UNIT 1

INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS THAT DEFINED SOCIETY

1.1 Introduction

The development of science and scientific ideas in the heart of the society shall be discussed in this
lesson. The target is to articulate ways by which society is transformed by science and technology.

1.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

1. discuss how the ideas postulated by Copernicus, Darwin, and Freud contributed to the spark of
scientific revolution;
2. analyze how scientific revolution is done in various parts of the world like in Latin America, East Asia,
Middle East, and Africa.

1.3 Lesson 1 SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

How can science be defined if it is as old as the world itself. There is no individual that can exactly identify
when and where science began.

1. Science as an idea
 ideas, theories, and all available systematic explanations and observations about the natural and
physical world.
2. Science as an intellectual activity
 encompasses a systematic and practical study of the natural and physical world. This process of study
involves systematic observation and experimentation.
3. Science as a body of knowledge
 a discipline that deals with the process of learning about the natural and physical world. It is referred
as the school of science.
4. Science as a personal and social activity both knowledge and activities done by human beings to develop
better understanding of the world, a way to improve and survive in life.
The idea of scientific revolution

 Claimed to have started in the early 16th century up to the 18th century in Europe
 It was in Europe probably because of the invention of printing machine, the blooming intellectual activities
done in various places of learning, and the growing number of scholars in various fields of human
interests. All great civilizations of the ancient world had their own sophisticated traditions and activities
related to these disciplines.
 It was the period of enlightenment when the development in the fields of mathematics, physics,
astronomy, biology, and chemistry transformed the views of society about nature. It explained the
emergence or birth of modern science which enabled the people to reflect, rethink, and reexamine their
beliefs and way of life.
 The golden age for people committed to scholarly life in science but it was also a deeply trying moment
to some scientific individuals that led to their painful death or condemnation from the religious institutions
who tried to preserve their faith, religion, and theological views.
 It led to the creation of new research fields in science and prompted the establishment of a strong
foundation for modern science.

1.4 Lesson 2 SOME INTELLECTUALS AND THEIR REVOLUTIONARY IDEAS

NICOLAUS COPERNICUS

 a Polish astronomer known as the father of modern astronomy. He was the first modern
European scientist to propose that Earth and other planets revolve around the sun, or the
Heliocentric Theory of the universe in 1543.
 Copernicus argued that the Earth turned daily on its axis and that gradual shifts of this
axis accounted for the changing seasons.
 born on February 19, 1473 in Torun, Royal Prussia, Poland.
 By 1514, his reputation as an astronomer was such that he was consulted by church
leaders attempting to reform the Julian calendar.
[Link]

CHARLES DARWIN

 Charles Robert Darwin, (born February 12, 1809, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England—died April 19,
1882, Downe, Kent), is an English naturalist whose scientific theory of evolution by natural
selection became the foundation of modern evolutionary studies.

 His book On the Origin of Species (1859) has deeply influenced modern Western society and thought.
 Darwin encouraged to tackle the larger questions of life through a study of invertebrate zoology, made
his own observations on the larval sea mat (Flustra) and announced his findings at the student
societies.

Notable Works

“The Formation of Vegetable Mold, Through the Action of Worms”

“The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication”

“The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals”

“The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species”

“Origin of Species”

“The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex”

“On the Various Contrivances by Which British and Foreign Orchids Are Fertilised by Insects”

“The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom”

[Link]

SIGMUND FREUD

 Subject of study – human sexual activity, primitive culture, personality, dream

 Founder of psychoanalysis
 Psychoanalytic Theory - By encouraging the patient to express any random thoughts that came
associatively to mind, the technique aimed at uncovering hitherto unarticulated material from the
realm of the psyche that Freud, following a long tradition, called the unconscious.
 To spell out the formative development of the sexual drive, Freud focused on the progressive
replacement of erotogenic zones in the body by others. An originally polymorphous sexuality first
seeks gratification orally through sucking at the mother’s breast, an object for which other surrogates
can later be provided. Initially unable to distinguish between self and breast, the infant soon comes
to appreciate its mother as the first external love object. Later Freud would contend that even before
that moment, the child can treat its own body as such an object, going beyond undifferentiated
autoeroticism to a narcissistic love for the self as such. After the oral phase, during the second year,
the child’s erotic focus shifts to its anus, stimulated by the struggle over toilet training.
 During the anal phase, the child’s pleasure in defecation is confronted with the demands of self-
control. The third phase, lasting from about the fourth to the sixth year, he called the phallic. Because
Freud relied on male sexuality as the norm of development, his analysis of this phase aroused
considerable opposition, especially because he claimed its major concern is castration anxiety.
 Oedipus complex presents the child with a critical problem for the unrealizable yearning at its root
provokes an imagined response on the part of the father: the threat of castration.
 The phallic stage can only be successfully surmounted if the Oedipus complex with its accompanying
castration anxiety can be resolved. According to Freud, this resolution can occur if the boy finally
suppresses his sexual desire for the mother, entering a period of so-called latency, and internalizes
the reproachful prohibition of the father, making it his own with the construction of that part of the
psyche Freud called the superego or the conscience.
 through latency to the mature sexuality he called the genital phase.

[Link]

1.5 Lesson 3 DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN MESOAMERICA

Mesoamerican Civilization,
 The complex of indigenous cultures that developed in parts of Mexico and Central America prior to
Spanish exploration and conquest in the 16th century. In the organization of its kingdoms and empires, the
sophistication of its monuments and cities, and the extent and refinement of its intellectual accomplishments,
the Mesoamerican civilization, along with the comparable Andean civilization farther south, constitutes a New
World counterpart to those of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China.

Who were the Maya and the origin of their name

The Maya are a series of indigenous people in Mexico and Central America. Although often
mistakenly thought to have long died out, their ancestors still inhabit much of the lands we now refer to as
Yucatan, Quintana Roo, Campeche, Tabasco, and Chiapas in Mexico and southward through Guatemala,
Belize, El Salvador and Honduras.

The term Maya derives from the last Capital City of one the oldest known civilizations, the Mayan Kingdom
(in the Post-Classical Period 900-1519 AD), in Yucatan called Mayapan. Although we know them as the
Maya's surviving descendants, these people prefer to call themselves the Quiche or Yucatec depending on
whether they live in the North or South of the lands that once comprised the old Mayan Kingdom.

Here are just a few examples of what the Mayans contributed to the world as well as some major Mayan
achievements.

1. The Mayan's developed the concept of zero independently

"The Indian [or numerical] zero, widely seen as one of the greatest innovations in human history, is the
cornerstone of modern mathematics and physics, plus the spin-off technology," said Peter Gobets, secretary
of the ZerOrigIndia Foundation, or the Zero Project.

Whatever the case, the modern concept of 'zero' was well defined by 628 AD by the great Brahmagupta. It
did not arrive in Europe until around the 12th Century.

Amazingly the Mayans were able to develop their own concept of 'zero' at least 100 years earlier than in
India, in about 350 AD.

Mayan Numerical system. Source: Immanuel Giel/Wikimedia Commons

2. The Mayans were the first to vulcanize rubber and play football and basketball (sort of)

Although it is widely acknowledged that rubber did not become useful until one Charles Goodyear developed
the vulcanization process in around 1840, this might not be entirely true.

3. The Mayans invented Chocolate

Everybody's favorite confectionery, Chocolate, was developed very early on in Mayan culture. They were
able to develop a form of drink that was made from smashed cocoa beans that was so prized that it was often
used as a form of currency.

Source: Pixabay

4. The Mayans developed an advanced language and writing system as well as books

Their glyphs were used much like those of Ancient Egypt, to represent words, sounds, and syllables through
the use of pictures and other symbols. Historians believe that the Mayans used around 700 glyphs to do this
and, incredibly, 80% of their language can still be understood by their descendants today.

Source: Bibliothèque Nacionale de France/Wikimedia Commons

5. The Fabled Mayan Calendar: Their most famous invention

Amongst their most famous inventions is the fabled Mayan Calender (the one that was supposed to
predict the end of the world in 2012). It was pretty sophisticated and, like any decent calendar, records
repetitive cycles of time based on the movements of the Sun, Moon, and Planets.

Source: aztecandmayan

6. Mayan astronomy was incredibly accurate

As we have seen, the Haab year is 365 days but it seems they knew this was a tiny bit off. According to
deciphered records, it appears that they had calculated an Earth tropical year to be about 365.242 days which
is very close to the modern 365.2425 that is used as part of the Gregorian year. Mayan astronomers also
noticed that 81 lunar months lasted 2392 days expressing a lunar month as 29.5308 days. Modern-day

estimates are 29.53059 days.

7. Mayan art was both beautiful and ominous

Mayan artists tended to make good use of materials including wood, jade, obsidian, earthenware production,
etched stone landmarks, bone, shells stucco and finely painted wall paintings and textiles. Although rarely
preserved, it would also appear they were very fond of woodcutting.

Source: Adam and Tess/Flickr

8. Mayan Medicine was surprisingly advanced

For the Mayans, health and ill-health was a matter of balance and imbalance. Balance equaled health and
imbalance sickness.
9. Mayan agriculture was highly advanced for the time

Although somewhat limited by their geographical location and local plant species, Mayan farmers were expert
agriculturists. Their main crop staples included Corn (maize) but they also cultivated beans and squash,
which were often grown together with corn to provide mutual support for each crop.

Adapted from: Pixabay

Via: [Link], [Link], [Link]

[Link]

INCA, also spelled Inka, are South American Indians who, at the time of the Spanish conquest in 1532, ruled
an empire that extended along the Pacific coast and Andean highlands from the northern border of
modern Ecuador to the Maule River in central Chile.

INCA CONTRIBUTIONS:

1. roads paved with stones

2. stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters
3. irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all types of land
4. calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for planting season
5. the first suspension bridge
6. quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret; and
7. inca textiles since cloth was one of the specially prized artistic achievements
[Link]

AZTECS are best known as a violent people who expanded their empire through ruthless warfare. They also
had a reputation for making human sacrifices in elaborate rituals -- that often involved the removal of
beating hearts -- to appease their many gods. While these practices were certainly true, the culture also gave
birth to elaborate crafts, a highly organized system of government and a language -- Nahuatl -- that's still
spoken by a million people.

Aztecs contributions:
1. mandatory education
2. chocolates
3. antispasmodic medication
4. chinampa
5. Aztec calendar
6. invention of the canoe
DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN ASIA

16 Significant Science and Tech Discoveries Ancient India Gave the World

“We owe a lot to the ancient Indians, teaching us how to count. Without which most modern scientific
discoveries would have been impossible.” – Albert Einstein

Here is a list of 16 contributions, made by ancient Indians to the world of science and technology, that will
make you feel proud to be an Indian.

1. The Idea of Zero

Little needs to be written about the mathematical digit ‘zero’, one of the most important inventions of all time.
Mathematician Aryabhata was the first person to create a symbol for zero and it was through his efforts that
mathematical operations like addition and subtraction started using the digit, zero. The concept of zero and
its integration into the place-value system also enabled one to write numbers, no matter how large, by using
only ten symbols.

2. The Decimal System

India gave the ingenious method of expressing all numbers by means of ten symbols – the decimal system.
In this system, each symbol received a value of position as well as an absolute value.

3. Numeral Notations

Indians, as early as 500 BCE, had devised a system of different symbols for every number from one to nine.
This notation system was adopted by the Arabs who called it the Hindu numerals.

4. Fibbonacci Numbers

The Fibonacci numbers and their sequence first appeared in Indian mathematics
as mātrāmeru, mentioned by Pingala in connection with the Sanskrit tradition of prosody.

5. Binary Numbers

Binary numbers is the basic language in which computer programs are written. Binary basically refers to a
set of two numbers, 1 and 0, the combinations of which are called bits and bytes.

6. Chakravala method of Algorithms

The chakravala method is a cyclic algorithm to solve indeterminate quadratic equations, including the Pell’s
equation. This method for obtaining integer solutions was developed by Brahmagupta, one of the well-known
mathematicians of the 7th century CE.

