile fracture at elevated temperatures
and brittle fracture at low temperatures. The temperature above which a material
is ductile and below which it is brittle is known as the ductile–brittle transition
temperature (DBTT). This temperature is not precise, but varies according to prior
mechanical and heat treatment and the nature and amounts of impurity elements. It
can be determined by some form of drop-weight test (for example, the Charpy or
Izod tests).

FEMA P-957 - Snow Load Safety Guide 2013

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INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| STIFFNESS

Stiffness is measured by deflection, the extent to which a structural member, such

as a floor, roof, or wall structure, bends when loaded. Deflection is expressed as a
fraction of length of the member. For gravity loads, this is usually the only aspect of
stiffness that is of concern. When floor joists are designed, it is often deflection
rather than strength that dictates the size of the joists—that is, the depth of the
joists is determined by how much they will bend under load rather than by whether
they can safely support the floor loads. Typically, an unacceptable amount of
bending (in the form of an uncomfortable “springy” feeling to occupants) will occur
before the joists are stressed to the point at which they may break due to overload.

Here are load cases vs maximum deflection for simple supported beams:

FEMA 454 Designing for Earthquakes: A Manual for Architects, 2006

41

ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| STIFFNESS

Stiffness is measured by deflection, the extent to which a structural member, such

as a floor, roof, or wall structure, bends when loaded. Deflection is expressed as a
fraction of length of the member. For gravity loads, this is usually the only aspect of
stiffness that is of concern. When floor joists are designed, it is often deflection
rather than strength that dictates the size of the joists—that is, the depth of the
joists is determined by how much they will bend under load rather than by whether
they can safely support the floor loads. Typically, an unacceptable amount of
bending (in the form of an uncomfortable “springy” feeling to occupants) will occur
before the joists are stressed to the point at which they may break due to overload.

Here are load cases vs maximum deflection for simple supported beams.
And load cases vs maximum deflection for cantilevered beams:

There are maximum defelections allowed in the codes and specifications to limit the
design. For example, deflections under live loads are limited to L/360 for floor
beams and L/240 for roof beams where L is the span length.

Similarly, natural frequency of the floor system is found approximately as

18
𝑓=
𝛿
𝑓 is natural frequency of the floor
𝛿 is deflection caused by the half of the dead and live loads.

Architects, 2006
Çelik Yapıların Tasarım, Hesap ve Yapım Esasları, 2016

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| STIFFNESS

In lateral force design (seismic or wind), deflection of vertical structural members,

such as columns and walls, is termed drift. Analogous to the deflection of horizontal
members, limitations on drift may impose more severe requirements on members
than the strength requirements. Story drift is expressed as the difference of the
deflections at the top and bottom of the story under consideration: this is also often
expressed as a ratio between the deflection and the story, or floor-to-floor height
Drift limits serve to prevent possible damage to interior or exterior walls that are
attached to the structure and which might be cracked or distorted if the structure
deflects too much laterally, creating racking forces in the member

FEMA 454 Designing for Earthquakes: A Manual for Architects, 2006

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| STIFFNESS

In lateral force design (seismic or wind), deflection of vertical structural members,

such as columns and walls, is termed drift. Analogous to the deflection of horizontal
members, limitations on drift may impose more severe requirements on members
than the strength requirements. Story drift is expressed as the difference of the
deflections at the top and bottom of the story under consideration: this is also often
expressed as a ratio between the deflection and the story, or floor-to-floor height
Drift limits serve to prevent possible damage to interior or exterior walls that are
attached to the structure and which might be cracked or distorted if the structure
deflects too much laterally, creating racking forces in the member

Thus strength and stiffness are two important characteristics of any structural
member. Two structural beams may have approximately equal material strengths
and be of similar shape but will vary in their stiffness and strength, depending on
how they are oriented relative to the load.

This concept can be easily understood by visualizing the flexibility of a narrow, deep
beam placed where it has to support a load: the extent of deflection will depend on
whether the load is placed on the beams flat surface or on its edge.

FEMA 454 Designing for Earthquakes: A Manual for Architects, 2006

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INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| FORCE DISTRIBUTION AND STRESS CONCENTRATION

We have already reviewed the loads acting on the sturcture and learned basically
the terms strength and stiffness. But the designer needs to know how the load is
allocated to the various resisting structural elements that must be designed: each
shares some proportion of the overall force.

