Principles of Integarted Pest and Disease management APE-332

Instructor
Dr. Poonam Srivastava
Department of Entomology
CHEMICAL CONTROL
Control of insects with chemicals is known is chemical control. The term pesticide is used to
those chemicals which kill pests and these pests may include insects, animals, mites, diseases or
even weeds. Chemicals which kill insects are called as insecticides.
Insecticide may be defined as a substance or mixture of substances intended to kill, repel or
otherwise prevent the insects. Similarly pesticides include
Nematicides – which kill nematodes,
Miticides or Acaricides which kill mites,
Rodenticides – which kill rats,
Weedicides- that kill weeds,
Fungicides- that kill fungus etc.
Importance of chemical control:
Insecticides are the most powerful tools available for use in pest management. They are highly
effective, rapid in curative action, adoptable to most situations, flexible in meeting changing
agronomic and ecological conditions and economical.
Insecticides are the only tool for pest management that is reliable for emergency action when
insect pest populations approach or exceed the economic threshold. A major technique such as
the use of pesticides can be the very heart and core of integrated systems.
Chemical pesticides will continue to be essential in the pest management programmes.
There are many pest problems for which the use of chemicals provides the only acceptable
solution. Contrary to the thinking of some people, the use of pesticides for pest control is not an
ecological sin. When their use made on sound ecological principles, chemical pesticides provide
dependable and valuable tools for the biologist. Their use is indispensable to modern society.
General Properties of Insecticides
Pesticides are generally available in a concentrated from which are to be diluted and used
except in ready to use dust and granules.
They are highly toxic and available in different formulations.
Toxicity terms used to express the effect on mammals
Acute toxicity Toxic effect produced by a single dose of a toxicant
Chronic toxicity Toxic effects produced by the accumulation of small amounts of the
toxicant over a long period of time
Oral toxicity Toxic effect produced by consumption of pesticide orally
Dermal toxicity Toxic effect produced when insecticide enters through skin
Inhalation toxicity Toxic effect produced when poisonous fumes of insecticide are
inhaled (fumigants)

Different Classifications of Insecticides

Insecticides are classified in several ways taking into consideration their origin, mode of entry,
mode of action and the chemical nature of the toxicant.
I. Based on the origin and source of supply
A. Inorganic insecticides: Comprise compounds of mineral origin and elemental sulphur.
This group includes arsenate and fluorine compounds as insecticides. Sulphur as acaricides and
zinc phosphide as rodenticides.
B. Organic Insecticides:
i. Insecticides of animal origin: Nereistoxin isolated from marine annelids, fish oil rosin soap
from fishes etc.
ii. Plant Origin insecticides or Botanical insecticides: Nicotinoids, pyrethroids, Rotenoids etc.
iii. Synthetic organic insecticides: Organochlorines, Organophosphorous, Carbamate insecticides
etc.,
iv. Hydrocarbon oils: Coal tar oil, mineral oils etc
II. Based on the mode of entry of the insecticides into the body of the insect they are groups
as
a. Contact poisons: These insecticides are capable of gaining entry into the insect body either
through spiracles and trachea or through the cuticle and kill them. Eg. Phoalone and HCH.
b. Stomach poisons: The poison or toxicant which enter the body of the insect through its food
and kill it. Eg: Bacillus thuringiensis, trizophos, quinalphos
c. Fumigants: A fumigant is a chemical substance which is volatile at ordinary temperatures and
sufficiently toxic to the insects. Fumigation is the process of subjecting the infested material to
the toxic fumes or vapors of chemicals or gases which have insecticidal properties. Chemical
used in the fumigant and a reasonably airtight container or room is known as fumigation
chamber or “Fumigatorium”. Fumigants mostly gain entry into the body of the insect through
spiracles in the trachea.
Commonly used Fumigants and their doses:
i. Aluminium phosphide, marketed as Celphos tablets used against field rats, groundnut bruchids
etc
ii. Carbon disulphide 8-20 lbs/1000ft3 of food grains
iii. EDCT (Ethylene Dichloride Carbon Tetrachloride) 20-30 lbs /1000cft of food grains
iv. EDB Ethylene dibromide 1 lb/1000ft3 of food grains.
v. SO2: By burning sulphur in godowns SO2 fumes are released.
d. Systemic insecticides
Chemicals that is capable of moving through the vascular systems of plants irrespective of site of
application and poisoning insects that feed on the plants. Ex: Methyl demeton, Phosphamidon,
Acephate.
‘Non systemic insecticides’ are not possessing systemic action are called non systemic
insecticides. Some non systemic insecticides, however, have ability to move from one surface
leaf to the other. They are called as ‘trans laminar insecticides’. Ex. Malathion, Diazinon,
spinosad etc.
An ideal systemic insecticide quality are
Should have high intrinsic pesticidal activity
The toxicant must be adequately liposoluble for it to be absorbed by the plant system and
water soluble for it to be translocated in the plant system.
The toxicant or its metabolites should be stable for sufficiently long period to exercise residual
effect.
Sufficiently soluble in water for translocation through vascular system.
Should degrade to nontoxic form in reasonable time to avoid toxicity to consumer
Systemic insecticides are applied as seed dressing, granular formulations, sprays etc. In the leaf,
the entry of the toxicant is through stomata and cuticle. On stem the entry is through lenticels and
cracks in the cuticle. In the seed it is through seed coat especially through the micropyle.
Systemic insecticides are highly useful against sap sucking and vectors such as leafhoppers,
whiteflies, thrips, aphids etc.
III. Based on mode of action:
Physical poisons: Bring about the kill of insects by exerting a physical effect.
Eg: Heavy oils, tar oils etc. which cause death by asphyxiation. Inert dusts effect loss of body
moisture by their abrasiveness as in aluminium oxide or absorb moisture from the body as in
charcoal.
Protoplasmic poisons: The poisons or toxicants which kill the insect by destruction of
cellular protoplasm of the mid gut epithelium cells. Eg. Arsenical compounds, mercury, copper
Respiratory poisons: The poisons or toxicants which block cellular respiration and inhibits
the respiratory enzymes. Ex. Hydrogen cyanide (HCN), carbon monoxide, rotenone etc.
Nerve poisons: The poisons or toxicants which block Acetyl cholinesterase (AChE) and
effect the nervous system leading to death of the insects. Eg. Organophosphorous, carbamates.
Chitin inhibitors: Chitin inhibitors interfere with process of synthesis of chitin due to which
normal moulting and development is disrupted.
Ex :Novaluron, Diflubenzuran, Lufenuron ,Buprofezin
General Poisons:Compounds which include neurotoxic symptoms after some period and do
not belong to the above categories. [Link], Toxaphene, aldrin
IV. Based on toxicity (Based on LD50):