7. Ruler Measurements

Excavations at Harappans sites have yielded rulers or linear measures made from ivory and shell. Marked
out in minute subdivisions with amazing accuracy, the calibrations correspond closely with
the hasta increments of 1 3/8 inches, traditionally used in the ancient architecture of South India

8. A Theory of Atom

One of the notable scientists of the ancient India was Kanad who is said to have devised the atomic theory
centuries before John Dalton was born. He speculated the existence of anu or a small indestructible particles,
much like an atom. He also stated that anu can have two states — absolute rest and a state of motion. He
further held that atoms of same substance combined with each other in a specific and synchronized manner
to produce dvyanuka (diatomic molecules) and tryanuka (triatomic molecules).

9. The Heliocentric Theory

Mathematicians of ancient India often applied their mathematical knowledge to make accurate astronomical
predictions. The most significant among them was Aryabhatta, whose book, Aryabhatiya, represented the
pinnacle of astronomical knowledge at the time.

10. Wootz Steel

A pioneering steel alloy matrix developed in India, Wootz steel is a crucible steel characterized by a pattern
of bands that was known in the ancient world by many different names such as Ukku, Hindwani and Seric
Iron.

11. Smelting of Zinc

India was the first to smelt zinc by the distillation process, an advanced technique derived from a long
experience of ancient alchemy.

12. Seamless Metal Globe

Considered one of the most remarkable feats in metallurgy, the first seamless celestial globe was made in
Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in the reign of the Emperor Akbar.

13. Plastic Surgery

The Sushruta Samhita ’s most well-known contribution to plastic surgery is the reconstruction of the nose,
known also as rhinoplasty.

14. Cataract Surgery

The first cataract surgery is said to have been performed by the ancient Indian physician Sushruta, way back
in 6th century BCE. To remove the cataract from the eyes, he used a curved needle, Jabamukhi Salaka, to
loosen the lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision. healed completely. Sushruta’s surgical works
were later translated to Arabic language and through the Arabs, his works were introduced to the West.

15. Ayurveda

Long before the birth of Hippocrates, Charaka authored a foundational text, Charakasamhita, on the ancient
science of Ayurveda.

16. Iron-Cased Rockets

The first iron-cased rockets were developed in the 1780s by Tipu Sultan of Mysore who successfully used
these rockets against the larger forces of the British East India Company during the Anglo-Mysore Wars.

History of science and technology in China

The history of science and technology in China is both long and rich with science and technological
contribution. In antiquity, independent of Greek philosophers and other civilizations, ancient Chinese
philosophers made significant advances in science, technology, mathematics, and astronomy. The first
recorded observations of comets, solar eclipses, and supernovae were made in China.[1]

Traditional Chinese medicine acupuncture and herbal medicine were also practiced.

Among the earliest inventions were the abacus, the "shadow clock," and the first flying machines such as
kites and Kongming lanterns. The four Great Inventions of ancient China– the compass, gunpowder, paper
making, and printing, were among the most important technological advances, only known in Europe by the
end of the Middle Ages. The Tang dynasty (618 - 906 C.E.) in particular was a time of great innovation. A
good deal of exchange occurred between Western and Chinese discoveries up to the Qing Dynasty.
Early scientific and technological achievements

 One of the oldest longstanding contributions of the ancient Chinese are in Traditional Chinese medicine,
including acupuncture and herbal medicine, derived from Daoist philosophy.
 The practice of acupuncture can be traced as far back as the first millennium B.C.E.
 Seismograph, an urn-like instrument, which would drop one of eight balls to indicate when and in which
direction an earthquake had occurred.
 abacus which was invented sometime between 1000 B.C.E. and 500 B.C.E.
 The most ancient of all astronomical instruments was the simple vertical pole. With this, one could
measure the length of the sun’s shadow by day to determine the solstices and the transits of stars by
night to observe the revolution of the sidereal year.
 Already under the Shang dynasty (1765-1122 B.C.E.), the Chinese were casting shadows with the help
of a gnomon in relation to divination.
 The sundial that was much used during the Han Dynasty is clearly mentioned in the first century.
 The Chinese were able to record observations, documenting the first solar eclipse in 2137 B.C.E., and
making the first recording of any planetary grouping in 500 B.C.E.
 The Book of Silk was the first definitive atlas of comets, written c. 400 B.C.E. It listed 29 comets (referred
to as broom stars) that appeared over a period of about 300 years, with renderings of comets describing
an event its appearance corresponded to.
 The first bridge recorded in Chinese history is the boat bridge over the river Weishui as ordered by King
Wen of the Zhou dynasty 3000 years ago. The first record of a stone bridge goes back to the Han dynasty.
Stone-arch bridges made their appearance around 250 B.C.E. Famous bridges are the admired Anji
bridge, built with one arch under the Sui dynasty (581-618), the Lugou Marco Polo bridge built during the
Kin dynasty (1038-1227), the Jewel belt bridge, with 53 spans, built a Suzhou during the Tang dynasty.
The beam bridge has the longest history in bridge engineering whether in China or elsewhere. It can be
mentioned for example, the Luoyang bridge built during the Northern Song dynasty (960-1127) with a
total length of 834 meter and a seven-meter-wide deck for traffic.
 The Eastern Han Dynasty scholar and astronomer Zhang Heng (78-139 C.E.) invented the first water-
powered rotating armillary sphere (the first armillary sphere however was invented by
the Greek Eratosthenes), and catalogued 2500 stars and over 100 constellations. In 132, he invented the
first seismological detector, called the "Houfeng Didong Yi" ("Instrument for inquiring into the wind and
the shaking of the earth"). According to the History of Later Han Dynasty (25-220 C.E.), this seismograph
was an urn-like instrument, which would drop one of eight balls to indicate when and in which direction
an earthquake had occurred. On June 13, 2005, Chinese seismologists announced that they had created
a replica of the instrument.
 Sliding calipers were invented in China almost 2000 years ago. The Chinese civilization was the first
civilization to succeed in exploring with aviation, with the kite and Kongming lantern (proto Hot air balloon)
being the first flying machines.

The Four Great Inventions of ancient China

The "Four Great Inventions of ancient China" are the compass, gunpowder, papermaking, and printing. Paper
and printing were developed first. Printing was recorded in China in the Tang Dynasty, although the earliest
surviving examples of printed cloth patterns date to before 220. Pinpointing the development of the compass
can be difficult: the magnetic attraction of a needle is attested by the Louen-heng, composed between 20
and 100 C.E., although the first undisputed magnetized needles in Chinese literature appear in 1086.

Printing, gunpowder and the compass: These three have changed the whole face and state of things
throughout the world; the first in literature, the second in warfare, the third in navigation; whence have followed
innumerable changes, in so much that no empire, no sect, no star seems to have exerted greater power and
influence in human affairs than these mechanical discoveries.

For the eleventh century invention of ceramic movable type printing by Bi Sheng (990-1051), it was enhanced
by the wooden movable type of Wang Zhen in 1298 and the bronze metal movable type of Hua Sui in 1490.

MIDDLE EAST COUNTRIES

In this lesson, you will learn about some of the history and more contemporary contributions coming out of
the Middle East or thanks to Middle Eastern inventors.

Middle East Early Contributions

The Middle East is an area of the world that includes many countries such as Turkey, Israel, Saudi Arabia,
Iran, and Iraq. Throughout its history, these people have either invented or contributed to the development
of important technologies that have impacted the fields of astronomy, medicine, and much more.

For example, one of the world's most famous polymaths, someone who was really great at many different
subject areas, was Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf ash-Shami al-Asadi. He was born in Damascus, now
located in Syria, in 1526. His knowledge and observations contributed much to the field of astronomy,
including how to find the coordinates of stars, how steam can be used to rotate a rudimentary steam turbine,
and important properties related to vision, such as reflection and refraction.

Let's go over some other technological developments that arose in the Middle East or thanks to people who
were born there.

Gas Lasers and CSI

Ali Javan is an Iranian-born physicist who was the co-inventor of the gas laser. Here, an electric current
moves through a gas in order to produce a light. One such type of laser is known as the carbon dioxide laser.
This gas laser is used in everything from industrial cutting and welding to laser surgery.

Iranian-born medical engineer Tofy Mussivand has invented a device that's able to extract and analyze DNA
from just a single skin cell. How could this be important? Well, for one, it could greatly enhance a crime scene
investigator's ability to identify a possible suspect in a murder-case, where all they may have to go on is a
single skin cell.

Endoscopy, Iron Dome, & ReWalk

In Israel, medical engineers developed capsule endoscopy, which is the visual examination of the digestive
tract via a pill-like device. This has given doctors and patients a much easier way to detect problems or the
causes of problems in the digestive tract, like pain in the abdomen, bleeding from the abdominal tract, as well
as tumors.
 UNIT 2

SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND NATION BUILDING

2.1 Introduction

This lesson will discuss the influence of science and technology in the development of the Philippine
society. It identifies government programs, projects, and policies geared toward boasting the science and
technological capacity of the country. This lesson will also include discussions on Philippine indigenous
science and technology.

2.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

1. discuss the role of science and technology in Philippine nation-building;

2. evaluate government policies pertaining to science and technology in terms of their contributions to nation-
building; and

3. identify actual science and technology policies of the government and appraise their impact on the
development of the Filipino nation.

2.3 LESSON 1 BRIEF HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN

THE PHILIPPINES

The history of science and technology in the Philippines started way back before the country gained
its independence from the American colonizers. The early inhabitants had their own culture and traditions,
belief system, and indigenous knowledge system that keeps them organized and sustained their lives and
communities for many years.

Science in pre-Spanish Philippines

 scientific knowledge is observed in planting crops, taking care of animals, food production, and
medicinal uses of plants
 technology is used by people in building houses, irrigations, developing tools that they can use in
everyday life: planting, hunting, cooking, fishing, transportation, for fighting their enemies, and
creating musical instruments
  metal age, through different archeological artifacts, had a significant influence on the lives of early
Filipinos, trading with China, Indonesia, Japan, and other nearby countries influenced their lives by
providing different opportunities for cultural and technological exchange.

Spanish era
 established schools for boys and girls, beginning of formal science and technology in the Philippines
 learning of science in school focuses on understanding different concepts related to the human body,
plants, animals, and heavenly bodies
 life became modernized, adapting some western technology and their ways of life
 medicine and advanced science were introduced in formal colleges and universities established by
Catholic orders
 galleon trade has brought additional technology and development in the Philippines.
 Philippines was considered one of the centers of global trade in Southeast Asia during that time,
allowed other ideas, crops, tools, cultural practices, technology, and Western practices to reach the
country.

American Era

 Americans have more influence in the development of science and technology in the Philippines
compared to the Spaniards.
 Established the public education system, improved the engineering works and the health conditions
of the people
 Established University of the Philippines and created more public hospitals than the former colonial
master
 Mineral resources were explored and exploited
 Transportation and communication systems were improved, though not accessible throughout the
country
 However, World War II has destabilized the development of the country in many ways. Institutions
and public facilities were turned into ashes, houses were burned, and many lives were destroyed.

New Republic

 Development of science and technology of the Philippines is shaped by several factors and
influences; shaped by human and social activities, both internal and external

Science and technology may have significant impact on the lives of the people and in the development of the
Philippine society. However, improving the quality of science education still remains as a big challenge in the
country. School science from basic to graduate education is improving slowly, and there are only few students
enrolling in science and technology courses.
 Internal Influences
a) Survival
b) Culture
c) Economic Activities
Development of
Science and
Technology in the
Philippines
External Influences
a) Foreign Colonizers
b) Trades with other countries
c) International Economic Demands

2.4 LESSON 2 GOVERNMENT POLICIES ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The Philippine government introduced and implemented several programs, projects, and policies to
boost the area of science and technology. The goal is to prepare the whole country and its people to meet
the demands of a technologically driven world and capacitate the people to live in a world driven by science.

The National Research Council of the Philippines (NRCP) clustered policies, namely:

a) Social Sciences, Humanities, Education, International Policies and Governance

 Integrating ASEAN awareness in basic education without adding to the curriculum

 Emphasizing teaching in the mother tongue
 Developing school infrastructure and providing for ICT broadband
 Local food security

b) Physics, Engineering and Industrial Research, Earth and Space Sciences, and Mathematics

 Emphasizing degrees, licenses, and employment opportunities

 Outright grants for peer monitoring
 Review of RA 9184
 Harnessing science and technology as an independent mover of development

c) Medical, Chemical, and Pharmaceutical Sciences

 Ensuring compliance of drug manufacturing firms with ASEAN harmonized standards by full
implementation of the Food and Drug Administration
 Creating an education council dedicated to standardization of pharmaceutical services and care
 Empowering food and drug agencies to conduct evidence -based research as pool of information
 Allocating two percent of the GDP to research
 Legislating a law supporting human genome projects

d) Biological Sciences, Agriculture, and Forestry

  Protecting and conserving biodiversity by full implementation of existing laws
 Use of biosafety and standard model by ASEAN countries
 Promoting indigenous knowledge systems and indigenous people’s conservation
 Formulation of common food and safety standards

DOST existing programs supported by the Philippine government:

1. Providing funds for basic research and patents related to science and technology, funds basic and
applied researches, from Overseas Development Aid (ODA) from different countries

2. Providing scholarships for undergraduate and graduate studies of students in the field of science and
technology.

3. Establishing more branches of the Philippine Science High School System for training young Filipinos in
the field of science and technology.

