1️⃣ What is Sampling? What are Sampling Techniques?
Sampling
Sampling is the process of selecting a subset of individuals from a population
to represent the whole population.
Why sampling is done?
• Time saving
• Cost effective
• Feasible for large populations
Sampling Techniques
A. Probability (Random) Sampling
Each individual has an equal chance of selection.
• Simple random sampling
• Systematic sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
B. Non-Probability Sampling
Chance of selection is not equal.
• Convenience sampling
• Purposive sampling
• Snowball sampling
• Quota sampling
👉 Examiner tip:
“Random sampling reduces bias.”
2️⃣ Type I and Type II Error
Type I Error (α error)
• Definition: Rejecting a true null hypothesis
• False positive
• Example: Saying a drug works when it actually does not
Type II Error (β error)
• Definition: Failing to reject a false null hypothesis
• False negative
• Example: Saying a drug does not work when it actually works
👉 Mnemonic:
Type I = I am wrong (false positive)
Type II = I missed it (false negative)
3️⃣ Study Designs
Study design is the overall plan of a research study.
A. Observational Studies
Researcher does not intervene.
• Cross-sectional
• Case-control
• Cohort
B. Experimental Studies
Researcher intervenes.
• Randomized controlled trial (RCT)
• Clinical trial
👉 Most common in MBBS research:
Cross-sectional study
4️⃣ What is P-value?
P-value is the probability that the observed result occurred by chance, assuming
the null hypothesis is true.
• P < 0.05 → statistically significant
• P ≥ 0.05 → not significant
👉 Important line for viva:
“P-value does not measure the strength of association, only statistical
significance.”
5️⃣ Format of Thesis Writing
Standard thesis format:
1. Title page
2. Abstract
3. Introduction
4. Literature review
5. Methodology
6. Results
7. Discussion
8. Conclusion
9. References
10. Appendices (if any)
👉 Examiner may ask:
“Which section explains how study was conducted?”
➡️ Methodology
6️⃣ Confidence Level and Confidence Interval
Confidence Level
It shows how confident we are about our estimate.
• Commonly used: 95%
• Means: if study is repeated 100 times, 95 times result will lie in
range
Confidence Interval (CI)
It is a range of values within which the true population parameter lies.
Example:
Mean BP = 120 ± 5 mmHg (95% CI)
👉 Important viva line:
“Narrow confidence interval means more precise results.”
📘 Format of Thesis / Research (Step-wise)
1️⃣ Title Page
Contains:
• Title of research
• Name of researcher
• Institution
• Year
📌 Purpose: Identifies the study.
2️⃣ Abstract
• Brief summary of background, methods, results, conclusion
• Written at the end
• About 200–250 words
📌 Purpose: Quick overview of the whole study.
3️⃣ Introduction
• Background of the problem
• Why the study is needed
• Objectives of the study
📌 Purpose: Explains what and why of research.
4️⃣ Literature Review
• Summary of previous related studies
• Shows what is already known
📌 Purpose: Identifies research gap.
5️⃣ Methodology
Includes:
• Study design
• Study setting & duration
• Sample size & sampling technique
• Inclusion & exclusion criteria
• Data collection & analysis
📌 Purpose: Explains how the study was done.
6️⃣ Results
• Findings of the study
• Tables, graphs, percentages
• No interpretation
📌 Purpose: Presents data only.
7️⃣ Discussion
• Interpretation of results
• Comparison with previous studies
• Reasons for similarities or differences
📌 Purpose: Explains meaning of results.
8️⃣ Conclusion
• Final outcome of the study
• Based on objectives
📌 Purpose: Gives final message.
9️⃣ References
• List of cited studies
• Written in specific format (Vancouver commonly)
📌 Purpose: Gives credit to sources.
🔟 Appendices (Optional)
• Questionnaire
• Consent form
• Extra tables
📌 Purpose: Supporting material.
🎯 One-Line Examiner Favorite Question
Q: Which section is most important?
➡️ Methodology
Q: Where are results interpreted?
➡️ Discussion
Q: Where do we show research gap?
➡️ Literature review