V. Based on stage specificity:

i. Ovicides
ii. Larvicides
iii. Pupicides
iv. Adulticides

VI. Generation wise:

Sl. No Generation Category of insecticide

1 First generation Inorganics and Botanicals

2 Second generation Synthetic organics

3 Third Generation IGRs like MH & JH mimics

4 Fourth Generation Anti JH, Synthetic pyrethroids

TOXICITY EVALUATION OF INSECTICIDES

LD 50 (Lethal Dose):
In 1952 Finney has given the computation methods. It is the amount of toxicant required to
kill 50% of the test population and is expressed in terms of milligrams of the substance of
toxicant per kilogram body weight (mg/kg) of the test animal (usually rat, when treated orally).
As the test animals usually rat and sometimes rabbit it is also referred to as the mammalian
toxicity. This forms the general criteria for acute toxicity and is also known acute oral LD50.
In case of insects the LD50 (Median Lethal Dose) value is expressed in terms of micrograms of
the toxicant per one gram body weight of the insect. Eg. Phosphamidon – 28; Parathion 3.6 to
13; Malathion 2800; Hydrogen cyanide 1.0
The amount of toxicant required to be placed on the skin to cause death of 50% of test population
is known as acute dermal LD50. It must be understood that higher the [Link] lesser is the
toxic nature of the chemical and vice - versa.
Acute toxicity refers to the toxic effect produced by a single dose of a toxicant where as chronic
toxicity is the effect produced by the accumulation of small amounts of toxicant over a long
period of time. Here the single dose produces no ill-effect.
LC 50 (Median Lethal concentration): Defined as the concentration of insecticide required to
kill 50% of the given organism or insect. This is used when the exact dose per insect is not
known, but the concentration is known. It is usually determined by potters tower and probit
analysis.
ED50/ EC50 (Effective Dose/Concentration 50): Chemicals that gives desirable effects in 50%
of test animals. These terms are used to express the effectiveness of insect growth regulators
(IGR) is expressed in PPM (1/1,000,000) or Percentage (1/100)
LT 50 (Mediam Lethal time 50): LT50 is defined as the time required to kill 50% of the
population at a certain dose or concentration. LT50 expressed in hours or minutes.
KD50/ KT50 (Median Knoc down Dose /Time 50): Dose / Time required for 50% of population
having knockdown effect. KD 50 is used in field studies and also for testing insect viruses (NPV)
and KT50 are used for evaluating synthetic pyrethroids against insects.
Bioassay of insecticides
Study of response of individual or group of organisms exposed to the toxicant is called
‘Bioassay’ or Any quantitative procedure used to determine the relationship between the amount
(dose or concentration) of an insecticide administered and the magnitude of response in a living
organism. Potter spraying tower apparatus is required for studying the biological effects of
contact poisons on organisms. This air operated spraying apparatus applies an even deposit of
spray over a circular area of 9 cm diameter. Suitable for studying the biological effects of
chemicals, both when applied as direct spray on organisms or as a residual film. Bioassays are
used for screening of potential insecticides, for determination of values LD50 and LC 50.
Estimation of residues, and quality testing of formulated insecticides
Formulations of Insecticides

EC Emulsifiable concentrate FS Flowable concentrate for seed treatment

CG Encapsulated granule G Granule

CS Capsule suspension GC Macrogranule

DC Dispersible concentrate GL Emulsifiable gel

DP Dispersible powder GP Flo-dust

EG Émulsifiable granule GW Water soluble gel

EO Emulsion, water in oil OL Oil miscible liquid

EW Emulsion, oil in water OP Oil dispersible powder

ES Emulsion for seed treatment WDP Water dispersible powder

FG Fine granule WG Water dispersible granules

SC Suspension concentrate WP Wettable powder

SE Suspo-emulsion WS Water dispersible powder for slurry treatment

SG Water soluble granule WSC Water soluble concentrate

SL Soluble concentrate SU Ultra-low volume suspension

SP Water soluble powder TB Tablet

SS Water soluble powder for seed treatment

PESTICIDE APPLICATION METHODS

The desired effect of a pesticide can be obtained only if it si applied by an appropriate method in
appropriate time. The method of application depends on nature of pesticide, formulation, pests to
be managed, site of application, availability of water etc.
1. Dusting: Dusting is carried out in the morning hours and during very light air stream. It can be
done manually or by using dusters. Sometimes dust can be applied in soil for the control of soil
insects. Dusting is cheaper and suited for dry land crop pest control.
2. Spraying: Spraying is normally carried out by mixing EC (or) WP formulations in water.
There are three types of spraying.
Spray Volume Spray Droplet Area Equipment
fluid size covered
used
(liter per per day
acre)
a) High volume spraying 200-400 150 2.5 ac Knapsack, Rocker sprayers

b) Low volume spraying 40-60 70-150 5.6 ac Power sprayer, Mist blower

c) Ultra low volume 2-4 lit. 20-70 20 ac ULV sprayer, Electrodyn sprayer
spraying

3. Granular application: Highly toxic pesticides are handled safely in the form of granules.
Granules can be applied directly on the soil or in the plant parts. The methods of application are
 Broadcasting: Granules are mixed with equal quantity of sand and broadcasted directly
on the soil or in thin film of standing water. (eg.) Carbofuran 3G applied @ 1.45 kg/8
cent rice nursery in a thin film of water and impound water for 3 days.
 In furrow application: Granules are applied at the time of sowing in furrows in beds and
covered with soil before irrigation. (eg.) Carbofuran 3G applied @ 3 g per meter row for
the control of sorghum shootfly.
 Side dressing: After the establishment of the plants, the granules are applied a little away
from the plant (10-15 cm) in a furrow.
 Spot application: Granules are applied @ 5 cm away and 5 cm deep on the sides of
plant. This reduces the quantity of insecticide required.
 Ring application: Granules are applied in a ring form around the trees.
 Root zone application: Granules are encapsulated and placed in the root zone of the
plant. (eg.) Carbofuran in rice.
 Leaf whorl application: Granules are applied by mixing it with equal quantity of sand in
the central whorl of crops like sorghum, maize, sugarcane to control internal borers.
 Pralinage: The surface of banana sucker intended for planting is trimmed. The sucker is
dipped in wet clay slurry and carbofuran 3G is sprinkled (20-40 g/sucker) to control
burrowing nematode.
4. Seed pelleting/seed dressing: The insecticide mixed with seed before sowing (eg.) sorghum
seeds are treated with chlorphyriphos 4 ml/kg in 20 ml of water and shade dried to control
shootfly. The carbofuran 50 SP is directly used as dry seed dressing insecticide against sorghum
shootfly.
5. Seedling root dip: It is followed to control early stage pests (eg.) in rice to control sucking
pests and stem borer in early transplanted crop, a shallow pit lined with polythene sheet is
prepared in the field. To this 0.5 kg urea in 2.5 litre of water and 100 ml chlorpyriphos in 2.5 litre
of water prepared separately are poured. The solution is made upto 50 ml with water and the
roots of seedlings in bundles are dipped for 20 min before transplanting.
6. Sett treatment: Treat the sugarcane setts in 0.05% malathion for 15 minutes to protect them
from scales. Treat the sugarcane setts in 0.05% Imidacloprid 70 WS @ 175 g/ha or 7 g/l dipped
for 16 minutes to protect them from termites.
7. Trunk/stem injection: This method is used for the control of coconut pests like black headed
caterpillar, mite etc. Drill a downward slanting hole of 1.25 cm diameter to a depth of 5 cm at a
light of about 1.5 m above ground level and inject 5 ml of monocrotophos 36 WSC into the stem
and plug the hole with cement (or) clay mixed with a fungicide. Pseudo stem injection of banana,
an injecting gun or hypodermic syringe is used for the control of banana aphid, vector of bunchy
top disease.
8. Padding: Stem borers of mango, silk cotton and cashew can be controlled by this method.
Bark of infested tree (5 x 5 cm) is removed on three sides leaving bottom as a flap. Small
quantity of absorbant cotton is placed in the exposed area and 5-10 ml of Monocrotophos 36
WSP is added using ink filler. Close the flap and cover with clay mixed with fungicide.
9. Swabbing: Coffee white borer is controlled by swabbing the trunk and branches with HCH
(BHC) 1 per cent suspension.
10. Root feeding: Trunk injection in coconut results in wounding of trees and root feeding is an
alternate and safe chemical method to control black headed caterpillar, eriophyid mite, red palm
weevil. Monocrotophos 10 ml and equal quantity of water are taken in a polythene bag and cut
the end (slant cut at 45) of a growing root tip (dull white root) is placed inside the insecticide
solution and the bag is tied with root. The insecticide absorbed by root, enter the plant system
and control the insect.
11. Soil drenching: Chemical is diluted with water and the solution is used to drench the soil to
control certain subterranean pests. (eg.) BHC 50 WP is mixed with water @ 1 kg in 65 litres of
water and drenches the soil for the control of cotton/stem weevil and brinjal ash weevil grubs.
12. Capsule placement: The systemic poison could be applied in capsules to get toxic effect for
a long period. (eg.) In banana to control bunchy top vector (aphid) the insecticide is filled in
gelatin capsules and placed in the crown region.
13. Baiting: The toxicant is mixed with a bait material so as to attract the insects towards the
toxicant.
a) Spodoptera: A bait prepared with 0.5 kg molasses, 0.5 kg carbaryl 50 WP and 5 kg of rice
bran with required water (3 litres) is made into small pellets and dropped in the field in the
evening hours.
b) Rats: Zinc phophide is mixed at 1:49 ratio with food like popped rice or maize or cholam or
coconut pieces (or) warfarin can be mixed at 1:19 ratio with food. Ready to use cake formulation
(Bromodiolone) is also available.
c) Coconut rhinoceros beetle: Castor rotten cake 5 kg is mixed with insecticide.
14. Fumigation: Fumigants are available in solid and liquid forms. They can be applied in the
following way.
Soil: To control the nematode in soil, the liquid fumigants are injected by using injecting gun.
Storage: Liquid fumigants like Ethylene dibromide (EDB), Methyl bromide (MB), carbon
tetrachloride etc. and solid fumigant like Aluminium phosphide are recommended in godowns to
control stored product pest.
Trunk: Aluminium phosphide ½ to 1 tablet is inserted into the affected portion of coconut tree
and plugged with cement or mud for the control of red palm weevil.
INORGANIC INSECTICIDES
Arsenic compounds:
In an arsenical compound, the total arsenic content and the water soluble arsenic content are of
importance, the water solubility of arsenic may result in entering the foliage and causing burning
injury to plants, and hence water insoluble compounds are preferred for insect control. Arsenates
are more stable and safe for application on plants then arsenites. Arsenites are mainly used in
poison baits since they are phytotoxic. However arsenates are less toxic to insects then arsenites.
In insects arsenates cause regurgitation, torpor (sluggishness) and quiescence. Disintegration of
epithelial cells of the midgut and clumping of the chromatin of the nuclei are the effects noticed
in poisoned insects. Slow decrease in oxygen consumption is also evident and kill of the insect is
primarily due to the inhibition of respiratory enzymes.
Water soluble arsenic causes wilting followed by browning and shriveling of the tissue.
1. Calcium arsenate: It was first used by about 1906 as an insecticide. It is a white flocculent
power, formulated as a dust of 25 to 30% metallic arsenic equivalent.
Being a stomach poison it was mainly used for control of leaf eating insects.
2. Lead arsenate: It was first used as in insecticide in 1892 for the control of gypsy moth. It is a
stomach poison with little contact action [Link] rat oral 10-100, dermal 2400 mg/kg. . It is
rarely used as dust. 450 g to 1800 g of load arsenate is diluted with 200-240 litres of water. An
equal quantity of hydrated lime is some time added to prevent phytotoxicity to tender foliage. In
baits it is used at 450 or900 g in 1200 g to 45000 g of carrier such as wheat bran or rice husk
respectively.
3. Arsenite:
Paris green: It is a double salt of copper acetate and copper arsenite. It was first used in 1867 for
the control of Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata. It is now used as bait for the
control of [Link] good against termites.
Flourine Compounds: These compounds were used since 1890. They are principally stomach
poisons and to a limited extent contact poisons. The kill is more rapid than that of arsenicals.
Their insecticidal properties are related to the fluorine content and solubility in the digestive
juices of insect. Flouride poisoning produces spasms, regurgitation, flaccid paralysis and death.
1. Sodium fluoride: It is a white power. It is highly phytotoxic and used in poison baits used
exclusively against cockroaches, earwigs, cutworms, grasshoppers etc.
Other inorganic compounds
1. Sulphur: It is primarily fungicide and acaricide. It is also formulated as wettable powders.
Effectiveness increases with fineness of sulphur particles.
2. Lime sulphur: Aqueous solution of calcium polysulphide. It is prepared by sulphur solution
in calcium hydroxide suspension, preferably under pressure in the absence of air and is used
against scales, mites, aphids besides powdery mildew.
Properties
Affect nervous system causing excitement at lower doses and paralysis at higher
concentration.
Not phytotoxic
Leave no harmful side effects.
 Mighly toxic to mammals.