Let’s think seismic load. The answer is that the force is distributed in proportion to
the relative stiffness of the resisting members. In other terms, the applied forces
are “attracted to” and concentrated at the stiffer elements of the building.

The relative rigidities of members are a major concern in seismic analysis. As soon as
a rigid diaphragm, such as a concrete slab, is tied to vertical resisting elements, it
will force those elements to deflect the same amount. If two elements (two frames,
walls, braces, or any combination) are forced to deflect the same amount, and if one
When the slab is subjected to
is stiffer, that one will take more of the load. Only if the stiffnesses are identical can horizontal load, moment of inertia for
it be assumed that they share the load equally. bending in its own plane
t𝑏3
Rigid Diaphragm. In structural analysis of buildings subject to lateral loads, concrete 𝐼=
12
floor slabs are usually considered to be infinitely stiff in their own plane. This becomes very large quantity.
assumes that floors displace as rigid bodies and the story shears and torsional So practically, floor can be regarded as
infinitely stiff for bending deformation
moments are distributed to the vertical members (columns and walls) in proportion
in its own plane.
to their relative stiffnesses.

FEMA 454 Designing for Earthquakes: A Manual for Architects, 2006

45

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INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| FORCE DISTRIBUTION AND STRESS CONCENTRATION

An important aspect of this concept in relation to column lateral stiffness is

illustrated in figure. In this figure the columns have the same cross-section, but the
short column is half the length of the long one. Mathematically, the stiffness of a
column varies approximately as the cube of its length. Therefore, the short column
will be eight times stiffer (23) instead of twice as stiff and will be subject to eight
times the horizontal load of the long column. Stress is concentrated more in the
short column.

In a building with members of varying stiffness, an undue proportion of the overall

forces may be concentrated at a few points of the building, such as a particular set
2L Height L Height
of beams, columns, or walls. These few members may fail and, by a chain reaction,
1 Unit Force 8 Unit Force
bring down the whole building. People who are in the building demolition business
know that if they weaken a few key columns or connections in a building, they can
9 Unit Force
bring it down. An earthquake also tends to "find" these weak links.

FEMA 454 Designing for Earthquakes: A Manual for Architects, 2006

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INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| FORCE DISTRIBUTION AND STRESS CONCENTRATION

This condition has serious implications for buildings with column or shear walls of
different length. In designing a structure, the engineer tries to equalize the stiffness
of the resisting elements so that no one member or small group of members takes a
disproportionate amount of the load. If this cannot be done - if their size and
stiffness vary for architectural reasons, for example -- then the designer must make
sure that stiffer members are appropriately designed to carry their proportion of the
load.

A special case of this problem is that sometimes a short-column condition is created

inadvertently after the building is occupied. For example, the space between
columns may be filled in by a rigid wall, leaving a short space for a clerestory
window. Such a simple act of remodeling may not seem to require engineering
analysis, and a contractor may be hired to do the work: often such work is not
subject to building department reviews and inspection. Serious damage has
occurred to buildings in earthquakes because of this oversight.

FEMA 454 Designing for Earthquakes: A Manual for Architects, 2006

47

ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| FORCE DISTRIBUTION AND STRESS CONCENTRATION

The center of mass, or center of gravity, of an object is the point at which it could be
exactly balanced without any rotation resulting. If the mass (or weight) of a building
is uniformly distributed (in plan), the result is that the plan's geometric center will
coincide with the center of mass.

In a building, the main lateral force is contributed by the weight of the floors, walls,
and roof, and this force is exerted through the center of mass, usually the geometric
center of the floor (in plan). If the mass within a floor is uniformly distributed, then
the resultant force of the horizontal acceleration of all its particles is exerted
through the floor's geometric center. If the resultant force of the resistance
(provided by shear walls, moment frames, or braced frames) pushes back through
this point, dynamic balance is maintained.

Torsional forces are created in a building by a lack of balance between the location
of the resisting elements and the arrangement of the building mass. Engineers refer
to this as eccentricity between the center of mass and the center of resistance,
which makes a building subjected to ground motion rotate around its center of
resistance, creating torsion - a twisting action in plan, which results in undesirable
and possibly dangerous concentrations of stress.