4. Creating science and technology parks to encourage academic and industry partnerships.

5. Balik Scientist Program to encourage Filipino scientist abroad to come home and work in the Philippines
or conduct research and projects in collaboration with Philippine-based scientists.

6. Developing science and technology parks in academic campuses to encourage academe and industry
partnerships.

7. The establishment of the National Science Complex and National Engineering Complex within the
University of the Philippines campus in Diliman. These aimed to develop more science and technology and
engineering manpower resources needed by the country.

The Philippine-American Academy of Science and Engineering (PAASE, 2008) identified several capacity-
building programs such as:

 Establishment of national centers of excellence

 Manpower and institutional development programs, such as the Engineering and Science Education
Program (ESEP) to produce more PhD graduates in science and engineering
 Establishment of regional centers to support specific industries that will lead the country in different
research and development areas
 Establishment of science and technology business centers to assist, advise, and incubate
technopreneurship ventures
 Strengthen science education at an early stage through the Philippine Science High School System

In the field of education, several science-related programs and projects were created to develop the scientific
literacy of the country. Special science classes were organized and special science elementary schools were
established in different regions. The current K to 12 education program included Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Mathematics

(STEM) as one of its major tracks in the senior high school program to encourage more students to enroll in
science-related fields in college.

There are many other areas and fields that the country is looking forward to embark various research and
projects, such as:

1. Use of alternative and safe energy

2. Harnessing mineral resources

3. Finding cure for various diseases and illness

4. Climate change and global warming

5. Increasing food production

6. Preservation of natural resources

7. Coping with natural disasters and calamities

8. Infrastructure development

The Philippine congress created laws which vary to different themes such as: conservation, health-related,
technology building, and supporting basic research, among others. Some laws and policies are in line with
international treaties such as

a) United Nations (UN)

b) United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)

c) Association of southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

d) other international agencies

2.5 LESSON 3 FAMOUS FILIPINOS IN THE FIELD OF SCIENCE

10 Outstanding Filipino Scientists who have made significant contributions in Philippine science,
as follows:
1. RAMON CABANOS BARBA – research on tissue culture in Philippine mangoes
2. JOSEFINO CACAS COMISO – works on observing the characteristics of Antarctica by using satellite
images
3. JOSE BEJAR CRUZ, JR. – known internationally in the field of electrical engineering
4. LOURDES JANSUY CRUZ – research on sea snail venom
5. FABIAN MILLAR DAYRIT – research on herbal medicine
6. RAFAEL DINEROS GUERRERO III – research on tilapia culture
7. ENRIQUE MAPUA OSTREA JR. – inventing the meconium drug testing
8. LILIAN FORMALEJO PATENA – research on plant biotechnology
9. MARI-JO PANGANIBAN RUIZ – outstanding educator and graph theorist
10. GREGORY LIGOT TANGONAN – research in the field of communications technology.

Other outstanding Filipino scientists:

 Caesar A. Saloma – internationally renowned physicist
 Edgardo Gomez – famous in marine science
 William Padolina – chemistry and president of National Academy of Science and Technology
(NAST) – Philippines
 Angel Alcala – marine science
 UNIT 3
Science Education in the Philippines

3.1 Introduction

The Philippines is trying its best to improve the state of science education in the country. This lesson
will discuss the concept of science education and will identify some strategies to promote science education
in the country. One of the strategies is to establish science schools that will encourage students to pursue
their career in science and technology and to nurture their gifted potentials in science.

3.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
1. discuss the concept of science education; and
2. identify science schools established to promote science education in the Philippines.

3.3 Lesson 1 The Concept of Science Education

Science education focuses on teaching, learning and understanding science.

Teaching science involves developing ways on how to effectively teach science. This means exploring
pedagogical theories and models in helping teachers teach scientific concepts and processes effectively.

Learning Science includes both pedagogy and the most interesting aspect, which is helping students
understand and love science.

Understanding Science implies developing and applying science – process skills and using science literacy
in understanding the natural world and activities in everyday life.

Getting deeper into the discourse of science education,

• John Dewey (2001) stressed the importance of utilizing the natural environment to teach students.

• Marx (1994) science is going to be one of the most important school subject in the future.

• Knight (1986) science education provides skills and knowledge that are necessary for a person to live.

• Tilghman (2005) science education describes as the age of science and to develop a citizenry that will
meet the goals of science in the society.

3.4 Lesson 2 Science Education in Basic and Tertiary Educations

Science education helps students learn important concepts and facts that are related to everyday Science
(Carale & Campo, 2003; Meador 2005; Worth & Grollman, 2003). Including important skills that are needed
in coping up with daily activities (Chaille & Britain, 2002). Science education develops positive attitude (Lind,
1997).

In tertiary education, science education deals with developing students’ understanding and appreciation of
science ideas and scientific works.

3.5 Lesson 3 Science Schools in the Philippines

Philippine Science High School (PSHSS)


government program for gifted students in the Philippines.
A


A service institute of the DOST whose mandate
is to offer free scholarships basis for secondary
course with special emphasis on subject
pertaining to the sciences with the end view of
preparing
 its students for a science career (R.A
 3661).
 
The school maintains a dormitory for students.

 
Pursue its vision
 to develop filipino science scholars with scientific minds and passion for
 excellence.


Their students brought honor to the Philippines through their exemplary achievements in
various international competitions and research circles. When the students graduates from

the school, they are expected to pursue degrees in science and technology at various
colleges and universities locally and abroad.
Special Science Elementary Schools (SSES) Project


It started in June 2007 with 57 identified
elementary schools that participated or
identified as science elementary school in the
country. Since its inception, the number have

 grown to more than 60 schools nationwide.


The school aims to develop Filipino children

equipped with scientific and  technological
knowledge, skills, and values.


SSPES mission: (1) to provide a learning environment to science related-inclined children
through a special curriculum that recognizes the multiple intelligences of the learners; (2)

to promote the development  of lifelong learning skills; and (3) to foster the holistic
development of the learners.

Utilizes different instructional approaches thataddress the learning styles and needs of the
learners like the use of investigatory projects.

Quezon City Reqional Science High School


It was established on September 17, 1967. Originally, it
was named Quezon City Science High School and turned
  high school for the National Capital
into a regional science
Region in 1999.


A product of a dream to establish a special science
school
 for talented students in science and mathematics.
 
The focus of the curriculum is on science and technology.
 
They teach courses prescribed by the Department of Education for secondary education.



The school envisions to serve as a venue in providing maximum opportunities for science-
gifted students to develop spirit of inquiry and creativity.

It is well supported by the local
government unit and by the Parents and Teachers Associations
(PTA) and is under the DepEd

Manila Science High School

  It was established on October 1, 1963.

  The first science high school in the Philippines.


The organization and the curriculum of the school
puts more emphasis on science and mathematics
with humanities courses and other electives. Also,
 the school aims to produce scientists with souls.


The school administers an entrance exam called
Manila Science High School Admission Test (MSAT)
for students who wish to enroll. The test is composed
of five parts: aptitude in science, aptitude test in math,
problem-solving test in science, problem solving in
mathematics, and proficiency in English.
 
MSHS produced outstanding alumni and won in various national competitions.


Central Visayan Institute Foundation


The home and pioneer of the prominent school-based
innovation known as Dynamic Learning Program
(DLP), which is a synthesis of classical and modern
pedagogical theories adapted to foster the highest level
 of learning, creativity and productivity.


The school takes pride in its Research Center for
Theoretical Physics (1992), that organizes small
 international workshops to foster the informal but
intense exchange of ideas perspectiveson outstanding
problems in physics and mathematics.

Philippine Science High School Eastern Visayas

Campus


It is one of the campuses of the Philippine Science
  Palo, Leyte
High School System located at Pawing,
and was established on July 4,1994.


 
A public specialized high school in the Philippines
under the Department of Science and Technology.


The students must take the admission test called

National Competitive examination before enrolling in
this school.

 UNIT 4

Indigenous Science and Technology in the Philippines

4.1 Introduction

This lesson focuses on indigenous science and technology in the Philippines. Filipinos, especially during
the early times, tried to invent tools that will help them in everyday life. They also developed alternative ideas
in explaining various phenomena and in explaining the world around them. This system of knowledge is
called indigenous knowledge, which is the foundation of indigenous science.

4.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
1. discuss the concept of indigenous science; and
2. discuss the contribution of indigenous science in the development of science technology in the
Philippines.

4.3 Indigenous Knowledge System

Indigenous knowledge is embedded in the daily life experience of young children as they grow up. They
live and grow in a society where the members of the community prominently practice indigenous knowledge.
Their parents and older folks served as their first teachers and their methods of teaching are very effective
in transmitting cultural knowledge in their minds. The lessons they learned are intimately interwoven with
their culture and the environment.

Examples of indigenous knowledge that are taught and practiced by the indigenous people are
the following:

1. Predicting weather conditions and seasons using knowledge in observing animals’ behavior and
celestial bodies;
2. Using herbal medicine;
3. Preserving foods;
4. Classifying plants and animals into families and groups based on cultural properties;
5. Preserving and selecting good seeds for planting ;
6. Using indigenous technology in daily lives;
7. Building local irrigation system;
8. Classifying different types of soil for planting based on cultural properties;
9. Producing wines and juices from tropical fruits; and
10. Keeping the custom of growing plants and vegetables in the yard.
4.4 Indigenous Science

Indigenous science is part of the indigenous knowledge system practiced by different groups of people
and early civilizations (Gribbin, 2001; Mkapa, 2004; Sibisi 2004). It includes complex arrays of knowledge,
expertise, practices, and representations that guide human societies in their enumerable interactions with the
natural milieu: agriculture, medicine, naming and explaining natural phenomena, and strategies for coping
with changing environments (Pawilen, 2005). Ogawa (1995) claimed that it is collectively lived in and
experienced by the people of a given culture.

According to Cajete (2004), indigenous science includes everything, from metaphysics to philosophy and
various practical technologies practiced by indigenous peoples both past and present. Iaccarino (2003)
elaborated this idea by explaining that science is a part of culture, and how science is done largely depends
on the cultural practices of the people.

Indigenous beliefs also develop desirable values that are relevant or consistent to scientific attitudes as
identified by Johnston (2000), namely (1) motivating attitudes; (2) cooperating attitudes; (3) practical attitudes
and (4) reflective attitudes. These cultural beliefs therefore can be good foundation for developing positive
values toward learning and doing science and in bringing science in a personal level.

Pawilen (2005) explained that indigenous science knowledge has developed diverse structures and
contents through the interplay between the society and the environment. According to Kuhn (1962),
development stages of most sciences are characterized by continual competition between a number of
distinct views of nature, each partially derived from, and all roughly compatible with the dictates of scientific
observation and method. Sibisi (2004) also pointed out that indigenous science provides the basics of
astronomy, pharmacology, food technology, or metallurgy, which were derived from traditional knowledge
and practices.

Pawilen (2006) developed a simple framework for understanding indigenous science. Accordingly,
indigenous science is composed of traditional knowledge that uses science process skills and guided by
community values and culture.

INDIGENOUS SCIENCE

uses
 Guided by Composed of

Science Process Skills Community Culture and Values Traditional knowledge



Figure 6. The Concept of Indigenous Science

1. Indigenous science process skills such as observing, comparing, classifying, measuring, problem
solving, inferring, communicating, and predicting.
 2. Indigenous science is guided by culture and community values such as the following:
a. The land is a source of life. It is a precious gift from the creator.
b. The earth is revered as “Mother Earth”. It is the origin of their identity as people.
c. All living and non-living things are interconnected and interdependent with each other.
d. Human beings are stewards or trustee of the land and other natural resources. They have the
responsibility to preserve it.
e. Nature is a friend to human beings – it needs respect and proper care
3. Indigenous science is composed of traditional knowledge practiced and valued by people and
communities such as ethno-biology, ethno-medicine, indigenous farming methods, and folk
astronomy.