Disappear rapidly from the treated surface. So can be used safely before harvest of the
produce.
INSECTICIDES OF PLANT ORIGIN (BOTANICAL PESTICIDES)
The insecticides of plant origin extracted from seeds, flowers, leaves, stem and roots, are termed
as botanical insecticides. Insecticides of plant origin unlike synthetic organic insecticides are
safer to use but since they are expensive and lack residual toxicity, their use has been limited in
the country. In nature more than, 2400 plant species are reported to have pesticidal properties.
The important families having pesticidal properties are
Plant family No. of plant having pesticidal property
Meliaceae > 500
Myrtaceae 72
Asteraceae 70
Euphorbiaceae 65
Leguminosae 60
Fabaceae 55

1) Neem (Azadirachta indica)

Perennial tree distributed in tropical, subtropical, semi-arid and arid zones. It posses medicinal,
insecticidal, insect repellent, antifeedant, growth regulatory, nematicidal and antifungal
properties. Neem seed extract and oil contains a number of components such as Azadirachtin,
salannin, nimbin, epinimbin nimbidin that gives insecticidal, insect repellent, ovicidal,
Antifeedant and growth regulator characters. Azadiractitin disrupts moulting by antagonizing the
insect hormone ecdysone.
2) Nicotine: Nicotine is found in the leaves of Nicotiana tabacum and [Link] 2% to
14%.Nicotine sulphate has been mainly used as a contact insecticide with marked fumigant
action in the control of sucking insect’sviz., aphids, thrips, psyllids, leafminers and jassids.
Nicotine sulphate is more stable and less volatile. It is a nerve poison being highly toxic when
absorbed through the cuticle taken in through the tracheae or when ingested. It affects the
ganglion blocking conduction at higher levels. Nicotine sulphate containing 40% alkaloid, is
lime or ammonium hydroxide to the spray solution. Dust formulation of nicotine sulphate
releases nicotine in the presence of moisture. It is also used in aerosols. Tobacco decoction,
useful for controlling aphids, Thrips etc. can be prepared by boiling 1kg of tobacco waste in
10lts of water for 30 minutes or steep it in cold water for a day. Then make it up to 30 litres and
add about 90gm of soap. Addition of soap improves wetting, spreading and killing properties.
Nicotine does not leave any harmful residue on treated surface.
3) Rotenone: It is extracted from the roots of Derris plant which many contain 4 to 11%
rotenone depending on the variety. Though rotenone is reported from 68 species of leguminous
plants, principal commercial sources are Derris elliptica; D. Malaccensis from Malaysia and
Lonchocarupus utilis and D. uruca from S. America. Rotenone occurs in Derris roots (4-9%),
Lonchocarpus (8-11%).
It is oxidized to non-insecticidal compound in the presence of light and air and hence rotenone
residues are difficult to find after 5 to 10 days in normal sunlight. Insects poisoned with rotenone
show a steady decline in oxygen consumption followed by paralysis and deaths. It is very
specific being highly toxic to fishes and to most insect species but almost harmless to warm
blooded animals except pigs.
4) Plumbagin:
Plumbagin is naturally occurring napthoquinone of plant origin from the roots of Plumbago
europea L. (Plumbaginaceae) and named so in 1828 by Bulong d’ Astafort. Plumbagin is
known for its medicinal, antifertility, antimicrobial, molluscicidal, nematicidal and other
pharmacological properties on diverse fauna.
The elucidation of structure of plumbagin and its synthesis in 1936 led to detailed studies.
More recently, its IGR properties viz., inhibition of chitin synthetase and ecdysteroid titres have
been demonstrated (Kubo et al., 1982). The cold alcoholic extract (5%) of roots of P. zeylanica L
was toxic to Euproctis fraterna larvae as contact spray. Contact toxicity of 5% petroleum ether
extracts of P. zeylanica root against Spodoptera litura Fab., Dystercus koenigii Fab., Dipaphis
erysimi Kalt, Dactynops carthami H.R.L, Coccinella septumpunctata
L was also reported.
5) Pyrethrum: It is extracted from dried flower heads of Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium
(Asteraceae). The actual chemical ingredients having insecticidal action are identified as five
esters. They are: Pyrethrin I, Pyrethrin II, cinerins -I and cinerin-II and Jasmoline, which are
predominately found in achenes of flowers from 0.7 to 3 %. The esters are derived from the,
Two acids – Chrysanthemic acid and Pyrethric acid
Three alcohols – Pyretholone, Cinerolone and Jasmolone
Active principles/Esters
Pyrethrin I = Pyrethrolone + Chrysanthemc acid
Pyrethrin II = Pyrethrolone + Pyrethric acid
Cinerin I = Cynerolone + Chrysanthemc acid
Cinerin II = Cynerolone + Pyrethric acid
Jasmolin II = Jasmolone + Pyrethric acid
Pyrethrum powder is prepared by grinding the flowers. The powder mixed with diluents
such as talc or clay is known as pyrethrum dust. It is prepared just before use. Otherwise it gets
deteriorated rapidly. It is also used as emulsions, solutions, and aerosols. Pyrethrum is unstable
to light, air moisture and alkali. The residues deteriorate very rapidly after application. Pyrethrins
are powerful contact insecticides but appear to be poor stomach poisons. A characteristic action
of Pyrethroid is the rapid paralysis or ‘knock down’ effect and substantial recovery that follow it.
This recovery is due to rapid enzymatic detoxification in the insect. To bring about mortality
equivalent to knock down effect three times increase in dosage may be required. Compounds
such as piperonyl butoxide, propyl isome and sulfoxide are known to inhibit the detoxication
enzyme and increase the toxicities of pyrethroids. These synergists are used at 10 parts to 100
part of pyrethroid.
Pyrocon E 2/22 (1 part of pyrethrin + 10 parts of piperonyl butoxide) is used for the control
of coconut red palm weevil. In household sprays and as a repellent against external parasites of
livestock pyrethrum is useful. It is also mixed with grains in storage to protect from stored grain
pests. Its use alone or in combination with piperonyl butoxide as food packages has been
permitted by the food and Drug Administration in the U.S.A. and no other chemical has been
approved.
Properties
i. Highly unstable in light, moisture and air.
ii. Have no residual effect.
iii. Paralyse by more contact.
iv. Gains entry through spiracle and cuticle.
v. Act on central nervous system.
vi. Having rapid knock down effect.
vii. Practically no mammalian toxicity.
viii. Good insecticides against household and cattle pests
Sabadilla:
• It is a alkaloid found in seeds of tropical lily Schoenocaulon officinale (fam: Liliaceae)
• The alkaloid mainly, cevadine and veratridine act as nerve poisons
• It is a primarily contact poison.
• It is harmful to pollinator, honey bees
Ryanodine:
• It is a alkaloid derived from woody stems of South American shrub, Ryania speciosa
(Fam; Flacourtaceae)
• Activity: It acts as muscular poison by blocking the conversion of ADP to ATP in striated
muscle.
• It acts as slow acting stomach poison and causes insects to stop feeding after they eat it.
• It is reportedly effective against thrips and worms.
• It is used as dust (20-40%)