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INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| STABILITY IN TERMS OF LATERAL SYSTEMS

It is not necessary to be structural engineer to have sense of what it means for a

structure to be stable. Most of us have an inherent understanding of the definition
of instability – that a small change in load will cause a large change in displacement.
If this change in displacement is large enough, or is in a critical member of a
structure, a local or member instability may cause collapse of the entire structure.

The structure of the facility is needed to maintain its shape and to keep the facility
from collapse under the forces of nature or those made by humans. These
important characteristics of the structure are known as stiffness and strength.

Steel structures are usually slender structures when compared to alternatives using
other materials. Instability phenomena are potentially present, so that it is normally
necessary to verify the global stability of the structure or of part of it.

Structural Stability of Steel: Concepts and Applications for Structural Engineers, Galambos and Surovek, 2008
FEMA 454 Designing for Earthquakes: A Manual for Architects, 2006
AISC - Designing with Structural Steel - A Guide for Architects 2019

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| STABILITY IN TERMS OF LATERAL SYSTEMS

You should start thinking about the lateral load-resisting system(s) in your project
early in the planning phase. You’ll also want to bring in your team’s structural
engineer early to can determine which type of system will work best for your
specific building height and configuration and specify where the system should be
located.

You’ll work closely with the structural engineer to balance the lateral resistance
requirements of the structure with your architectural vision.

One project may use multiple types of lateral systems because each system has its
own strengths, limitations, and potential architectural implications. There are three
common types of lateral resisting systems: mement resisting (rigid) frames, braced
frames, and shear walls.

Braced Frames
There are several variations on the braced-frame model, using cross-brace, chevron
brace, and eccentric brace systems. The location of doors and/or windows on the
braced frame frequently determine the bracing configuration for the structure.

Eccentric bracing can help dissipate seismic forces through the beam or girder and
therefore is commonly used in areas with a lot of seismic activity.

Braced frames are generally more cost-effective than other lateral systems.
AISC - Designing with Structural Steel - A Guide for Architects 2019

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INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| STABILITY IN TERMS OF LATERAL SYSTEMS

Braced Frames (Cross-Bracing)

The cross-brace frame, represented in figures, is perhaps the most commonly used
system. A typical floor framing plan with cross bracing denoted by the dashed-line
drawn between two center columns. The solid lines indicate the floor beams and
girders.

A typical multi-floor building elevation with cross-braced bays beginning at the

foundation level. Figure shows only one bay of bracing, the height and size of the
specific structure may call for bracing multiple bays along a given column line. As
with all braced-frame configurations, it’s important to establish the location of these
bays quite early in a project’s development.

AISC - Designing with Structural Steel - A Guide for Architects 2019

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| STABILITY IN TERMS OF LATERAL SYSTEMS

Braced Frames (Cross-Bracing)

The cross-brace frame, represented in figures, is perhaps the most commonly used
system. A typical floor framing plan with cross bracing denoted by the dashed-line
drawn between two center columns. The solid lines indicate the floor beams and
girders.

A typical multi-floor building elevation with cross-braced bays beginning at the

foundation level. Figure shows only one bay of bracing, the height and size of the
specific structure may call for bracing multiple bays along a given column line. As
with all braced-frame configurations, it’s important to establish the location of these
bays quite early in a project’s development.

Each intersection will have a common “work point” at which the centerlines of a
column, beams, and diagonal members intersect. Gusset plate connections are used
to join the steel members because all of them can’t physically intersect at the work
point. Figure illustrates a typical beam-to-column joint for a cross-braced frame.

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| STABILITY IN TERMS OF LATERAL SYSTEMS

Braced Frames (Chevron-Bracing)

Chevron bracing is a modified brace-frame form that generally allows for doorways
or corridors in the center of the bays.

Figure shows a typical floor framing plan with the bays using chevron bracing, as
denoted by the dashed-line drawn from between the two center columns. The solid
lines indicate the floor beams and girders. Figure 8 shows a typical multi-floor
building elevation using chevron bracing.

Gusset plates (similar to the cross-brace elements shown in Figure 6) typically

connect chevron brace elements to associated beams and columns. The members
can be either welded or bolted together, depending on processes at the steel
fabrication shop or aesthetic considerations.