Indigenous science is important in the development of science and technology in the Philippines. Like the
ancient civilizations, indigenous science gave birth to the development of science and technology as a field
and as a discipline. Indigenous science helped the people in understanding the natural environment and in
coping with everyday life. UNESCO’s Declaration on Science and the Use of Scientific knowledge (199)
recognized indigenous science as a historical and valuable contribution to science and technology.
 UNIT 5

HUMAN FLOURISHING

5.1 Introduction

Every living creature is meant to become what is meant to be. The caterpillar is meant to become a
beautiful butterfly; a small seed into a full-grown herb, bush or tree; and a human baby into a mature person,
the person “who is fully alive, the glory of God” in the words of St. Irenaeus (Corpuz, 2015).

5.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section, you should be able to:

1. define human flourishing;
2. differentiate western and eastern philosophy about human flourishing; and
3. cite the importance of Human flourishing.

5.3 Lesson 1

Aristotle’s human flourishing arises as a product of different factors such as phronesis, friendship, wealth and
power. The Ancient Greek society believed that for the people to achieve the true meaning of happiness,
these qualities should be acquired, which in effect allow them to join in the greater notion of what we call the
“Good”.

For Aristotle, the good is what is good for the purposeful and goal-directed entities. He defines the good
proper to human beings as the activities in which the life functions specific to human beings are most fully
realized. A person’s nature as a human being provides him with guidance with respect to how he should live
his life. A fundamental fact of human nature is the existence of individual human being each with his own
rational mind and the will. The highest or most general good which all individuals should aim is to live happily,
successfully, and well. This is done through the active exercise of a person’s distinctive capacity, rationality,
as he/she engages in activities to the degree appropriate to the person in the context of his/her own identity
as a human being.

In his ethical writings, Aristotle endorses egoism, rationality, and the value of life. He insisted that the key
idea in ethics is a human individual’s own personal happiness and well-being. Each person is responsible for
his/her own character. According to Aristotle, each person has a natural obligation to achieve, become, and
make something of himself/herself by pursuing his/her true end and goals in life. Each person should be
concerned with the “best that is within him/her” and with the most accomplished and self-sufficient success
and excellence.

People found means to live more comfortably, explore more places, develop more products, and make more
money, and then the cycle is just repeating to suffice their happiness. In the beginning, early people relied
on animals for their transportation; they relied on stones and spears to hunt food; they used skin of animals
to protect their skin and used it as clothes; they used stones to make fire and lastly, they just lived in a cave
as their shelter. As time went by, there was a big change in the way the people lived before and the way the
people live today. Development allowed them to make grander and more sophisticated machines to aid them
in their endeavors that eventually led to space explorations, medicine innovations and ventures of life after
death. Our concept of human flourishing today proves to be different from what Aristotle originally perceived.
Humans of today are expected to become a “man of the world”. The person today is supposed to build
himself/herself in a global neighborhood, working side by side among institutions and different governments
to be able to reach common goal. Competition as a means of survival has become outdated; cooperation
and coordination among individuals are the new trend.

There is a difference between eastern and western ideas regarding society and human flourishing. The
Western Society where Aristotle is included tends to be more focused on the individual, while those from the
East are more community-centric. Individual flourishing as an end is primarily more of a concern for western
civilization. Eastern civilization puts the community above the individual. Community is given the highest
regard and that the individual should sacrifice himself for the sake of society.
 UNIT 6

TECHNOLOGY AS WAY OF REVEALING

6.1 Introduction

This section tackles the essence of technology based on Martin Heidegger’s work, The Questioning
Technology. The section shall engage in the process of questioning concerning technology. It discusses the
key concepts related to Heidegger’s work and how these concepts relate to an understanding of the essence
of technology.

6.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section, you should be able to:

1. differentiate the essences of technology and modern technology;
2. discuss and illustrate the dangers of modern technology; and
3. explain why art is the saving power of modern technology.

6.3 Lesson 1

At A Glance: Who is Martin Heidegger?

“The essence of technology is by no means anything technological.”
-Martin Heidegger (1977)

Martin Heidegger (1889-1976) is widely acknowledged as one of the most important philosophers of
the 20th century. He was a German philosopher who was part of the Continental tradition of philosophy. His
stern opposition to positivism and technological world domination received unequivocal support from leading

postmodernists and post-structuralists of the time, including Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucalt, and Jean-

François Lyotard.

In 1933, he joined the Nazi Party (NSDAP) and remained to be a member until it was dismantled
toward the end of World War II. This resulted in his dismissal from the University of Freiburg in 1949. He was
only able to resume teaching in 1959. Heidegger’s membership to the Nazi Party made him controversial –
his philosophical work was often eclipsed by his political affiliation, with critics saying that his philosophy
would always be rooted in his political consciousness.

The Essence of Technology

 It cannot be denied that science and technology are responsible for the ways society is continuously
being modernized. Science and technology continuously seep into the way people go about their daily
lives. However, the omnipresence of science and technology must not eclipse the basic tenets of ethics
and morality. Instead, it should allow the human persona to flourish alongside scientific progress and
technological development. In order to spark the discussion on the role of ethics and social morality in
science and technology, it is necessary to go back to the very essence of technology, i.e., its definition.
The essence of technology can be captured in its definition. In his treatise, The Questioning
Concerning Technology, Martin Heidegger (1977) explains the two widely embraced definitions of
technology: (1) instrumental and (2) anthropological.

1. Instrumental definition: Technology is a means to an end.

Technology is not an end in itself, it is a means to an end. In this context, technology is
viewed as a tool available to individuals, groups, and communities that desire to make an impact on
society. How technology is used varies from individual to individual, groups to groups, and
communities to communities according to their individual and collective functions, goals, and
aspirations. While technology is omnipresent, knowing its functions requires paying attention to how
humans use it as a means to an end. In this sense, technology is an instrument aimed at getting
things done.

2. Anthropological definition: Technology is a human activity.

Alternatively, technology can also be defined as a human activity because to achieve an end
and to produce and use a means to an end is, by itself, a human activity. The production or
invention of technological equipment, tools and machines, the products and inventions, and the
purpose and functions they serve are what define technology.

Both definitions, i.e., instrumental and anthropological are correct. However, neither touches on the
true essence of technology.

Technology as a Way of Revealing

Heidegger stressed that the true can only be pursued through the correct. Simply, what is correct
leads to what is true. In this sense, Heidegger envisioned technology as a way of revealing – a mode of
“bringing forth.’ Bringing forth can be understood through the Ancient Greek philosophical concept, poiesis,
which refers to the act of bringing something out of concealment. By bringing something out of concealment,
the truth of that something is revealed. The truth is understood through another Ancient Greek concept of
aletheia, which is translated as unclosedness, unconcealedness, disclosure, or truth.

Thus, for Heidegger, technology is a form of poeisis – a way of revealing that unconceals aletheia or
the truth. This is seen in the way the term techne, the Greek root word of technology, is understood in different
contexts. In philosophy, techne resembles the term episteme that refers to the human ability to make and
perform. Techne also encompasses knowledge and understanding. In art, it refers to tangible and intangible
aspects of life. The Greeks understood techne in the way that it encompasses not only craft, but other acts
of the mind, and poetry.

Technology as Poiesis: Does Modern Technology Bring Forth or Challenge Forth?

Heidegger, in The Question Concerning Technology, posited that both primitive crafts and modern
technology are revealing. However, he explained that modern technology is revealing not in the sense of
bringing forth or poeisis. Heidegger made a clear distinction between technology and modern technology in
that the latter ‘challenges’ nature. Modern technology challenges nature by extracting something from it and
transforming, storing, and distributing it.
On the surface, Heidegger’s criticism of modern technology might appear counterintuitive to the
purpose of nature to human existence. However, by digging deeper into Heidegger’s question, it becomes
clear that the essence of modern technology is not to bring forth in the sense of poiesis. Instead, Heidegger
considers modern technology’s way of revealing as a way of challenging forth. Modern technology challenges
forth, because it makes people think how to do things faster, more effectively, and with less effort. It prompts
people into dominating and enframing the earth’s natural resources. Challenging forth reduces objects as
standing-reserve or something to be disposed of by those who enframe them – humans. This is evident in
the way people exploit natural resources with very little concern for the ecological consequences that come
with it. Challenging forth as a result of modern technology is also evident in the information age, such that
greater control of information to profit from is value gives rise to concern about privacy and the protection of
human rights.
The challenging forth of modern technology is seen everywhere in the rise and depletion of petroleum
as a strategic resource; the introduction and use of synthetic dyes, artificial flavorings, and toxic materials
into the consumer stream that bring about adverse effects on human health; and the use of ripening agents
in agriculture that poses threats to food safety and health security.

Enframing as Modern Technology’s Way of Revealing

If the essence of technology can be understood as a way of bringing forth the truth in the sense of
poiesis, Heidegger distinguished the way of revealing of modern technology by considering it as a process
of enframing. Humankind’s desire to control everything, including nature, is captured in this process. By
putting things, in this case nature, in a frame, it becomes much easier for humans to control it according to
their desires.
Enframing, according to Heidegger, is akin to two ways of looking at the world: calculative thinking
and meditative thinking. In calculative thinking, humans desire to put an order to nature to better understand
and control it. In meditative thinking, humans allow nature to reveal itself to them without the use of force or
violence. One thinking is not necessarily better than the other. In fact, humans are capable of using both and
will benefit from being able to harmonize these ways of looking at the world. Yet, calculative thinking tends
to be more commonly utilized, primarily because humans’ desire to control due to their fear of irregularity.
 Enframing, then, is a way of ordering (or framing) nature to better manipulate it. Enframing happens
because of how humans desire for security, even if it puts all of nature as a standing reserve ready for
exploitation. Modern technology challenges humans to enframe nature. Thus, humans become part of the
standing reserve and an instrument of technology, to be exploited in the ordering of nature. The role humans
take as instruments of technology through enframing is called destining. In destining, humans are challenged
forth by enframing to reveal what is real. However, this destining of humans to reveal nature carries with it
the danger of misconstruction or misinterpretation.

The Dangers of Technology

The dangers of technology lie in how humans let themselves be consumed by it. Although humans
are looped into the cycle of bringing forth or challenging forth, it is their responsibility to recognize how they
become instruments of technology.
The Brazilian novelist, Paulo Coelho, once remarked that it is boastful for humans to think that nature
needs to be saved, whereas Mother Nature would remain even if humans cease to exist. Hence, in facing
the dangers of technology, the fear of disappearing from the face of the Earth should concern people more
potently that the fear of the Earth disappearing. As mere tenants on Earth, people must not allow themselves
to be consumed by technology lest they lose the essence of who they are as human beings. In this sense,
humans are in danger of becoming merely part of the standing reserve or, alternatively, may find themselves
in nature.
Recognizing its dangers of technology requires critical and reflective thinking on its use. For example,
social media has indeed connected people in the most efficient and convenient way imaginable, but it also
inadvertently gave rise to issues such as invasion of privacy, online disinhibition, and proliferation of fake
news. The line has to be drawn between what constitutes a beneficial use of social media and a dangerous
one. As exemplified, social media comes with both benefits and drawbacks.
However, the real threat of technology comes from its essence, not its activities or products. The
correct response to the danger of technology is not simply dismissing technology altogether. Heidegger
(1977) explained that people are delivered over to technology in the worst possible way they regard it as
something neutral. This conception of technology, according to Heidegger, to which today humans
particularly like to pay homage, makes them utterly blind to the essence of technology. Ultimately, the
essence of technology is by no means anything technological (Heidegger, 1977).

Art as the Saving power

Necessary reflection upon and confrontation with technology are required in order to proactively
address the dangers of technology. Friedrich Holderlin, a German poet quoted by Heidegger, said: “But where
danger is, grows the saving power also” (1977, p.14). Following this, the saving power can be traced exactly
where the danger is – in the essence of technology. As mentioned, this essence is not neutral and by no
means anything technological. Along this line, Heidegger proposed are as the saving power and the way out
of enframing: “And art was simply called techne. It was a single, manifold revealing” (1977, p.18). Heidegger
saw art as an act of the mind, i.e., a techne, that protected and had great power over the truth. By focusing
on art, people are able to see more clearly how art is embedded in nature. Art encourages humans to think
less from a calculative standpoint where nature is viewed as an ordered system. Instead, it inspires meditative
thinking where nature is seen as an art and that, in all or art, nature is most poetic.