SYNTHETIC ORGANIC INSECTICIDES

I) Chlorinated Hydrocarbons (Organochlorines): The plant protection in India owes its
growth to the chemicals under this group which have revolutionized the control of pests. The
properties which have lead to their extensive use are high insecticidal efficacy, long residual
action, wide range of insect susceptibility, cheapness per unit area and available in different
formulations. They are also known as chlorinated synthetics or chlorinated organics or
chlorinated hydrocarbons. The important organochlorines are
1. DDT: DDT was first synthesized in 1874 by Othmar Zeidler. In 1939 a Swiss
entomologist, Paul Muller, found its insecticidal property for the first time. This discovery
brought the `Nobel Prize' for medicine to Paul Muller in 1948 for the life saving discovery.
Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane (DDT) is stomach and contact insecticide. It has got long
residual action. It is also non-phytotoxic except to cucurbits. It is not much effective against
phytophagous mites. Due to low cost of DDT and effectiveness against a variety of insects
particularly against house flies and mosquitoes, it is much popularized but due to long residual
life and accumulation, it is banned in several countries. It does affect the nervous system
preventing normal transmission of nerve impulses. DDT causes a violent excitatory neurotoxic
system in most insects which are having uncoordinated movement and DDT Jitters (tremor
of the entire body).
2. Hexa Chloro Cyclohexane (HCH): It was first synthesised by Michael Faraday in the year
[Link] gamma-isomer of BHC has the insecticidal activity. BHC is a stomach and contact
insecticide. It has got slight fumigant action. It is persistent insecticide. It is non phytotoxic
except cucurbits .It has been extensively used as soil insecticides particularly to control termites,
white grubs and cutworms. Highly purified product containing 99% of gamma isomer of HCH
is known as lindane, this name was proposed in 1949 after Vander Linden, a German
chemist who isolated this isomer in 1912. Lindane is more acute neurotoxicant than DDT results
in tremors, ataxia, convolutions, falling prostration and ultimately leading to death.
II) Cyclodines
Cyclodienes also act as neurotoxicants which disturb the balance of sodium and potassium
ions within the neuron resulting into tremors, convulsions, prostration and ultimately the death.
The outstanding characteristic of the cyclodienes is their longer stability in the soil, resulting in
more control of soil inhabiting insect pests. Some of the compound belonging to this group are
chlordane (1945), aldrin and dieldrin (1948), heptachlor (1949), endrin (1951), mirex (1954),
endosulfan (1956) and chlordecone 1958). Among them aldrin, chlordane and heptachlor were
often in use for termite control as they are most effective, long lasting and economical
insecticides but now banned by GOI.
1) Aldrin
It is persistent and non-systemic soil insecticide. It is usually recommended for the control of
termites throughout India. Two German chemists Otto Paul Hermann Diels and Kurt Alder
first documented the Diels-Aldernovel reaction in 1928 for which they were awarded the
Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1950 for their work.
Trade names: Octalene, Aldrex, Aldrosol, and Aldrite.
2) Dieldrin
It is persistent and non-systemic insecticide used for mainly soil inhabiting insect pests. It is also
not phytotoxic in recommended doses.
Trade names: Quintox, Alvit
3) Heptachlor
It is a non-systemic, contact poison with fumigant action. It is effective against termites, white
grubs, grass hoppers etc
4) Endosulfan:
It is a non-systemic, contact and stomach poison with slight fumigant action. It is effective
against defoliators, borers, sucking insects and mites but harmless to honey bees at
recommended doses for insect control. It is highly toxic to fish.
Trade names: Thiodan, Endocel, Endodhan, Endotaf
III) Organophosphates
Organophosphate came to limelight during Second World War. The biological activity of
these compounds was first discovered by W. Lange and Krueger in 1932. OP compounds as
insecticides were mainly due to the work of Gerhard Schrader in 1937 in Germany. First
OP compound TEPP (Tetra Ethyl Pyro Phosphate) followed by parathion and schradan, the
first systemic insecticide. Organophosphate insecticides have two most important properties such
as higher potency and low residual life. The organophosphates (OPs) inhibit the cholinesterase
(Ch E) enzyme leading to blockage of synaptic transmission of nerve impulses and finally
death.
1) Malathion
It is a non systemic contact and stomach insecticide and acaricide of low mammalian toxicity.
Hence it is recommended on fruits and vegetables till a few days prior to harvest. It is also
recommended for storage insects and also for external application for parasites on animals.
Trade names: Cythion and Himala
2) Methyl parathion:
It is a contact and stomach poison with slight fumigant action. It is widely used in for sucking
insects and foliage feeders.
Trade names: Folidal, Metacid, Paratox, Dhanumar
3) Diazinon:
It is a contact persistent insecticide with nematicidal properties. It is very much useful against
household insects such as flies and cockroaches. It has contact, stomach poison and also
fumigant action.
Trade names: Basudin
4) Dichlorvos (Dimethyl Dichloro Vinyl Phosphate - DDVP)
It is contact poison but due to high vapour pressure it has got strong penetrating power. It is very
effective against hidden insects due to its fumigation action. It is recommended for leaf miners
and leaf webbers. It brings quick knock down effect. It does not leave toxic residues. It is highly
toxic to bees. It is a contact and stomach poison with fumigant action.
Trade names: nuvan, vapona, Doom, Divap