In situations where the chevron brace diagonal members attach to the structure
above, the layout and coordination of mechanical ductwork and utility piping above
the doorways and corridors must account for the depth of the gusset plate
connection.

This bracing configuration subjects members to gravity compressive loads. Each of

the bracing members is considered active in the analysis of the system when lateral
loads are applied. As a result, the bracing elements experience both tensile and
compressive forces.

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| STABILITY IN TERMS OF LATERAL SYSTEMS

Braced Frames (Eccentric Bracing)

Eccentrically braced frames are very similar to chevron-braced frames. In both
systems, the general configuration is a rotated “K” shape with the brace connected
to a column and to the beam/girder at the level above. However, brace members
intersect at the same point in a chevron-braced frame; that is not the case in an
eccentrically braced frame. You can see this condition in Figure.

An eccentric brace is commonly used in seismic regions where a structure must have
a significant amount of ductility or energy absorption. The segment of beam/girder
located between the diagonal bracing member is designed to “link” the diagonal
braces and help the system resist lateral loads caused by seismic activity. An
eccentrically braced system is typically more expensive than a traditional chevron
brace system because it uses larger beams and girders and because the brace
connections are more complex.

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| STABILITY IN TERMS OF LATERAL SYSTEMS

Braced Frames (Eccentric Bracing)

Eccentrically braced frames are very similar to chevron-braced frames. In both
systems, the general configuration is a rotated “K” shape with the brace connected
to a column and to the beam/girder at the level above. However, brace members
intersect at the same point in a chevron-braced frame; that is not the case in an
eccentrically braced frame. You can see this condition in Figure.

An eccentric brace is commonly used in seismic regions where a structure must have
a significant amount of ductility or energy absorption. The segment of beam/girder
located between the diagonal bracing member is designed to “link” the diagonal
braces and help the system resist lateral loads caused by seismic activity. An
eccentrically braced system is typically more expensive than a traditional chevron
brace system because it uses larger beams and girders and because the brace
connections are more complex.

FEMA 454 Designing for Earthquakes: A Manual for Architects, 2006

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| STABILITY IN TERMS OF LATERAL SYSTEMS

Rigid Frames
Rigid frames, or moment frames, are used when the architectural design or some
other constraint does not allow for diagonally braced frames. This type of lateral
resisting system incorporates rigid welded or bolted connections between the
columns and the beams/girders.

Lateral forces are resisted primarily by bending in the beams and columns mobilized
by strong joints between columns and beams. Moment-resistant frames provide the
most architectural design freedom.

Figures show a floor plan and building line elevation representing a rigid frame
system. Figure’s solid “triangles” are typically used to indicate rigid connections
between the steel components. It shows a typical moment connection between the
beam/girder and a column.

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 27.11.2025

ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| STABILITY IN TERMS OF LATERAL SYSTEMS

Rigid Frames
Rigid frames, or moment frames, are used when the architectural design or some
other constraint does not allow for diagonally braced frames. This type of lateral
resisting system incorporates rigid welded or bolted connections between the
columns and the beams/girders.

Lateral forces are resisted primarily by bending in the beams and columns mobilized
by strong joints between columns and beams. Moment-resistant frames provide the
most architectural design freedom.

Figures show a floor plan and building line elevation representing a rigid frame
system. Figure’s solid “triangles” are typically used to indicate rigid connections
between the steel components. It shows a typical moment connection between the
beam/girder and a column.

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57

ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| STABILITY IN TERMS OF LATERAL SYSTEMS

Rigid Frames
Rigid frames, or moment frames, are used when the architectural design or some
other constraint does not allow for diagonally braced frames. This type of lateral
resisting system incorporates rigid welded or bolted connections between the
columns and the beams/girders.

Lateral forces are resisted primarily by bending in the beams and columns mobilized
by strong joints between columns and beams. Moment-resistant frames provide the
most architectural design freedom.

Figures show a floor plan and building line elevation representing a rigid frame
system. Figure’s solid “triangles” are typically used to indicate rigid connections
between the steel components. It shows a typical moment connection between the
beam/girder and a column.

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| OPTIMIZATION OF STRUCTURAL/ARCHITECTURAL CONFIGURATION

Figure shows the application of the three basic seismic systems to a model
structural/architectural configuration that has been designed for near optimum
seismic performance. The figure also explains the particular characteristics that are
seismically desirable. The building attributes:

Continuous load path:

Uniform loading of structural elements and no stress concentrations.