Questioning as the Piety of Thought

Heidegger concluded his treatise on technology by saying:
The closer we come to the danger, the more brightly do the ways into the saving power begin
to shine and the more questioning we become. For questioning is the piety of thought (1977,
p.19).

Heidegger underscored the importance of questioning in the midst of technology. For him, there is
unparalleled wisdom gained only when humans are able to pause, think, and question what is around them.
Humans are consumed by technology when they are caught up in enframing and fail to pay attention to the
intricacies of technology, the brilliance of the purpose of humankind, and the genius of humans to bring forth
the truth.
Questioning is the piety of thought. It is only through questioning that humans are able to reassess
their position not only in the midst of technology around them, but also, and most importantly, in the grand
scheme of things. Heidegger posited that it is through questioning that humans bear witness to the crises
that a complete preoccupation with technology brings, preventing them from experiencing the essence of
technology.
Thus, humans need to take back and reassess who they were, who they are, and who they are
becoming in the midst of technology in this day and age.
 UNIT 7

THE GOOD LIFE

7.1 Introduction

What is to you a “good life”? Is it, living the good life means living a life that sets you free, a life that
satisfies and fulfills you, that adds happiness, joy, and sense of purpose to your life? Or good life to you
maybe something that is not primarily wasted with mundane activities, instead, it adds value and contributes
to making this world a better place.

In the ancient Greece, long before the word “science” has been coined, the need to understand the
world and reality was bound with the need to understand the self and the good life. The ancient Greek
Philosopher Plato believed that the thing in the world runs parallel with the job of truly getting into what will
make the soul flourish. To understand reality and the external world, one should seek to understand oneself
too.

Aristotle gave a distinction between the theoretical and practical sciences. The theoretical disciplines
include logic, biology, physics and metaphysics. The practical ones include ethics and politics. The “truth” is
the aim of theoretical sciences whereas the “good” is the end goal of the practical ones. Every attempt to
know is connected in some way in an attempt to find the “good” or the attainment of human flourishing.
Therefore, one must find the truth about what the good is before one can even try to locate that which is
good.

7.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Examine what is meant by a good life;

2. Identify how humans attempt to attain what is deemed to be a good life;
3. Recognize possibilities available to human being to attain the good life

7.3 Lesson 1 Aristotle and How We All Aspire for a Good Life
 The first philosopher who approached the problem of reality from a scientific point of view and also
the first thinker who dabbled into the complex problematization of the end goal of life which is happiness was
none other than Aristotle.

Compared to his teacher and predecessor Plato, Aristotle used different approaches in figuring out
reality. For Plato, things in this world are not real and only copies of the real ones in the world of forms;
change is so perplexing that it can only make sense if there are two realities namely, the world of forms and
the world of matter. Consider a human person. When you try to see yourself in front of the mirror, you normally
think that you are looking to yourself now, despite the occasional changes like a new pimple that grown on
your nose. Plato recognized change as a process and as a phenomenon that happens in the world, that in
fact, it is constant. However, Plato also claims that despite the reality of change, things remain and they retain
their ultimate “whatness”; that you remain to be you despite the pimple that now sits atop your nose. For
Plato, this can only be explained by postulating two aspects of reality, the world of forms and the world of
matter. In the world of matter, things are changing and not permanent. In the world forms, the entities are
only copies of the ideal and the models and the forms are the only real entities. Things are red in this world
because they participate in what it means to be red in the world of forms.

In contrast, Aristotle believed that the world is all there is to it and the only reality we can all access.
He disagreed with his teacher’s position and forwarded the idea that there is no reality over and above what
the senses can perceive. As such, it is only by observation of the external world that one can truly understand
what reality is all about. Change is a process that is inherent in things. We, along with all other entities in the
world, start as potentialities and move toward actualities. The movement entails change. For example, A
seed that eventually germinates and grows into a plant. The seed that turned to become a plant underwent
change from the potential plant that is the seed to its actuality, the plant

Aristotle extends this analysis from the external world into the province of the human person and
declares that even human beings are potentialities who aspire for their actuality. Every human being moves
according to some end. Every action that emanates from a human person is a function of the purpose that
the person has. For example, when a boy asks for a burger from a Filipino burger joint, the action that he
takes is motivated primarily by the purpose that he has, inferably to get full or to taste the burger that he only
sees on TV. Every human person, according to Aristotle aspires for an end, and this end is happiness or
human flourishing.

We all want to be happy. No individual resist happiness. Aristotle claims that happiness is be all and
end all of everything that we do. We may not realize it, but the end goal of everything that we do is happiness.
If you ask one person why he is doing what he is doing, he may not readily say that it is happiness that
motivates him. Its hard to explain why he is motivated by what motivates him. In fact, happiness is the grand
motivating force in everything he does. When Aristotle claims that we want to be happy, what he actually
means is human flourishing, a kind of contentment in knowing that one is getting the best out of life, a kind
of feeling that one has maxed his potentials and has attained the crux of his humanity.

7.4 Lesson 2 Happiness as the Goal of a Good Life

 In the eighteenth century, John Stuart Mill declared the Greatest Happiness Principle by saying that
an action is right as far as it maximizes the attainment of happiness for the greatest number of people. At a
time when people were skeptical about claims on the metaphysical, people could not make sense of the
human flourishing that Aristotle talked about in the days of old. Mill said that individual happiness of each
individual should be prioritized and collectively dictates the kind of action that should be endorsed. Consider
the pronouncement against mining. When an action benefits the greatest number of people, said action is
deemed ethical. Does mining benefit rather than hurt the majority? Does it offer more benefits rather than
disadvantages? Does mining results in more people getting happy than sad? If the answers are in the
affirmative, then the said action, mining, is deemed ethical. The ethical is meant to lead us to the good and
happy life. History has given birth to

Materialism

The first materialist were the atomists in Ancient Greece. Democritus and Leucippus led a school
whose primary belief is that the world is made up of and is controlled by the tiny indivisible units in the world
called atomos or seeds. For Democritus and his disciples, the world, including human beings, is made up of
matter. There is no need to posit immaterial entities as sources of purpose. Atomos comes together randomly
to form the things in the world. As such, only material entities matter. In terms of human flourishing, matter is
what makes us attain happiness. We see this at work with most people who are clinging on to material wealth
as the primary source of the meaning of their existence

Hedonism

The hedonists see the end goal of life in acquiring pleasure. Pleasure has always been the priority of
the hedonists. For them, life is about obtaining and indulging in pleasure because life is limited. The mantra
of this school of thought is the famous. “Eat, drink, and be merry for tomorrow we die”. Lead by Epicurus, this
school of thought does not buy any notion of afterlife just like the materialist.

Stoicism

Another school of though led by Epicurus, the stoics espoused the idea that to generate happiness,
one must learn to distance oneself and be apathetic coined from apatheia which means to be indifferent. For
the stoics, happiness can only be attained by a careful practice of apathy. We should, in this world view,
adopt the fact that some things are not within our control. The sooner we realize this, the happier we can
become.

Theism

Most people find the meaning of their lives using God as a fulcrum of their existence. The Philippines,
as a predominantly Catholic country, is witness to how people base their life goals on beliefs that hinged on
some form of supernatural reality called heaven. The ultimate basis of happiness for Theist is the communion
with God. The world where we are in is only just temporary reality where we have to maneuver around while
waiting for the ultimate return to the hands of God.

Humanism
 Humanism as another school of thought espouses the freedom of man to carve his own destiny and
to legislate his own laws, free from the shackles of a God that monitors and controls. For humanists, man is
literally the captain of his own ship. Inspired by the enlightenment in the seventeenth century, humanists see
themselves not merely as stewards of the creation but as individuals who are in control of themselves and
the world outside them. This is the spirit of most scientist who thought that the world is a place and space for
freely unearthing the world in seeking for ways on how to improve the lives of its inhabitants.

As a result, scientists of today are ready to confront more sophisticated attempts of altering the world
for the benefit of humanity. Some people now are willing to tamper with time and space in the name of
technology. Seeing each other real time while talking from different continents was virtually possible.

Technology allowed us to tinker with our sexuality. Biologically, male individuals can now undergo
medical operations for possible sexual reassignment. Breast implants are now available and can be done
with relative convenience. Hormones may also be injected in order to alter the sexual chemical in the body.

Whether or not we agree with these technological advancements, these are all undertaken in the
hopes of attaining the good life. The balance however, between the good life, ethics, and technology has to
be attained.
 UNIT 8

WHEN TECHNOLOGY AND HUMANITY CROSS

8.1 INTRODUCTION

The ever-growing society has made people see technology as some form of necessity. Tracing back
its origins, the word “technology” came from the Greek words techne and logos which mean art and word
respectively. Taking the two words together, technology means a discourse on arts (Buchanan, 2010). It first
appeared in the seventeenth century where the concept was only used to talk about the arts, specifically
applied arts. However, as technology progressed, the concept also started to have a wider range of meaning
where art is no longer the only topic included. Concepts like machine and tools were attached to the word
“technology”.

The roles played by technology these days are very crucial not only to a few but also to everyone. In
one way or another, each person in the society is directly or indirectly affected by technology. In fact, most
people survive their everyday lives with great reliance to the different technological advancements already
available to the masses. While there may be some who would claim that their lives are not greatly affected
by technology, the fact cannot be denied that technology is already an inevitable part of the society.

It is with great effort that people were able to achieve such great inventions. It makes life so much
easier and more convenient than ever before. It can clearly be seen from the simple task at home to the most
complicated ones inside the office or laboratory. Technology these days enjoy such frame and glory because
of the many different benefits it brings to mankind. Some would even say that it does not only bring
convenience but also pleasure and happiness to people.

The act of pinpointing a single activity that does not in any way. require the use of technology has
become very hard because almost all activities that humans perform already require the assistance of some
kind of technological advancement. But this is not at all, for there are people who would even argue that
technology has become a necessity and no longer a want. At present, people tend to work very hard in order
to save money to buy these “necessities” while in the past, people only used their money for the thing that
would help them survive like food, housing, and clothing.

In general, technology keeps on progressing due to not only the changing times and environment but
also the ever-progressing mind of mankind. It would not be possible for all these technological advancements
to exist if it were not for the brilliance, creativeness, and power of the mind. However, it is also important to
note that anything too much is bad. The same problem is faced by technology. Although it has been very
helpful to people, it is still not immune to criticism and backlash. Various ethical dilemmas have been identified
throughout time involving the use of different technological devices and its effects to humanity. Usually,
different problems arise when either the technological device available is misused or if in the first place, it
was invented to produce bad results. People who are aware of the possible dangers of the use or misuse of
technology are not keeping still. They lay their dilemmas for the public to see and realize what they are in for.

In this lesson, several technological devices will be properly introduced, the roles they play in society
and their effects, particularly to the lives of the people will be identified, and the problem they face will also
be examined thoroughly.

8.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. Identify the different technological advancement in society;

2. Discuss the development of science and technology in the Philippines;
3. Discuss the effects of the interplay between technology and humanity through the dilemma(s) they
face.

8.3 LESSON 1 TELEVISION SETS, MOBILE PHONES, COMPUTERS, AND

HUMANITY

A number of technological devices can be easily found inside the home, the most accessible place to
anyone. It can be easily inferred that these technological devices are some of the most popular and most
commonly used type of devices across all age groups. Almost all households, if not all, owns this type of
devices. To be more specific, these “celebrities” in the field of technology are television sets, mobile phones
and computers. People all over the world use these technologies every day for different purposes.

First, according to Kantar Media, one of the most trusted television audience measurement providers,
in the Philippines, 92 percent of urban homes and 70 percent of rural homes own at least one television set.
It is for this reason why television remains to be the ultimate medium for advertisement placements (The
Manila Times, 2014). This survey simply shows that almost all Filipinos use this particular type of device. In
fact, Filipinos are believed to have this big fascination for television. Most of the time, they watch television
during their free time or any time of the day when they have nothing important to do. In addition to this, Kantar
Media also reported that in the Philippines, the current count of households with television set already
reached 15.135 million (Noda, 2012). This number signifies something, that is, television plays a great role
in the lives of the people or in this case, the Filipinos.