5) Fenitrothion:
It acts as contact and stomach poison with broad spectrum activity and a selective acaricide.
It is effective against sucking pests including mealy bugs, borer and mites and external parasites
of livestock.
Trade names: Sumithion, Folithion
6) Quinolphos:
It is contact poison having good penetrating power and It is having acaricidal properties. It is
widely used against caterpillars and borer on cotton, vegetables and other crops.
Trade names: Ekalux, Shakthi Quick, Quinguard, Quinaltaf, Smash, Flash
7) Phosolone:
It is a non systemic contact insecticide and acaricide, effective against wide spectrum of species.
Trade names: Zolone
8) Chlorpyriphos:
It is a non-systemic contact insecticide very effective against sucking and chewing [Link] is
also recommended against house hold insect pests. It is widely recommended as seed treatment
chemical against white grub and termites.
Trade names: Dursban, Chloroban, Durmet, Radar
9) Phosphomidon:
It is a systemic insecticide ha ving low contact action. It is very effective against sap sucking
insect pests. On application it is absorbed in the plant tissues within 1-3 hours and is translocated
more towards the top. It is less toxic to fish and more toxic to bees.
Trade names: Demecron, Sumidon, Chemidan, Hydan, Phamidon
10) Monocrotophos:
It is a systemic insecticide and acaricide with contact action. It has wide range of susceptibility
of insects. It is toxic to bees.
Trade names: Monocil, Nuvacron, Monophos, Monochem, Monostar
11) Methyl demeton:
It is contact and systemic insecticide and acaricide. It is used against soft bodied insects, which
suck the plant sap.
Trade names: Metasystox and Dhanusyatax
12) Dimethoate:
It is systemic insecticide and acaricide. It is widely used against sucking insect pests on various
crops.
Trade names: Rogor, Celgor, Novogor, Tara 909, roxion
13) Triazophos:
It has insecticidal, acaricidal and nematicidal properties with translaminar action. It is very
effective against variety of pests particularly Lepidoptera larvae on fruits and vegetables.
Trade names: Hostathion, Trizocel, Truzo, Suthation
14) Profenophos:
It is a broad spectrum non-systemic insecticide. It is recommended against pest of vegetables.
It is highly toxic to birds and fish.
Trade names: Curacron, Celcron, Bolero, Carina, Proven
15) Acephate:
It is a systemic and contact poison. It has low toxicity and safe to environment.
Trade names: Arthane, Starthane, Orthene
16) Phorate:
It is a systemic granular insecticide and also possesses acaricidal properties. It is very effective
against sucking insects and also against maize borers, cut worms, white grubs etc.
Trade names: Thimet
CARBAMATES
All carbamates are derivatives of carbamic acid. Many of the carbamic esters are insecticidal
and a few are effective molluscicides like organophosphates, the carbamate insecticides interfere
in cholinergic transmission. The carbamate enters the synapse and inhibits the acetylcholine-
esterase as a result the acetylcholine contains to depolarize the post synaptic membrane,
causing prolonged stimulation resulting into the failure of the nerve or effectors tissue.
Carbamates have an analogous action, carbamylating rather than phosphorylating the
enzyme and the ChE recovers more readily from carbamates than from organophosphates.
Thus, unlike, organophosphates, they are known as reversible inhibitors.
1. Carbaryl:
Carbaryl is a contact and stomach insecticide. It is most popular insecticide because it is effective
against a wide range of insects and possesses very low mammalian toxicity. It is compatible with
many pesticides except Bordeaux mixture lime sulphur and urea. It is not effective against mites.
Trade names: Sevin.
2. Propoxur (Arprocarb)
It is a broad spectrum, contact and stomach poison with good knock down properties. It is
effective in controlling house hold pests such as cockroaches, crickets, flies etc. It has long
residual action.
Trade names: Baygon, Bla ttamen, Saphaer
3. Carbofuran.
It is a plant systemic broad spectrum and long residual insecticide, miticide and nematicide. It is
recommended as soil insecticides against plant sap sucking and borer pests.
Trade names: Furadan
4. Carbosulfan.
It is a systemic insecticide, and nematicide. It is recommended as seed dresser insecticide
Trade name: Marshal
5. Thiodicarb
It is an insecticide with ovicidal properties, and molluscicide.
Trade name: Larvin
6. Aldicarb
It is systemic pesticide usually applied in soil as seed furrow, band or broadcast treatments either
pre-plant or at planting as well as post emergence side dress treatments. It has also possessing
acaricidal property and toxic to higher animals. Insecticide of carbamate group which is highly
toxic to mammals.
Trade names: Temik
5. Methomyl:
It is a systemic with contact and stomach insecticide and nematicide. It is very effective against a
wide variety of pests particularly army worms, cabbage semilooper, Okra stem fly, fruit borers,
leaf defoliators, cotton boll worms, etc. It is insecticide belonging to carbamate groups that has
ovicidal action against lepidopteran pests (Helicoverpa armigera).
Trade names: Lannate, Dunnate
SYNTHETIC PYRETHROIDS AND INSECTICIDES OF OTHER GROUPS
Synthetic pyrethroids have got the properties of plant derivative pyrethrum as insecticides but are
considerably more stable in light and air. Allethrin was first synthetic analogue of
pyrethroids. They act on tiny channel through which sodium is pumped to cause excitation of
neurons and prevent the sodium channels from closing, resulting in continual nerve trans
mission, tremors and eventually death.
The synthetic pyrethroids have extremely high insecticidal activity at extremely low doses and
are bio-degradable in nature. Their activity is most pronounced against lepidopterous pests and
they are very effective against beetle, leaf miner and bugs. They are very effective against eggs,
larval and adult stages of insects. They have antifeedant and repellent properties. They are not
readily washed off from the plants by rain due to lipophilic characters.
These synthetic pyrethroids are very less toxic to mammals and having a quick knock down
activity to insects, the lower toxicity to mammals and increase safety for the user. Very low
application rate of synthetic pyrethroids as compared to conventional insecticides brings reduced
environmental pollution.
Limitations
1. A major limitation of synthetic pyrethroids is that these are generally not effective as soil
insecticide.
2. Even at low dosages kill non target species
3. Synthetic pyrethroids cause resurgence of several groups of insect pests especially whiteflies
and aphids.
4. Rapid development of resistance to synthetic pyrethroids in many insect species. This may be
due to high selection pressure exerted by high mortality caused by synthetic pyrethroids
5. Synthetic pyrethroids are poor acaricides
First generation: First generation pyrethroids are considered to be of low toxicity to people and
other mammals because they are rapidly broken down in the body. First generation pyrethroids
decompose quickly in sunlight and air and thus pose little risk in the environment but all
pyrethroids are toxic to aquatic animals.
1) Allethrin
It is contact, stomach and respiratory action and bring quick knock down of flies and mosquitoes
when applied in combination with Piperonyl butoxide. These are lipophlic compounds. In 1949,
the first synthetic pyrethrum analogue allethrin commercially introduced.
Trade name: Pynamin
Second generation: Second generation pyrethroids are not acutely toxic to people or other
mammals. These pyrethroids decompose rapidly in sunlight. They thus pose little threat to the
environment, but for the same reason they are not suitable for agricultural use.
2) Resmethrin
Approximately 20 times more effective than pyrethrum in housefly knock down, and is not
synergized to any appreciable extent with pyrethrum synergists.
3) Bioresmethrin
It is stereoisomer of resmethrin. Appeared in 1967 and 50 times more effective than pyrethrum
against normal (susceptible to insects) houseflies, and also not synergized with pyrethrum
synergists. Both resmethrin & Bioresmethrin decompose fairly rapidly on exposure to air &
sunlight, so never developed for agricultural use.
Trade name: NRDC-107, FMC –18739, and RU-1148
4) Bioallethrin (d-trans –allethrin) introduced in 1969. More potent than allethrin and readily
synergized, but it is not as effective as resmethrin.
Third generation: Third generation pyrethroids do not decompose in sunlight and contain some