Low height-to base ratio:

Minimizes tendency to overturn.

Equal floor heights:

Equalizes column or wall stiffness, no stress concentrations.

Symmetrical plan shape:

Minimizes torsion.

Identical resistance on both axes:

Eliminates eccentricity between the centers of mass and resistance and provides
balanced resistance in all directions, thus minimizing torsion.

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| OPTIMIZATION OF STRUCTURAL/ARCHITECTURAL CONFIGURATION

Identical vertical resistance:

No concentrations of strength or weakness.

Uniform section and elevations:

Minimizes stress concentrations.

Seismic resisting elements at perimeter:

Maximum torsional resistance.

Short spans:
Low unit stress in members, multiple columns provide redundancy -loads can be
redistributed if some columns are lost.

No cantilevers:
Reduced vulnerability to vertical accelerations.

No openings in diaphragms (floors and roof):

Ensures direct transfer of lateral forces to the resistant elements.

As the building characteristics deviate from this model, the building becomes
increasingly irregular. These irregularities, mostly created by the architectural
design, that affect the building’s seismic performance.

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| THE EFFECTS OF CONFIGURATION IRREGULARITY

Four configuration conditions (two vertical and two in plan) that originate in the
architectural design and that have the potential to seriously impact seismic
performance are:

- Soft and weak stories

- Discontinuous shear walls
- Variations in perimeter strength and stiffness
- Re-entrant corners

For the plan irregularities:

P1: Torsional Irregularity: Unbalanced Resistance
P2: Re-entrant Corners
P3: Diaphragm Eccentiricty and Cutouts
P4: Nonparallel Lateral Force-Resisting System
P5: Out-of-Plane Offsets

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| THE EFFECTS OF CONFIGURATION IRREGULARITY

Four configuration conditions (two vertical and two in plan) that originate in the
architectural design and that have the potential to seriously impact seismic
performance are:

- Soft and weak stories

- Discontinuous shear walls
- Variations in perimeter strength and stiffness
- Re-entrant corners

For the plan irregularities:

P1: Torsional Irregularity: Unbalanced Resistance
P2: Re-entrant Corners
P3: Diaphragm Eccentiricty and Cutouts
P4: Nonparallel Lateral Force-Resisting System
P5: Out-of-Plane Offsets

For the vertical irregularities:

V1: Stiffness Irregularity: Soft Story
V2: Weight/Mass Irregularity
V3: Vertical/Geometrical Irregularity
V4: In-Plane Irregularity in Vertical Lateral Force System
V5: Capacity Discontinuity: Weak Story

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| THE EFFECTS OF CONFIGURATION IRREGULARITY

Here is three types of soft story problem:

The first condition is where the vertical structure between the first and second floor
is significantly more flexible than that of the upper floors. This discontinuity most
commonly occurs in a frame structure in which the first floor height is significantly
taller than those above, so that the cube law results in a large discrepancy in
stiffness.

The second form of soft story is created by a common design concept in which some
of the vertical framing elements do not continue to the foundation, but rather are
terminated at the second floor to increase the openness at ground level. This
condition creates a discontinuous load path that results in an abrupt change in
stiffness and strength at the plane of change.

Finally, the soft story may be created by an open first floor that supports heavy
structural or nonstructural walls above. This situation is most serious when the walls
above are shear walls acting as major lateral force-resisting elements.

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| THE EFFECTS OF CONFIGURATION IRREGULARITY

Here is three types of soft story problem:

The first condition is where the vertical structure between the first and second floor
is significantly more flexible than that of the upper floors. This discontinuity most
commonly occurs in a frame structure in which the first floor height is significantly
taller than those above, so that the cube law results in a large discrepancy in
stiffness.

The second form of soft story is created by a common design concept in which some
of the vertical framing elements do not continue to the foundation, but rather are
terminated at the second floor to increase the openness at ground level. This
condition creates a discontinuous load path that results in an abrupt change in
stiffness and strength at the plane of change.

Finally, the soft story may be created by an open first floor that supports heavy
structural or nonstructural walls above. This situation is most serious when the walls
above are shear walls acting as major lateral force-resisting elements.