Television was a product of different experiments by various people. Paul Gottlieb Nipkow, a German
student, in the late 1800’s was successful in his attempt to send images through wires with the aid of a
rotating metal disk. This invention was then called the “electric telescope” that had 18 lines of resolution. After
sometime, in 1907, two inventors, Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton who was an English scientist and Boris
Rosing who was a Russian scientist created a new system of television using the cathode ray tube in addition
to the mechanical scanner systems namely, mechanical and electronic television (Jezek, n.d). These
experiments inspired other scientists to improve the previous inventions, which led to the modern television
people now have.

Second, Filipinos love to use their mobile phones anywhere, anytime. They used it for different
purposes other than for communication. More than half of the Filipino population own at least one mobile
phone regardless of type. In 2010, global research agency Synovate conducted a survey and declared 67
percent product ownership in the country. In fact, it was also claimed that mobile phones are considered a
must-have among young Filipinos (ABS-CBN News, 2010). To prove that Filipino really love to use their
mobile phones, the Ipsos Media Atlas Philippines Nationwide Urban 2011-2012 survey results showed that
one in every three Filipinos cannot live without a mobile phone. In other words, 30 percent of the Philippine
urban population nationwide said that mobile phones are necessities in life (Roa, 2012).

Mobile phones have a very interesting background story. On April 3, 1973, Martin Cooper, a senior
engineer at Motorola, made the world’s first mobile phone call. He called their rival telecommunications
company and properly informed them that he was making a call from a mobile phone. The mobile phone
used by cooper weighed 1.1 kilograms and measured 228.6 x 127 x 44.4 mm. This kind of device was capable
of a 30-minute talk time. However, it took 10 hours to charge. In 1983. Motorola made their first commercial
mobile phone available to the public. It was known as the Motorola Dyna TAC 8000X (Goodwin, 2016).

Lastly, computers and laptops have also become part of many Filipino households. There are some
of Filipino families who own more than one computer or laptop. However, the number of computers or laptop
sold per year may not be a s high as the number of mobile phones and television sets. This is because of the
relatively higher cost of computers and laptops. While it is true that almost all Filipino families own at least
one television set and a mobile phone, it is not possible for all Filipino families to own at least one computer
laptop. In fact, most of the profits gained by computer and laptop manufacturers come from offices,
businesses, or schools where such devices have become part of their necessities.

In 2010, 3.6 trillion was the estimated total value output of all manufacturing establishments. Semi-
conductor devices and other electronic components took more than half of the total value output of all
manufacturing establishments. To be more specific, 5.4 percent of the total value output came from
computers and peripheral equipment and accessories (PSA, 2013). In line with the growing number of
computer and laptop sales, there has also been growing number of internet users in the Philippines. Although
there have been problems regarding the internet providers, this never hindered Filipinos from continuously
using the internet.

Just like television sets and mobile phones, computers and laptops also have a long background
history of trial and error. It was Charles Babbage, a nineteenth-century English Mathematics professor, who
designed the analytical engine which was used as the basic framework of the computers even until the
present time. In general, computers can be classified into three generations. Each generation of the computer
was used for a certain period of time and each gave people a new and improved version of the previous one
(Steitz, n.d.).

Laptops have been available to the public for even less time than personal computers. Before, the
first design of computer was so big that it could occupy whole floors of buildings. It was not long before people
started dreaming that they could bring the devices to any place they wished. They hoped that someday it
would be possible for these devices to be portable. It was believed that the transition from a personal to a
laptop was only a matter of design, an improvement and a little deviation from the standard design of a
personal computer. The first true portable computer was released in April 1981. It was called the Osborne I
(Orfano, 2011). From that moment on, the evolution of laptops continued until the present time where various
designs and models are already available.

A typical household owns at least four of the following devices: a mobile phone (89%), smartphone
(53%), tablet (14%), desktop (39%), laptop or netbooks (37%), and smart TV (4%) (Philstar, 2013). These
data prove the deep-seated fascination of Filipinos to different technological devices.

Here are some facts about Filipinos and their use of gadgets and the internet 9Rappler, n.d.)

 Mobile phone subscription is at 119 million.

 Filipinos spend approximately 3.2 hours on mobile phone and 5.2 hours on desktop daily.
 Currently, the Philippines has one of the highest digital populations in the world.
 There are now 47 million active Facebook accounts in the Philippines.
 The Philippines is the fastest-growing application market in Southeast Asia.

8.4 LESSON 2 ROLES PLAYED BY THESE TECHNOLOGICAL

ADVANCEMENTS

Television sets, mobile phones, and computers or laptops all have different functions and roles played
in the lives of the people, although some may be a little similar. These roles have become so essential that
people, more specifically Filipinos, developed a strong inclination toward technology and its products.

For instance, television is mainly used as a flatform for advertisements and information dissemination.
In fact, television remains to be the most used avenue by different advertising companies not only in the
Philippines but also all over the world. Various advertising companies trust that television is still one of the
most technological devices up until today. However, it is important to note that these are just some of the
roles played by the television. Aside from the ones mentioned above, it also serves as recreational activity
and good stress reliever to most Filipino families. Television also is a good platform for different propagandas
and advocacies.

Mobile phones, on the other hand, also have their own roles in the lives of the people. They are
primarily used for communication. Mobile phones offer services like texting and calling. In the past, these
were the only functions of the mobile phone but as the technology progressed, there have been many
additional features included in mobile phones. For example, people use their mobile phones to surf the
internet and to take pictures more than to text or to call. This is the reason why more and more people all
over the world prefer to buy smartphones over the old models. The additional features of smart mobile phones
make this particular technological device very appealing to the masses. It is like an all-in-one device. In
addition, it is very portable and convenient because it can fit into small space.
 Personal computers and laptops also have useful set of functions and roles. Although most of the
functions found in these technological devices are now available in mobile phones, they still offer their own
unique features that make them attractive. A lot of people still prefer to do their jobs using a personal computer
or laptop than a mobile phone due to its wider screens, separate keyboard, and the use of mouse or a touch
pad. For the youth and those who love to play computer games, personal computers and laptops are really
the better choice because this allows them to play with comport and convenience. However, it cannot be
denied that some would even prefer laptops over personal computers for the simple reason that there are
times when they need to bring such devices to different places.

8.5 LESSON 3 ETHICAL DILEMMA FACED BY THESE TECHNOLOGICAL

ADVANCMENTS

While it is true that these technological devices are useful and beneficial, the fact remains that there
are several dilemmas faced by these “necessities”. First, most parents would argue that these devices make
their children lazy and unhealthy. This is because people who are fixated on these technological
advancements can start and end their day using the devices. They have a great tendency to sit and chill all
day long without doing anything productive in their home, thus making them unhealthy because they do not
just skip meals sometimes but also lack exercise. It can be inferred that these types of people are already
overly dependent on these technological devices. For example, those who love to watch television show to
stay in front of the television for more than six hours a day while those who love to surf the internet or play
computer games on their laptop, computers, or mobile phones can stay for more than half a day. These
people have the tendency to neglect time because they are engrossed with the use of technological device
and even gets annoyed once disturbed.

Another dilemma faced by these technological devices is the moral dilemma. People, especially the
children who are not capable yet of rationally deciding for themselves what is right or wrong, are freely
exposed to different things on television, mobile phones, laptops, or computers. Because of the availability
and easy access to the internet, they can just easily search the web and go to different websites without
restrictions. This allows them to see, read, and hear things which are not suitable for their young age. This
makes them very vulnerable to character change and can greatly affect the way they view the world and the
things around them.

On the first dilemma, it is really concerning to know that there are people who develop different kinds
of sickness because of too much use of technological devices. It sometimes causes them to become
reclusive, alienating themselves from other people. Although some would argue that technology brings
people together, it can also be argued that this is not always the case in the real world because it may bring
them virtually closer but not physically and personally. In fact, there are people who are only friends, for
example, only on social media but not in real life. This just show that there are things that technology claims
to do but not in reality, does not. It is for these reasons why there are people who call for the establishment
of ethics of technology. This subcategory of ethics will in one way or another guide people on how technology
ought to be used in order to prevent abuse and other unfortunate results.
 Digging deeper, it can be said that these reasons make such devices somewhat unethical because
they bring undesirable consequences to people. However, it can also be argued that it is not the fault of the
technological devices but the agents using them or the ones making them. The classic deontological and
teleological approaches to ethics are already too old to be applied in such cases. This is because technology
has become very complicated and dynamic over time. Having said this, it is true that there are problems and
can no longer be addressed by using these theories only. This is why the ethics or responsibility is an
appropriate theory that can be used in these dilemmas.

The word “responsibility” in the sense of being accountable for the accountable for and accountable
to its very appropriate to the ethics of technology because it makes each and every person in the scientific-
technological development a proxy with reference to one another. In other words, each person must indicate
the priorities, values, norms, and principles that constitute the grounds for one’s action and define one’s
contribution to the scientific technological even. The ethics of responsibility focuses on the positive rather
than the negative.

However, it is also important for the people in the scientific world to inform the masses of the dangers
of their contribution/s to the world of technology. In this way, the people will sufficiently aware of what to do
and not what to do. In addition to this, the agents using the devices should also be accountable to and
accountable for their use of their gadgets.

Going back to the first dilemma, it can be said that the agents using the devices are the ones to be
blamed for the undesirable consequences, namely, laziness and unhealthiness. However, it is the
assumption that the people in the scientific-technological world have properly informed the public of the
positive tenor of their action in technology and the possible dangers of the misuse of their technological
contribution. Thus, the undesirable consequences are bought about by the misuse of the agent. Now, talking
about alienation, it can be concluded that the people in the scientific-technological world are blameworthy
because they tell the people something that seems positive but when examined closely bring worse than
good.

On the second dilemma, the people in the scientific world nor the children are blameworthy because
first, the children are not yet capable of rationally deciding for themselves what is good and what is bad.
Second, even if the creators of these technologies went out of their way to inform children of the pros and
cons of these technological contributions, it would still be useless because the children have no capacity to
understand them yet. So, in this dilemma, the ones to be blamed are the adult who allowed the children to
have access to such devices in the first place without any supervision. It is the reckless and overconfidence
of the adults that cause the character change in the children.

8.6 LESSON 4 ROBOTICS AND HUMANITY

Another great product of the innovative minds of the people is the robot. Robots are now widely used.
For example, there are so-called service robots. These particular robots do specific tasks but focus mainly in
assisting their masters in their everyday tasks. The International Federation of Robotic (IFR) and United
Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) made if their tasks to formulate a working definition for
service robots. A preliminary extract of the relevant definition in (IFR, 2012):

 A robot an actuated mechanism programmable in two or more axes with a degree of autonomy,
moving within its environment, to perform intended tasks based on current state and sensing without
human intervention.
 A service robot is a robot that performs useful tasks for humans or equipment excluding industrial
automation application.
 A personal service robot or a service robot for personal use is a service robot used for a non-
commercial task, usually by laypersons. Examples are domestic servant robot, automated wheelchair,
personal mobility assist robot, and pet exercising robot.
 A professional service robot or a service robot for professional use is a service robot used for a
commercial task, usually operated by a properly trained operator. Examples are cleaning robot for
public places, delivery robot in offices or hospitals, firefighting robots, rehabilitation robot, and surgery
robot in hospitals. In this context an operator is a person designated to start, monitor, and stop the
intended operation of a robot or robot system.

Germany was one of the first countries to develop service robots. As part of the German
Federal Ministry of Education and Research’s “Service Robotics Innovation Lead Initiative,” it sponsored a
collaborative project called DESIRE (Deutsche Servicerobotik Initiative-Germany Service Robotics Initiative)
which was launched on October 1, 2005. Desire has the following individual objectives (DESIRE, 2009):
 To achieve a technological edge toward attaining key functions and components that are suited for
everyday use
 To create a reference architecture for mobile manipulation
 To promote the convergence of technologies trough integration into a common technology platform
 To conduct pre-competition research and development activities for new products and technology
transfer in start-up enterprises in the field of service robotics.