of the most powerful insecticides known. Third generation pyrethoids are not highly toxic to
people or other mammals mainly because they decompose rapidly in the body.
5) Fenvalerate:
It is contact insecticide and of broad spectrum in nature. It is stable in sunlight and has longer
residual toxicity.
Trade names: Fenvel, Bilfen, Belmark, Sumicidin, Pydrin
6) Permethrin:
Contact insecticide, light stable, but poor knock down. First agricultural pyrethroids because of
their exceptional insecticidal activity (0.11 kg a.i/ha) and their photo stability.
Trade names: Ambush , pounce , pramex
Fourth generation: Offer the most resistance to exposure to sunlight and air and, therefore, are
more persistent. This group is more toxic to people than other pyrethroids and therefore requires
more care in use. More stable in the environment.
7) Cyhalothrin
Non-systemic insecticide with contact and stomach action, and repellent properties gives rapid
knockdown and long residual activity. It is an insecticide and acaricide used to control a wide
range of pests.
Trade names: Kung-Fu,Reeva, Charge, Excaliber, Grenade, Hallmark, Karate, Matador, Samurai
and Sentinel.
8) Cyfluthrin
It is a non-systemic contact and stomach poison, with rapid knock down effect. It is for control
of chewing and sucking insects on crops. Cyfluthrin is also used in public health situations and
for structural pest control.
Trade names: Contur, Laser, Responsar, Tempo
9) Cypermethrin
It is stomach and contact insecticide. It is very effective against different types of pests on
various crops.
Trade names: Cyper guard, Ripcord, Cymbush and Cyper kill
10) Fenpropathrin
It is contact insecticide and of broad spectrum in nature. It is extremely toxic to fish, wildlife and
aquatic organisms. It has acaricidal and miticidal property.
Trade names: Danitol, Rody and Meothrin
11) Flucythrinate
Flucythrinate is a synthetic pyrethroid used to control insect pests in apples, cabbage, field corn,
head lettuce and pears, and to control Heliothis spp. in cotton.
Trade names: AASTAR, AC 222705, Cybolt, Fuching Jujr, OMS 2007, and Pay-Off.
12) Decamethrin (Deltamethrin)
It is more potent than any other insecticide. It has also proved effective even against insects
resistant to conventional insecticides. It is contact and stomach insecticide.
Trade names: Decis, Decaguard, Deltex
13) Fluvalinate
It is a insecticide and acaricide with stomach and contact activity in target insects. It is used as a
broad spectrum insecticide.
Trade names: Klartan, Mavrik, Mavrik Aqua Flow, Spur and Yardex
14) Fenfluthrin: It is a very potent recent synthetic pyrethroid against a various groups of
insects and mites. Highly toxic to Daphnia (Aquatic Invertebrate)
Trade Names: Bayticol, Bayvarol, Baynac
INSECTICIDES OF OTHER GROUPS
Fixed oils are the less aromatic oils derived from plants. Oils generally work by clogging the
respiratory openings of the insect, causing suffocation. Oils are usually emulsified with water for
application. Ex: Neem oil, Citronella Oil ,Garlic oil etc. Neem oil is extracted from the tropical
neem tree, Azadirachta indica, contains insecticidal properties that are composed of a complex
mixture of biologically active compounds. Its various active ingredients act as repellents, feeding
inhibitors, egg laying deterrents, growth retardants, sterilants and direct toxins. Neem oil has
very low toxicity to mammals. The advantages of oil applications are many, like they are
inexpensive, usually result in good coverage, are simple to mix, and are safe to warm-blooded
animals. Some disadvantages of use include phytotoxicity, instability in storage, and
ineffectiveness against certain pests.
NOVEL INSECTICIDES
Neonicotinoids
They represent a novel and distinct chemical class of insecticides with remarkable chemical and
biological properties. Similar to nicotines in activity partially to structure. Imidacloprid and other
neonicotinoids interact with acetyl choline binding site of nicotinic Ach receptor which cause
excitation and eventually paralysis leading to death of insects. These are selective and safe to non
target organisms.
1) Imidacloprid:
It is the first commercial insecticide of this group which inhibits nicotinic acetylcholine by
binding with nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR).Systemic insecticide with translaminar
activity. Imidacloprid has good xylem mobility and formulated for use as seed treatment, soil and
foliar application and effective against sucking insects including leaf hoppers, plant hoppers,
aphids, thrips and whitefly, also effective against soil insects, termites. It is highly toxic to
birds.
Trade names: Confidor (foliar application), Gaucho (seed treatment), Admire, Merit, Premier,
Stalone. Tatamida, Maratho , Provado (termite control)
2) Acetamiprid: It is a systemic insecticide. The mode of action is same as imidacloprid and it is
a broadspectrum insecticide used for control of pests of vegetables, fruit trees, tea etc. Used as a
soil and foliar application against homopterans especially aphid and leafhoppers.
Trade names: Pride, Assail Intruder, Profil, Supreme
3) Thiomethoxam :
It is a broad spectrum insecticide acting against stem borers, hoppers, jassids, whiteflies, aphids,
mosquito bug, psyllids and used in crops viz., rice, cotton, wheat, mustard, okra, mango, potato,
tea and citrus etc. Contact and stomach poison with translaminar and systemic movement used
both as a seed treatment and foliar application against sucking insects . It has very strong effect
on viral transmitting insects.
Trade names: Actara, Cruiser, Crux, Flagship, Meridian, Adage, Rinova
4) Clothianidin: It is systemic and translaminar in action It shows inhibitory action on
oviposition and feeding.
Trade names: Dantop, Celeso
5) Thiacloprid: It affects transmission of nerve impulse. Used as a foliar spray against sucking
pests such as aphids, thrips, whitefly and leaf miner.
Trade names: Calypso, Bariard, Alanto
6. Dinotefuran: It is third generation nicotinyl group of insecticides acting against sucking
pests like hoppers, jassids and aphids of different crops. It is highly systemic compound.
Trade name: Dinotefuran 20% SG in the name of Osheen and Token.
7. Flonicamid: It has systemic as well as translaminar activity which gives long term control.
Flonicamid rapidly inhabits the feeding behavior of aphids. Excellent activity against major
species of aphids. It offers good persistence gives long time protection from the pest. It is also
moderately effective against whiteflies, plant hoppers, plant bugs and mealy bugs of cotton,
potato vegetables and fruit crops.
It is available with the brand name Ulala with flonicamid 50% WG in the market.
2. Phenyl pyrazoles (Fiproles):
1) Fipronil
GABA receptor is the target site for fipronil. Blockage of GABA gated chloride channel
reduces neuronal inhibition which leads to hyper excitation of the central nervous system,
convulsions and death of a target pest. Broad spectrum systemic insecticide with contact and
stomach poison activity. It is found effective against stem borer, gall midge, DBM, thrips, shoe
borers, root borer and can be used in crops viz., sugarcane, cruciferous crops cotton and rice.
Trade names: Regent, Front line,Tremidor, Zoom, Icon Tempo, Bilgran
3. Oxadiazines
Indoxacarb:
The active ingredient indoxacarb works by inhibiting sodium ion entry into nerve cells,
resulting in paralysis and death of targeted pests. Indoxacarb is a stomach poison with slight
contact action. Indoxacarb affects insects from direct exposure and through ingestion of treated
foliage/fruit. Once indoxacarb is absorbed or ingested, feeding cessation occurs almost
immediately. It kills by binding to a site on sodium channels and blocking the flow of sodium
ions into nerve cells. The result is impaired nerve function, feeding cessation, paralysis, and
death. used to control for variety of lepidoptera pests, specially against american boll worm,
Helicoverpa armigera and diamond back moth (DBM), Plutellla xylostella.
Trade names: Avaunt, [Link]
4. Thio-Urea Derivatives
Diafenthiuron is new types of thiourea derivative which acts specially on sucking pests such as
mites, whiteflies and aphids. Diafenthiuron is photochemically converted within a few hours
in sunlight to its carbodimiide derivative which is much more powerful
acaricide/insecticide than diafenthiuron. It is a inhibitor of oxidative phosphorylation, via
disruption of ATP formation (inhibitor of ATP synthesis). It acts as Acaricide cuminsecticide
as a foliar sprays against mites, sucking pests, lepidopteran insect pests
Trade names: Polo
5. Pyridine Azomethines