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| THE EFFECTS OF CONFIGURATION IRREGULARITY

A common instance of an unbalanced perimeter is that of open-front design in

buildings, such as fire stations and motor maintenance shops in which it is necessary
to provide large doors for the passage of vehicles. Stores, individually or as a group
in a shopping mall, are often designed as boxes with three solid sides and an open
glazed front.

The large imbalance in perimeter strength and stiffness results in large torsional
forces. Large buildings, such as department stores, that have unbalanced resistance
on a number of floors to provide large window areas for display are also common.

The solution to this problem is to reduce the possibility of torsion by endeavoring to

balance the resistance around the perimeter. The example shown is that of the store
front. A number of alternative design strategies can be employed that could also be
used for the other building type conditions noted.

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| THE EFFECTS OF CONFIGURATION IRREGULARITY

The first strategy is to design a frame structure of approximately equal strength and
stiffness for the entire perimeter. The opaque portion of the perimeter can be
constructed of nonstructural cladding, designed so that it does not affect the seismic
performance of the frame. This can be done either by using lightweight cladding or
by ensuring that heavy materials, such as concrete or masonry, are isolated from the
frame.

A second approach is to increase the stiffness of the open facades by adding

sufficient shear walls, at or near the open face, designed to approach the resistance
provided by the other walls.

A third solution is to use a strong moment resisting or braced frame at the open
front, which approaches the solid wall in stiffness. The ability to do this will depend
on the size of the facades.

The possibility of torsion may be accepted and the structure designed to have the
capacity to resist it, through a combination of moment frames, shear walls,) and
diaphragm action. This solution will apply only to relatively small structures with stiff
diaphragms designed in such a way that they can accommodate considerable
eccentric loading.

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| THE EFFECTS OF CONFIGURATION IRREGULARITY

The re-entrant corner is the common characteristic of building forms that, in plan,
assume the shape of an L, T, H, etc., or a combination of these shape.

There are two problems created by these shapes. The first is that they tend to
produce differential motions between different wings of the building that, because
of stiff elements that tend to be located in this region, result in local stress
concentrations at the re-entrant corner, or “notch”.

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| THE EFFECTS OF CONFIGURATION IRREGULARITY

Figure shows the problems with the re-entrant-corner form. The stress
concentration at the “notch” and the torsional effects are interrelated.

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ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| THE EFFECTS OF CONFIGURATION IRREGULARITY

Figure shows the problems with the re-entrant-corner form. The stress
concentration at the “notch” and the torsional effects are interrelated.

There are two basic alternative approaches to the problem of re-entrant-corner

forms: structurally to separate the building into simpler shapes, or to tie the building
together more strongly with elements positioned to provide a more balanced
resistance. The latter solution applies only to smaller buildings.

Once the decision is made to use separation joints, they must be designed and
constructed correctly to achieve the original intent. Structurally separated entities of
a building must be fully capable of resisting vertical and lateral forces on their own,
and their individual configurations must be balanced horizontally and vertically.

To design a separation joint, the maximum drift of the two units must be calculated
by the structural consultant. The worst case is when the two individual structures
would lean toward each other simultaneously; and hence the sum of the dimension
of the separation space must allow for the sum of the building deflections.

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69

ARC3932 | STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE

INSTRUCTOR: SÜHA KÜLTÜR W04 | DESIGN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL

02. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

| THE EFFECTS OF CONFIGURATION IRREGULARITY

Figure shows the problems with the re-entrant-corner form. The stress
concentration at the “notch” and the torsional effects are interrelated.

There are two basic alternative approaches to the problem of re-entrant-corner

forms: structurally to separate the building into simpler shapes, or to tie the building
together more strongly with elements positioned to provide a more balanced
resistance. The latter solution applies only to smaller buildings.

Once the decision is made to use separation joints, they must be designed and
constructed correctly to achieve the original intent. Structurally separated entities of
a building must be fully capable of resisting vertical and lateral forces on their own,
and their individual configurations must be balanced horizontally and vertically.

To design a separation joint, the maximum drift of the two units must be calculated
by the structural consultant. The worst case is when the two individual structures
would lean toward each other simultaneously; and hence the sum of the dimension
of the separation space must allow for the sum of the building deflections.

The same approach can be applied in member scale.

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