⚡ Relays – Lecture #02
Power Systems Protection | Study Notes ✏️
📌 What is a Relay?
A relay senses abnormal conditions & sends a signal to the circuit breaker (CB) to trip & isolate the fault.
Circuit: CT/VT → Relay → CB Trip Coil
CT = Current Transformer
I →
VT = Voltage Transformer CT RELAY
CC = Current Coil of relay CB
VC = Voltage Coil of relay
🔩 Electromechanical Relays
Operate by mechanical forces from electromagnetic or electrothermic effects.
→ Moving part closes the relay contacts → trips CB
→ Principles: Electromagnetic Attraction Electromagnetic Induction
A. Attracted Armature Relays B. Induction Relays
Hinged Armature Plunger Balanced Beam Induction Disc Printed Disc Induction Cup
Moving Coil Polarised Moving Iron Reed
① Hinged Armature Relay
Trip →
Electromagnet attracts armature → closes contacts → trips CB. Hinge
Armature
F
F = KI² = ½K(I²max − I²max·cos2 ω t)
Coil
⟹ Force is proportional to I² (always positive!)
💡 Works on both AC & DC
because F ∝ I²
② Plunger-Type Relay
Solenoid pulls plunger upward when current flows → closes contacts.
Solenoid
→ Spring provides restraining force Plunger
Contact
→ Fast operation — used in instantaneous relays Spring
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⚡ Relays – Types (cont.)
③ Balanced Beam Relay
Beam balanced at pivot. Two magnets on each end: Armature (Beam)
Contact
→ Io = Operating current (right) → closes contacts Restrain Operate
Ir Io
→ Ir = Restraining current (left) → holds beam
→ Trips when Io > Ir
Used in differential protection!
④ Induction Disc Relay (Most Important! ⭐)
Two AC fluxes (φ₁ & φ₂) displaced in time & space → induce eddy currents in disc → torque φ₁ φ₂
Shading Ring
rotates disc. U-Core
T
Disc Brake
T = K φ₁φ₂ sin θ → Trip
→ Shading ring creates phase difference
→ Brake magnet controls speed of rotation
→ Plug Setting (PS) = pickup current adjustment
→ Used for Overcurrent Protection 🔴
⑤ Induction Cup Relay
Hollow aluminium cup (rotor) rotates around a stationary iron core . 4 or more poles provide rotating
field. Core Cup
→ Very fast operation (high torque-to-inertia ratio)
→ Used in distance / impedance relays
→ More sensitive than disc type
🌡️ Thermal Relays
Force from bimetallic strip expansion due to current heating. Types:
Bimetallic Straight Bimetallic Spiral Unimetallic (Brass)
⚠️ Used for motor overload protection — slow but accurate for thermal events.
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⚡ Induction Torque + Auxiliary Relays
📐 Theory of Induction Relay Torque
Two fluxes: φ₁ = φ1m sinωt & φ₂ = φ2m sin(ωt + θ)
Eddy currents induced: i₁ ∝ φ1mcosωt & i₂ ∝ φ2mcos(ωt + θ)
Net Force F = F₂ − F₁:
F ∝ φ 1m φ 2m sin θ F = KI² sin θ = KMN sin θ
★ Maximum torque when θ = 90° (fluxes 90° apart in time). Zero torque when θ = 0° or 180°!
🔧 Auxiliary Relays
Protective relays focus on measurement only . Auxiliary relays handle other duties:
Tripping Time lag Breaking trip current Alarms Flags / Targets
Why? Because protective relay contacts are delicate & light — can't carry large current for long. Also insufficient contacts for all duties.
🔐 Seal-in Relay 🔔 Alarm Relay
Protects contacts of protective relay. Once P.R. closes → → Gives audible + visual indication
seal-in energized → its contacts bypass P.R. contacts . → Trip alarm & non-trip alarm (separate in generating
Also shows a flag/target ! stations)
→ Cancellation button resets alarm
Operates on attracted armature principle (instantaneous).
🚩 Flag / Target
⏱️ Time-lag Relays
→ Shows which relay operated
Operate after a preset time delay . Used in time-graded
→ Coil in series with CB trip coil
protection schemes for discrimination.