Pymetrozine is a new insecticide highly active and specific against sucking insect pests
(whiteflies, hoppers and aphids) and can be applied both as foliar and soil application.
Pymetrozine is the only representative of the pyridine azomethine. It has high degree of
selectivity, low mammalian toxicity and safety to birds, fish and non-target arthropods. When the
insertion of the stylets of sucking insects into the pymetrozine treated plant tissues, stylets are
almost immediately blocked. The sucking insects die by starvation a few days later (feeding
depressant)
Trade names: Full fill, Chess
6. Halogenatd Pyrroles
Pyrroles are oxidative phosphorylation inhibitors. It works by uncoupling oxidative
phosphorylation from electron transport process in mitochondria.( Oxidative
phosphorylation is the process through which ATP is synthesized in plants and animals). It
interferes with formation of ATP which is essential for muscle contraction.
1. Chlorfenapyr: It is a miticide and insecticide. Chlorfenapyr has broad spectrum of activity
against many species of Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Acarina and Thysanoptera. It is mainly
stomach poison and has contact action also. It is found effective against DBM in cabbage and
cauliflower and also against mites in chilli.
Trade names: Pirate ,Pylon
7. Diamide Group
Flubendiamide and Chlorantraniliprole are two insecticides of this group. Flubendiamide a novel
class of insecticide having a unique chemical structure used against broad spectrum of
lepidopterous insects. Ryanodine receptors are intracellular Ca2+ channels specialized for
the rapid and massive release of Ca2+ from intra cellular stores, which is an essential step
in the muscle contraction process. It has been recently registered in India under different
formulations such as 20% WG registered trade name as Takumi® & 39.35% SC with registered
trade name as Fame® which act on insect pests of rice (stem borer, leaf folder) and cotton (H.
armigera and spotted bollworm)
The other new class of chemistry of this group is Chlorantraniliprole, to be specific it belongs to
anthranilidin diamides controlling almost all economically important Lepidoptera and other
species. It has high larvicial potency and long lasting activity with new mode of action and safe
to non target insects (parasitoids, predators and pollinators). It is also used to control insects
which are found resistant to other insecticides and fits into IPM programs. It binds to insect
ryanodine receptors in muscle cells causing the channel to open and release Ca2+ ions from
internal stores into cytoplasm and because of depletion of calcium it causes paralysis and
death. It is registered in India in 2009.
Trade names: Coragen and Ferterra.
8. Ouinazoline Group
Acaricide, Fenazaquin belongs to quinazoline group. It inhibits mitochondrial electron
transport chain by binding with complex I at co-enzymes site Q. In India, it is registered as
Fenazaquin 10% EC and sold as Magister which proved to be effective against mites in tea and
chilli.
9. Formamidines
Formamidines are represented by Chlordimeform and Amitraz with very unique actions for the
control of phytophagous mites, ticks and certain insects (Lepidoptera and Hemiptera) by acting
as agonists of octapamine receptors octapamine act as neurotransmitter, neuromodulator
and is involved in energy metabolism and stress responses.
1. Chlordimeform:It has marked translaminar and systemic activity. It shows a strong repellent
antifeedant action on both lepidopterous larvae and mites. It has good ovicidal activity. Non
toxic to non target organisms except predaceous mites.
Trade names: Galecron, Fundal, Fundal, Spike
2. Amitraz:It is a non systemic insecticide and acaricide with contact and respiratory action It is
used to control red spider mites, leaf miners, scale insects, and aphids.
Trade names: Acarac, Amitraze,Baam
10. Ketoenols (Tetronic Acid Derivatives)
Ketoenols act as insecticide and acaricides against against all developmental stages and is a
valuable new tool in the resistance management. They are tetronic acid insecticides with
acaricidal action. Their mode of action is to inhibit lipogenesis in treated insects, resulting in
decreased lipid contents, growth inhibition of younger insects, and reduced ability of adult
insects to reproduce.
1. Spiromesifen:
Spiromesifen is effective against whitefly, spider mites and psyllids. It is particularly active
against juvenile stages. However, it also strongly affects fecundity of mite (and whitefly adults
by transovariole effects.
Trade names: Oberon, Forbid
2. Spirodiclofen:
Spirodiclofen is a selective, non-systemic foliar insecticide and acaricide. It is effective against
mites and sanjose scales.
Trade names: Envidor
3. Spirotetramat:
Spirotetramat is effective against aphids, whiteflies, scales, mealybugs, psylla, phylloxera, thrips,
and mites on crops like citrus, vegetables, grapes, potato, other tuberous crops, livestock
commodities, and greenhouses/nurseries.
Trade names: Movento, Ultor
11. Sulfite Ester Group
Propargite an acaricide belongs to this group. It kills mites through inhibition of oxidative
phosphorylation i.e this compound act as disruptors of ATP formation. It is highly effective
against phytophagous mites viz., red spider mite, pink mite, purple mite, scarlet mite in tea,
yellow mite in chilli and European red mite & two spotted mite in apple and available in liquid
formulation as 57% EC in market as Omite.
12. Carbazate Acaricide
It is selective acaricide that controls spider mite. These compounds are neuroactive but it’s exact
mode of action is unclear. It paralyses the mites suggesting that it may act on nervous system of
mites. In the market it is available by trade name Bifenazate with Trade name Floramite.
13. Pyridazinones Acaricide
This class of acaricide is very effective against red spider mites and two spotted mites. It inhabits
mitochondrial electron transport. It affects respiratory chain also. In the market it is available
with active in gradient Fenpyroximate with trade name Mitigate.
INSECT GROWTH REGULATORS
A. Benzoyl Urea
The insecticides of this group are Novaluron and Lufenuron. Novaluron is new Insect Growth
Regulator. It is powerful toxicant for controlling lepidopteran larvae. It acts by both ingestion as
well as contact. It has got translaminar effect. It is quiet safe for beneficial insects and natural
parasites and predators. It is available with the name of Rimon and Signa in the market.
B. Thiadiazines
This is Chitin synthesis inhibitor. It prevents proper formation of exoskeleton after molting. It is
effective against homoperean insects such as hoppers, Jassids and white fly. In the market
Buprofezin active ingredient available with trade name Applaud.
MACROCYCLIC LACTONES (New Insecticides from Microorganisms)
1. Spinosyns - Spinosad
The extract of the fermentation broth that contains spinosad is produced by the microorganism,
Saccharopolyspora spinosa. The primary components are spinosyn A and spinosyn D.
Spinosad kills insects by causing rapid excitation by activation of nicotinic acetylcholine
receptors of the insect nervous system, leading to involuntary muscle contractions, prostration
with tremors, and paralysis. It also effects GABA receptor functioning. Spinosad is a contact and
stomach poison with some translaminar movement in leaf tissue. Effective againt stem borer,
leaf folder (Rice), DBM (Cabbage), H. armigera, S. litura, Earias spp (Cotton), Termites, early
shoot borer, top borer in sugarcane and yellow stem borer, leaf folder in rice, respectively.
Trade names: Tracer, Spintor, Precise, Success, Naturalyte, Laser, Credence Caribstar,
Boomerang, and Conserve
2. Avermectins:
Avermectins form a new class of compounds having nematicidal, miticidal and insecticidal
activity. These are produced by the soil microorganism Streptomyces avermitilis. Avermectins
activate the GABA gated chloride channel, causing an inhibitory effect, which, when
excessive, results in the insect’s death. This channel normally blocks reactions in some nerves,
preventing excess stimulation of CNS. Emamectin benzoate and abamectin are the two major
compounds in this group. .contact and stomach poisons. These are used as bait, foliar application
against Homoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, Lepidoptera and mites
Emamectin benzoate: It is non systemic insecticide which penetrates by translaminar
movement and effective against Lepidopterous pests It has low toxicity to non target organisms
and environment.
Trade names: Proclaim
Abamectin:
It is a broad spectrum insecticide acting on mites of Tetranychidae, Eeriophyidae and
Tarsonemidae. It is also effective against tobacco hornworm, diamondback moth, tobacco
budworm, serpentine leaf miner and less potent against certain Homoptera (aphids) and
Lepidoptera. It is less toxic to beneficial arthropods
Trade names: Avid, Agrimec, Vertimec, Argi-mek, Affirm and Avert
INSECT GROWTH REGULATORS (Hormonal Control)
Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs) are compounds which interfere with the growth, development
and metamorphosis of insects. IGRs include synthetic analogues of insect hormones such as
ecdysoids and juvenoids and non-hormonal compounds such as precocenes (Anti JH) and chitin
synthesis inhibitors.
Insect growth and development are controlled by three principal hormones namely
1. Brain hormone: The are also called activation hormone (AH). AH is secreted by neuro
secretory cells (NSC) which are neurons of central nervous system (CNS). It’s role is to activate
the corpora allata to produce juvenile hormone (JH).
2. Juvenile hormone (JH): Also called neotenin. It is a terpene secreted by corpora allata which
are paired glands present behind insect brain. Wigglesworth (1936) showed that JH inhibits
metamorphosis and stimulates ovarian development. Their role is to keep the larva in juvenile
condition. JH 0, JH I, JH II and JH III have been identified in different groups of insects. The
concentration of JH decreases as the larva grows and reaches pupal stage. JH 0, I and II are
found in larva while JH III is found in adult insects and are important for development of ovary
in adult females.
3. Ecdysone or Moulting hormone (MH): Ecdysone is a steroid and is secreted by Prothoracic
Glands (PTG) present near prothoracic spiracles. Moulting in insects is brought about only in the
presence of ecdysone. Ecdysone level decreases and is altogether absent in adult insects.
Ecdysone is not the active moulting hormone. Various tissues, including fat body convert
ecdysone to 20-hydroxyecodysone, the active form of moulting hormone. The cells of the
epidermis respond to 20-hydroxyedysone with initiation of the process of moulting. Cholesterol
acts as the precursor for ecdysone synthesis.
IGRS USED IN PEST MANAGEMENT
Ecdysone or Moulting Hormone (MH) Agonists:
MH contains two hormones, α -Ecdysone and ß - Ecdysone. The α- ecdysone is a prohormone
produced by PTG which is converted into ß - ecdysone in the peripheral tissues of the gland and
is also called 20-Hydroxy Ecdysone, which actually brings about molting in insects and is the
true MH. Synthetic analogues of ecdysones are called ecdysoids. After absorption into
haemolymph it binds the ecdysone receptor proteins which initiate moulting process.
When applied in insects, kill them by formation of defective cuticle. The normal moulting
process is disrupted. The development processes are accelerated by passing several normal
events resulting in integument lacking scales or wax layer. Thus, larvae will die due to
dehydration and starvation.
Example: Tebufenozide (Mimic, Confirm and Romdan), Halofenozide (Mach),
Methoxyfenozide (Prodigy)
The ecdysterone isolated from the mature stem of Diploclisia glaucescens showed insecticidal
activity against the groundnut aphid.
b) Juvenoids (JH mimics): They are synthetic analogues of Juvenile Hormone (JH). They are
most promising as hormonal insecticides. JH mimics were first identified by Williams and
Slama in the year 1966. They found that the paper towel kept in a glass jar used for rearing a
Pyrrhocoris bug caused the bug to die before reaching adult stage. They named the factor from
the paper as ‘Paper factor’ or ‘juvabione’. They found that the paper was manufactured from
the wood pulp of balsam fir tree (Abies balsamea) which contained the JH mimic.
The possibility that JH analogs may have potential as insect control was first recognized by
Williams (1965). Four types of JHs (JH= 0, I, II, and III) are known with their structural
variations. JH-0 is known from the eggs of Manduca sexta only. JH-I & JH-II are from all
lepidopterans and are said to be morphogenetic in action i.e to retain the larval characters. JH-III
present in all insect orders and are said to be gonad tropic i.e. for stimulating the ovaries to
mature in the female.
Mode of Action:
i) Antimorphic effect: Do not allow Metamorphosis to take palace there by forcing larva to
continue as a larva. They retain status quo in insects (larva remains larva). Therefore if the
Juvenoids are provided exogenously the larvae will undergo an extra larval moult (change in to
super larva) or moult in to defective intermediate forms (larval-pupal and pupal-adult) which
may suffer from a failure to successfully moult, feed or mate and ultimately which cause death of
insects.
ii) Larvicidal effect
iii) Ovicidal effect.
iv) Diapause disrupting effect
v) Embryogenesis inhibiting effect.
Juvenoids acts as ovicides when applied directly on eggs and indirectly on ovipositing females.
They block embryogenic development of blastokinesis stage. When applied before hatching,
they show morphogentic effect at the time of metamorphosis. If applied to the last instar larvae,
they could prevent pupa from entering in to diapause. They could terminate pupal diapause by
activating the inactive PTG of dipausing pupa.
Juvenoids Ex:
 Juvabione (Fernesol - extracted from excreta of Tenebrio sp)
 Methoprene (Altosid ): first commercial product used for control mosquitoe.
 Hydroprene (Gentrol, Altozar)
 Kinoprene (Enstar)
Methoprene is a JH mimic and is useful in the control of larva of horn fly, stored tobacco Pests,
green house homopterans, red ants, leaf mining flies of vegetables and flowers
c) Anti JH or JH Agonist or Precocene: They act by destroying corpora allata and preventing
JH synthesis. These compounds induce the precocious metamorphosis of immature [Link]
treated on immature stages of insect; they skip one or two larval instars and turn into tiny
precocious adults. They can neither mate, nor oviposit and die soon.
These compounds first extracted from the plant Ageratum houstonium. It contains two simple
chromene compounds precocene –I and II.
• Fenoxycarb (Insegar 50 % WP, Award, Comply Logic, Torus, Pictyl and Varikill) @
0.025 %.
It is registered for the control of several fruit pests such as grape moths, plum moth and codling
[Link] pest are Blatellidae, Coccoidae, Culicidae, Lepidoptera, Psyllidae, ants.
• Pyriproxyfen (Tiger 10 % EC, Distance, Esteem, Archer Knack, Sumilarv and Admiral) @
0.0125 %. It has proveed effective against a number of ucking pests including whitefly, red scale
and cottony cushion [Link] pest are Blatellidae, Coccoidae, Diptera and Siphonaptera.
d) Chitin Synthesis inhibitors: Chitin synthesis inhibitors disrupt molting by blocking the
formation of chitin, the building block of insect exoskeleton. Without the ability to synthesize
chitin, molting is incomplete, resulting in malformed insects that soon die. It suppresses egg
laying and causes egg sterility in treated adults through secondary hormonal activity. Benzoyl
phenyl ureas have been found to have the ability of inhibiting chitin synthesis in vivo by
blocking the activity of the enzyme chitin synthase.
The effects they produce on insects include
• Disruption of moulting
• Failure to feed due to displacement of mandibles and labrum
• Adult fails to escape from pupal skin and dies
• Ovicidal effect.
Chitin synthesis inhibitors have been registered for use in many countries and used successfully
against pests of soybean, cotton, apple, fruits, vegetables, forest trees and mosquitoes and pests
of stored grain.
Advantages: Low mamalion toxicity, environmentally compatible
IGRS from Neem : Leaf and seed extracts of neem which contains azadirachtin as the active
ingredient, when applied topically causes growth inhibition, mortality and reduced fecundity in
insects.
Hormone mimics from other living organisms: Ecdysoids from plants (Phytoecdysones) have
been reported from plants like mulberry, ferns and conifers. Juvenoids have been reported from
yeast, fungi, bacteria, protozoans, higher animals and plants.
Advantages of Using IGRs
• Effective in minute quantities and so are economical
• Target specific and so safe to natural enemies
• Bio-degradable, non-persistent and non-polluting
• Non-toxic to humans, animals and plants
Disadvantages
• Juvinoids affect only the last larval instar so that the earlier instars could continue to cause
damage
• Slow mode of action
• Since they are chemicals possibility of build-up of resistance
• Unstable in the environment