→ Manual reset (button/knob outside case)
→ Electrical flags preferred — more reliable
🔁 Repeat Contactors 🔌 Auxiliary Switch
Repeat operation of P.R. when not enough contacts. Must → In series with trip coil circuit
be fast & reliable . Operate on attracted armature → Mechanically interlocked with CB
principle. → Opens when CB opens → prevents battery drain
Max practical contacts in parallel = Trip Circuit
3 P.R. contact → Flag → Seal-in coil →
CB Trip coil → Aux. Switch → −ve
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⚡ Time Delays + Contacts + Static Relays
⏰ Techniques to Produce Time Delays
Mechanical Thermal Electrical
Pneumatic damping, toothed Bimetal / unimetal Short-circuit ring, R-C, resonant
gears, cams, mercury (brass) expansion circuit, thermistor, transistor R-C,
switches electronic counter
Short-Circuiting Ring Ballistic Resistance
→ Copper band on pole piece → eddy current damping → Thermistor or filament lamp in parallel with coil
→ At armature end → delay on pick-up (~0.1 s) → Hot resistance = 10× cold resistance
→ At frame end → delay on drop-out (~0.5 s) → Short circuits coil initially → delays flux build-up
Capacitance Method Electronic Time Delay (RC + Transistor)
→ Capacitor in parallel with coil, charges via R → Capacitor charges slowly → transistor triggers relay
→ Delay up to 0.5 s on pick-up → Few μF → minutes delay
→ AC apps need a rectifier → Tantalum 100s μF → hours delay!
Resonant Circuit Electronic Counter
Delay up to 3 cycles — L-C resonance slows response. Crystal oscillator + cascaded frequency dividers → highly
accurate long delays.
📎 Relay Contacts
Requirements of good contacts: Contact materials:
→ Low contact resistance → Silver — most common, lowest resistance
→ High contact pressure → Silver cadmium oxide — high current, no welding
→ Freedom from corrosion → 67% Au + 26% Ag + 7% Pt — small currents, very
→ Bounce-free & self-clearing low pressure
→ Freedom from sparking; dust-proof → Gold / Palladium / Rhodium — sensitive relays
⚡ Copper NOT used — higher resistance!
★ Best contacts = cylindrical contacts at right angles → optimum pressure, bounce-proof, hard smooth surface!
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⚡ Static Relays + Comparators + Numerical Relays
💡 Static Relays
Measurement done by static electronic circuit (no moving parts!). Uses: diodes, transistors, zener diodes, thyristors, logic
gates, ICs.
✅ Merits ❌ Demerits
→ Low burden on CT/VT → Temperature sensitive → use thermistors for
→ Fast response, long life compensation
→ High shock & vibration resistance → Sensitive to voltage transients → use filters &
→ Less maintenance (no moving parts!) shielding
→ Quick resetting, no overshoot → Need auxiliary power supply (battery)
→ Compact, greater sensitivity
Static ≈ better than EM in most
→ Complex characteristics easily achieved ways! 🏆
→ Logic circuits for complex schemes
⚖️ Comparators (Heart of Static Relays)
Amplitude Comparator Phase Comparator
Compares magnitudes of two quantities (ignores angle). Compares phase angle between two quantities (ignores
Trips when |M| > |N| magnitude).
M = operating qty, N = restraining qty Trips when φ ≤ 90°
Methods:
★ DUALITY:
→ Rectifier Bridge type Amplitude comparator with inputs (M+N) & (M−N)
≡ Phase comparator with M & N
→ Phase Splitting type (and vice versa!) — they are interchangeable!
→ Sampling comparators
M Trip
M+N
Trip
N Amplitude Comp. ⇌ M−N Phase Comp.
|M| > |N| φ < 90° → |M| > |N|
🖥️ Numerical (Digital) Relays
CT/VT → Signal conditioner → Sample & Hold → Analog MUX → ADC → Microprocessor → Trip signal
Feature EM Relay Numerical 💻 Numerical relays = Software-based
Size Bigger Compact settings, remote access, self-supervision,
Selectable
communication!
Characteristics Fixed
Flexibility None Programmable
Setting via plug (EM) vs
Accuracy ±5%+ ±2% Software (Numerical)
Speed Slow Fast
CT/VT burden Very high Extremely low
★ Numerical relays can handle multiple functions in one
Calibration Drifts Stable 20-25 yrs unit!
Maintenance Frequent Maintenance-free
SCADA / EMS Not possible Possible ✔
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