Some of the expected work to be performed by DESIRE are the following: (1) “Clear up the kitchen
table” – all objects on top of the kitchen table will be moved to where they belong; (2) “Fill the dishwasher” –
the dirty dishes will be sorted correctly into the dishwasher; and (3) “Clear up this room” – all objects that are
not in their proper places will be moved to where they belong (Mock, n.d.).
The earliest conception of robots can be traced around 3000 B.C. from the Egyptians. Their water
clocks used human figurines to strike the hour bells. This mechanical device was built to carry out specific
physical tasks regularly. From that time on, different machines were already been built that displayed the
same mechanism and characteristics as the robots in the present. For example, there was a wooden pigeon
that could fly, a talking doll, steam-powered robots, and hydraulically-operated statues that could speak and
gesture. However, the earliest robots as people know them were created in the early 1950s by George Devol.
“Unimate” was his first invention from the words “ Universal Automation.” Unfortunately, his attempt to sell
his product to the industry did not succeed. After Unimate, several robots were also invented which were
better versions of the previous ones (Stanford, n.d.)
8.7 LESSON 5 ROLES PLAYED BY ROBOTICS

Robots play different roles not only in the lives of the people but also in the society as
a whole. They are primarily used to ease the workload of mankind. They were invented to make life more
efficient and less stressful. On one hand they perform complicated activities which human are beings are
incapable of doing. On the other hand, they perform the simplest tasks at home that their masters can perform
the complex ones without stressing themselves over the simple tasks. There are also robots which are made
for pleasure. To be more specific, these types of robots perform activities to entertain people. They can
usually be found in amusement parks or exhibits. In addition, there are also some robots which were made
to serve as toys. They also perform different activities but they are usually child friendly.
Just like people living in the society, robots also have their own set of rules and characteristics that
define what a good robot is. These laws were formulated by Isaac Asimov back in 1940s. when he was
thinking of the ethical consequences of robots. These are the following (Stanford, n.d.)
Law one: A robot may not injure a human being or through inaction, allow a human being to
come to harm.
Law two: A robot must obey the orders given it by human being except where such orders would
conflict with the First Law.
Law three: A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with
the First or Second Law.

8.8 LESSON 6 ETHICAL DILEMMA/S FACED BY ROBOTICS

Just like any other technological advancements, robotics also faces different problems and dilemmas.
Although the idea is to help people and make their lives a lot easier than before, it is still not immune to
different ethical dilemmas and possible undesirable outcome. One of the dilemmas faced by robots is safety.
Who should be held accountable if someone’s safety is compromised by a robot? Who should be blamed,
the robot, the agent using the robot, or the maker/inventor of the robot? It is important to know who should
be blamed and who should be held responsible if such thing happens.
Another ethical dilemma faced by robots is the emotional component. This may seem a little absurd
as of the moment, but looking at how fast technology progresses nowadays, it is not completely impossible
for robots to develop emotions (Evans, 2007)
So here, the questions become, “What if robots become sentient? Should they be granted robot
rights? Should they have their own set of rights to be upheld, respected, and protected by humans?” It is
interesting to know how people would react if the time comes when robots can already feel pain and pleasure.
Would they act differently or not at all?
In the field of robotics, there are so-called partial autonomy and full autonomy. Partial autonomy
includes active human-robot interaction while full autonomy excludes active human-robot interaction. In other
words, a robot with full autonomy can perform actions or activities even without a master telling it what should
be done or what should be performed (IFR, 2012).
 Using Asimov’s laws for robots, it can be concluded that robots are ethical but only if they strictly
follow the laws specified. They are ethical mostly because the law formulated by Asimov ensure the safety
of not only the users of the technology but also the people around him. Remember that these service robots
are already available to the public; thus, they can already be found inside the homes. Having said that, the
safety of not only the owner of the technology but all of the people inside the house should be the priority
more than anything else. In other words, the service robots only follow their masters tell them to do with great
consideration to the law formulated by Asimov. However, if the agent using the technology misuses the robot
to achieve personal agendas, then without a doubt, the agent should be held accountable for any
consequences it may bring. It is important to note that this is under the assumption that the robot strictly
followed the laws specified without any form of deviation.

If the problems arise when the robot deviates from the law specified, then the maker or the inventor
of the machine should be blameworthy. It just means that the robot was not programmed very well because
it violated the laws. Other problems may arise when the machine develops the ability to think for itself. In this
case, the one that should be blame can be both be the maker or inventor and the robot itself. This is because
in the first place, the maker gave the robot the capacity to think for itself so he should be very much aware of
its possible consequences. To put it in another way, the maker programmed the robot in such a way that it
can already think for itself even without an active participation from a human being. In addition, since the
robot thinks for itself, whatever decision it makes and whatever consequence it may bring, the robot itself
should be held responsible.
For the second dilemma, it is just right for the robots to be given their own set of rights should they
develop the ability to feel different kinds of emotion. It can be argued that the same thing happened with
animals. Before, animals did not have their own set of rights because people believed that they were not
capable of having emotions. However, after years of testing and experimenting, it was concluded that animals
are indeed capable of emotions. It is for this reason that people decided to give them rights that are due to
them. The same should be done to robots without any reservations. Should that time come, they ought to be
treated differently and they ought to have new laws to follow in order to accommodate the new characteristic
they have developed.
 UNIT 9

THE INFORMATION AGE

9.1 INTRODUCTION

Highly modernized, automated, data-driven, and technologically advanced—these best describe

our society nowadays, as evidenced by how information could be transferred or shared quickly. The different
areas of society have been influenced tremendously such as communication, economics, industry, health,
and the environment. Despite our gains due to the growing development of information technology, the rapid
upgrade of information also has disadvantages. This lesson will discuss the history and impact of
technological advancements to society.

Life is accompanied by endless transmission of information that takes place within and outside the
human body. According to Webster’s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary, information is “knowledge
communicated or obtained concerning a specific fact or circumstance.” Hence, information is a very important
tool for survival.

The Information Age is defined as a “period starting in the last quarter of the 20 th century when
information became effortlessly accessible through publications and through the management of information
by computers and computer networks” ([Link], n.d.). the means of conveying symbolic information
(e.g., writing, math, other codes) among humans have evolved with increasing speed. The Information Age
is also called the Digital Age and the New Media Age because it was associated with the development of
computers.

According to James R. Messenger who proposed the Theory of Information Age in 1982, “the
Information Age is a true new age based upon the interconnection of computers via telecommunications, with
these information systems operating on both a real-time and as-needed basis. Furthermore, the primary
factors driving this new age forward are convenience and user-friendliness which, in turn, will create user
dependence.”

9.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Define Information Age

2. discuss the history of Information Age; and

3. understand the factors that need to be considered in checking website sources.

9.3 Lesson 1 History

The table below traces the history and emergence of the Information Age (United States American
History, n.d.).

Table 1. Timeline of the Information Age

Year Event
3000 BC Sumerian writing system used pictographs to represent words
2900 BC Beginnings of Egyptian hieroglyphic writing
1300 BC Tortoise shell and oracle bone writing were used
500 BC Papyrus roll was used
220 BC Chinese small seal writing was developed
100 AD Book (parchment codex)
105 AD Woodblock printing and paper was invited by the Chinese
1455 Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press using movable
metal type
1755 Samuel Johnson’s dictionary standardized English spelling
1802  The Library of Congress was established
 Invention of the carbon arc lamp
1824 Research on persistence of vision published
1830s  First viable design for a digital computer
 Augusta Lady Byron writes the world’s first computer program
1837 Invention of the telegraph in Great Britain and the Unites States
1861 Motion pictures were projected on a screen
1876 Dewey Decimal system was introduced
1877 Eadweard Muybridge demonstrated high-speed photography
1899 First magnetic recordings were released
1902 Motion picture special effects were used
1906 Lee DeForest invented the electronic amplifying tube (triode)
1923 Television camera tube was invented by Zvorkyn
1926 First practical sound movie
1939 Regularly scheduled television broadcasting began in the US
1940s Beginnings of information science as a discipline
1945 Vannevar Bush foresaw the invention of hypertext
1946 ENIAC computer was developed
1948 Birth of field-of-information theory proposed by Claude E. Shannon
 1957 Planar transistor was developed by Jean Hoerni
1958 First integrated circuit
1960s Library of Congress developed LC MARC (machine-readable code)
1969 UNIX operating system was developed, which could handle
multitasking
1971 Intel introduced the first microprocessor chip
1972 Optical laserdisc was developed by Philips and MCA
1974 MCA and Philips agreed on a standard videodisc encoding format
1975 Altair Microcomputer Kit was released: first personal computer for the
public
1977 RadioShack introduced the first complete personal computer
1984 Apple Macintosh computer was introduced
Mid 1980s Artificial intelligence was separated from information science
1987 Hypercard was developed by Bill Atkinson recipe box metaphor
1991 Four hundred fifty complete works of literature on one CD-ROM was
released
January RSA (encryption and network security software) Internet security
1997 code cracked for a 48-bit number

As man evolved, information and its dissemination has also evolved in many ways. Eventually, we no
longer kept them to ourselves; instead, we share them and manage them in different means. Information got
ahead of us. It started to grow at a rate we were unprepared to handle. Because of the abundance of
information, it was difficult to collect and manage them staring in the 1960s and 1970s. During the 1980s,
real angst set in. Richard Wurman called it “Information Anxiety”. In the 1990s, information became the
currency in the business world. Information was the preferred medium of exchange and the information
managers served as information officers. In the present generation, there is no doubt that information has
turned out to be a commodity, an overdeveloped product, mass-produced, and unspecialized. Soon, we
become overloaded with it.

Different authors have diverse, contrasting ideas on the evolution of the Information Age. In spite of
this, we can still say that information is a very important tool that helps improve our way of life. One thing is
for sure, Information Age will continue to move forward and far greater than our minds could imagine.

In his article “Truths of the Information Age” (n.d.), Robert Harris detailed some facts on the
Information Age.

1. Information must compete. There is no need for information to stand out and be recognized in the
increasing clutter.
2. Newer is equated with truer. We forgot the truth that any fact or value can endure.
3. Selection is a viewpoint. Choose multiple sources for your information if you want to receive a
more balanced view of reality.
 4. The media sells what the culture buys. In other words, information is driven by cultural priorities.
5. The early word gets the perm. The first media channel to expose an issue often defines the
context, terms, and attitudes surrounding it.
6. You are what you eat and so is your brain. Do not draw conclusions unless all ideas and
information are presented.
7. Anything in great demand will be counterfeited. The demand for incredible knowledge, scandals,
and secrets is ever-present; hence, many events are fabricated by tabloids, publicists, or other
agents of information fraud.
8. Ideas are seen as controversial. It is almost certainly impossible to make any assertion that will
not find some supporters and some detractors.
9. Undead information walks ever on. Rumors, lies, disinformation, and gossips never truly die down.
They persist and continue to circulate.
10. Media presence creates the story. People behave much differently from the way they would if
being filmed when the media are present, especially film news or television media.
11. The medium selects the message. Television is mainly pictorial, partially aural, and slightly textual,
so visual stories are emphasized: fires, chases, and disasters.
12. The whole truth is a pursuit, the information that reaches us is usually selected, verbally charged,
filtered, slanted, and sometimes, fabricated. What is neglected is often even more important than
what is included.

Computer

Computers are among the most important contributions of advances in the Information Age to society.
A computer is an electronic device that stores and processes data (information). It runs on a program that
contains the exact, step-by-step directions to solve a problem ([Link], 2017).

Types of Computer

Computers are associated with numerous terms and descriptions. Most people suggest the
dimensions, intended use, or the computer’s power. While the term “computer” can apply to virtually any
device that has a microprocessor in it, most people think of a computer as a device that receives input form
the user through a mouse (hand-guided directions tool) or keyboard, processes it in some fashion, and
presents the result on a screen.

1. Personal Computer (PC)

It is a single-user instrument. PCs were first known as microcomputers since they were a complete
computer but built on a smaller scale than the enormous systems operated by most businesses.

2. Desktop Computer

It is described as a PC that is not designed for portability. The assumption with a desktop is that
it will be setup in a permanent spot. A workstation is simply a desktop computer that has a more
powerful processor, additional memory, and enhanced capabilities for performing special group
 of tasks, such as 3D graphics or game development. Most desktops offer more storage, power,
and versatility than their portable version ([Link], 2017).

3. Laptops

These are portable computers that integrate the essentials of a desktop computer in a battery-
powered package, which are somewhat larger than a typical hardcover book. They are commonly
called notebooks.

4. Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)

These are tightly integrated computers that usually have no keyboards but rely on a touch screen
for user input. PDAs are typically smaller than a paperback, lightweight, and battery-powered
([Link], 2017).

5. Server

It refers to a computer that has been improved to provide network services to other computers.
Servers usually boast powerful processors, tons of memory, and large hard drives ([Link],
2017).

6. Mainframes

These are huge computer systems that can fill an entire room. They are used especially by large
firms to describe the large, expensive machines that process millions of transactions every day.
The term “mainframe” has been replaced by enterprise server. Although some supercomputers
are single computer systems, most compromise multiple, high-performance, parallel computers
working as a single system ([Link], 2017).

7. Wearable computers

They involve materials that are usually integrated into cell phones, watches, and other small
objects or places. They perform common computer applications such as databases, email,
multimedia, and schedulers ([Link],2017).

The World Wide Web (Internet)

Several historians trace the origin of the Internet to Claude E. Shannon, an American Mathematician
who was considered as the “Father of Information Theory.” He worked at Bell Laboratories and at age 32, he
published a paper proposing that information can be quantitatively encoded as a sequence of ones and
zeroes.

The Internet is a worldwide system of interconnected networks that facilitate data transmission among
innumerable computers. It was developed during the 1970s by the Department of Defense. In case of an
attack, military advisers suggested the advantage of being able to operate o one computer from another
terminal. In the early days, the Internet was used mainly by scientists to communicate with other scientists.
The Internet remained under government control until 1984 (Rouse, 2014).

One early problem faced by Internet users was speed. Phone lines could only transmit information
at a limited rate. The development of fiber-optic cables allowed for billions of bits of information to be received
every minute. Companies like Intel developed faster microprocessors so personal computers could process
the incoming signals at a more rapid rate ([Link], 2017).

Sergey Brin and Larry Page, directors of a Stanford research project, built a search engine that listed
results to reflect popularity when they determined that the most popular result would frequently be the most
usable. After talking with family, friends, and other investors into contributing $1 million, the researchers
launched their company in 1998. Google is now the world’s most popular search engine, accepting more
than 200 million queries daily.

Back then, new forms of communication were also introduced. Electronic mail, or email, was a suitable
way to send a message to fellow workers, business partners, or friends. Messages could be sent and received
at the convenience of the individual. A letter that took several days to arrive could be read in minutes. Internet
service providers like America Online and CompuServe set up electronic chat rooms. These were open areas
of cyberspace where interested parties could join in a conversation with perfect strangers. “surfing the net”
became a pastime in and of itself ([Link],2017).

Consequently, companies whose businesses are built on digitized information have become valuable
and powerful in a relatively short period of time; the current Information Age has spawned its own breed of
wealthy influential brokers, from Microsoft’s Bill Gates to Apple’s Steve Jobs to Facebook’s Mark Zuckerberg.

Critics charged that the Internet created a technological divide that increased the gap between the
members of the higher class and lower class of society. Those who could not afford a computer or a monthly
access fee were denied these possibilities. Many decried the impersonal nature of electronic communication
compared to a telephone call or a handwritten letter.

On one hand, the unregulated and loose nature of the Internet allowed pornography to be broadcast
to millions of homes. Protecting children from these influences or even from meeting violent predators would
prove to be difficult. Nowadays, crimes in various forms are rampant because of the use of social media.
Cyberbullying is an issue that poses alarm worldwide. Consequently, we need to be aware of the possible
harm and damage due to abuse of these advances in the Information Age.

9.4 Lesson 2 Application of Computers in Science and Research

One of the significant applications of computers for science and research is evident in the field of
bioinformatics. Bioinformatics is the application of information technology to store, organize, and analyze vast
amount of biological data which is available in the form of sequences and structures of proteins—the building
blocks of organisms and nucleic acids—the information carrier ([Link], 2017).
 Early interest in bioinformatics was established because of a need to create databases of biological
sequences. The human brain cannot store all the genetic sequences of organisms and this huge amount of
data can only be stored, analyzed, and be used efficiently with the use of computers.

While the initial databases of protein sequences were maintained at individual laboratories, the
development of a consolidated formal database, known as SWISS-PROT protein sequence database, was
initiated in 1986. It now has about 70,000 protein sequences from more than 5,000 model organisms, a small
fraction of all known organisms. The enormous variety of divergent data resources is now available for study
and research by both academic institutions and industries. These are made available as public domain
information in the large interest of research community through the Internet ([Link]) and CR-
ROMs (on request from [Link]). these databases are constantly updated with additional entries
(Madan, n.d.).

Computers and software tools are widely used for generating these databases and to identify the
function of proteins, model the structure of proteins, determine the coding (useful) regions of nucleic acid
sequences, find suitable drug compounds from a large pool, and optimize the drug development process by
predicting possible targets. Some of the software tools which are handy in the analysis include: BLAST (used
for comparing sequences); Annotator (an interactive genome analysis tool); and GeneFinder (tool to identify
coding regions and splice sites) (Madan, n.d.).

The sequence information generated by the human genome research, initiated in 1988 has now been
stored as a primary information source for future applications in medicine. The available data is so huge that
if compiled in books, the data would run into 200 volumes of 1,000 pages each and reading alone (ignoring
understanding factor) would require 26 years working around the clock. For a population of about five billion
human beings with two individuals differing in three million bases, the genomic sequence difference database
would have about 15,000,000 billion entries. The present challenge to handle such huge volume of data is to
improve database design, develop software for database access, and manipulation, and device data-entry
procedures to compensate for the varied computer procedures and systems used in different laboratories.
The much-celebrated complete human genome sequence which was formally announced on the 26th of June
2000 involved more than 500 x 1018 (500 million trillion) calculations during the process of assembling the
sequences alone. This can be considered as the biggest exercise in the history of computational biology
(Madan, n.d.).

Moreover, from the pharmaceutical industry’s point of view, bioinformatics is the key to rational drug
discovery. It reduces the number of trials in the screening of drug compounds and in identifying potential drug
targets for a particular disease using high-power computing workstations and software like Insight. This
profound application of bioinformatics in genome sequence has led to a new area in pharmacology—
Pharmacogenomics, where the potential targets for drug development are hypothesized from the genome
sequences. Molecular modeling, which requires a lot of calculations, has become faster dure to the advances
in computer processors and its architecture (Madan, n.d.).

How to Check the Reliability of Web Sources

 The Internet contains a vast collection of highly valuable information but it may also contain unreliable,
biased information that mislead people. The following guidelines can help us check the reliability of web
sources that we gather. It is noteworthy to consider and apply the following guidelines to avoid misinformation.
(Lee College Library, n.d.)

I. Who is the author of the article/site?

a. How to find out?
 Look for an “About” or “More About the Author” link at the top, bottom, or sidebar of the
webpage. Some pages will have a corporate author rather than a single person as an
author. If no information about the author(s) of the page is provided, be suspicious.
1. Does the author provide his or her credentials?
2. What type of expertise does he or she have on the subject he or she is writing
about? Does he or she indicate what his or her education is?
3. What type of experience does he or she have? Should you trust his or her
knowledge of the subject?
 Try searching the internet for information about the author.
1. What kinds of websites are associated with the author’s name? Is he or she affiliated
with any educational institution?
2. Do commercial sites come up? Do the websites associated with the author give you
any clues to particular biases the author might have?
II. Who published the site?
a. How to find out?
 Look at the domain name of the website that will tell you who is hosting the site. For
instance, the Lee College Library website is: [Link] The domain name
is “[Link].” This tells you that the library is hosted by Lee College.
 Search the domain name at [Link] The site provides information about the
owners of registered domain names. What is the organization’s main purpose? Check the
organization’s main website, if it has one. Is it educational? Commercial? Is it a reputable
organization?
 Do not ignore the suffix on the domain name (the three-letter part that comes after the “.”).
The suffix is usually (but not always) descriptive of what type of entity hosts the website.
Keep in mind that it is possible for sites to obtain suffixes that are misleading. Here are
some examples:
a. .edu = educational
b. .com = commercial
c. .mil = military
d. .gov = government
e. .org = nonprofit

III. What is the main purpose of the site? Why did the author write it and why did the publisher post it?
a. To sell a product?
 b. As a personal hobby?
c. As public service?
d. To further scholarship on a topic?
e. To provide general information on a topic?
f. To persuade you of a particular point of view?
IV. Who is the intended audience?
a. Scholars or general public?
b. Which age group is it written for?
c. Is it aimed at people from a particular geographic area?
d. Is it aimed at members of a particular profession or with specific training?
V. What is the quality of information provided on the website?
a. Timeliness: When was the website first published? Is it regularly updated? Check for dates at
the bottom of each page on the site.
b. Does the author cite sources? Just as in print sources, web sources that cite their sources are
considered more reliable.
c. What type of other sites does the website link to? Are they reputable sites?
d. What types of sites link to the site you are evaluating? Is the website being cited by others?

Examples of Useful and Reliable Web Sources

1. AFA e-Newsletter (Alzheimer’s Foundation of America newsletter)

2. American Memory – the Library of Congress historical digital collection
3. [Link] Great Books Online – a collection of free e-books including fictions, nonfictions,
references, and verses.
4. Chronicling America – search and view pages form American newspapers from 1880-1922
5. Cyber Bullying – a free collection of e-books from ebrary plus additional reports and
documents to help better understand, prevent and take action against this growing concern.
6. Drug information websites:
a. National Library of Medicine’s MedlinePlus
b. [Link]
c. PDRhealth
7. Global Gateway: World Culture & Resources (from the Library of Congress)
8. Google Books
9. [Link]
10. History sites with primary documents:
a. AMDOCS: Documents for the study of American history
b. Avalon Project: Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy (Yale Law School)
c. Internet Modern History Sourcebook: Colonial Latin America
d. Teacher Oz’s Kingdom of History
11. Illinois Digital Archives – the Illinois State Library working with libraries, museums, and
historical societies in Illinois provides this collection of materials related to Illinois history.
12. Internet Archive – a digital library of Internet sites and other cultural artifacts in digital form.
 13. Internet Archive for CARLI digitized resources
14. Internet Public Library
15. ip12 – a merger of Librarians’ Internet Index and Internet Public Library. Special interest may
include the “Literary Criticisms” page which can be found after clicking on the “Special
Collections” link.
16. Librarians’ Internet Index
17. Making of America – a digital library of primary sources in American social history.
18. Maps – form the University of Texas at Austin collection. Includes historical and thematic
maps.
19. NationMaster – a massive central data source and a handy way to geographically compare
nations. It is a vast compilation of data form such sources as the CIA World Factbook, UN,
and OECD.
20. Nursing sites:
a. AHRQ ([Link])
b. National Guidelines Clearinghouse ([Link])
c. PubMed ([Link])
21. Project Gutenberg – the first and largest single collection of free electronic books with currently
over 20,000 e-books available.
22. Shmoop – literature, US history and poetry information written primarily by PhD and masters
students from top universities like Stanford, Berkeley, Harvard, and Yale.
23. StateMaster – a unique statistical database which allows you to research and compare a
multitude of different data on US states using various primary sources such as the US Census
Bureau, the FBI, and the National Center for Educational Statistics. It uses visualization
technology like pie charts, maps, graphs, and scatter plots to provide data.
24. Virtual Reference – selected web resources compiled by the Library of Congress.

One can also visit the university library and seek help from librarians as they are knowledgeable
and the library has a rich collection of online library resources that are very useful for academic and
research purposes.
 UNIT 10 10

BIODIVERSITY AND THE HEALTHY SOCIETY

10.1 Introduction

Decrease in biodiversity is eminent worldwide. Vertebrates fell to 60% from the 1970s due to human
causes. It is projected that by 2020, wildlife decline will be 67% of the present number. The World Wide Fund
for Nature and Zoological Society of London reported an annual decrease in wildlife by 2%. A major cause is
human population which has doubled in number since 1960 to 7.4 billion. Humans have industrialized the
natural habitat of wildlife as well as marine life. Leaving these creatures with no place to live would eventually
cause their deaths. Marco Lambertini, the General Director of WWF International, described that the
disappearance of wildlife is at an unprecedented rate. Earth might enter the sixth mass extinction event
according to experts. Mass extinction is described as the disappearance of species at a rate of 1,000 faster
than usual. Moreover, the disappearance of species in a certain environment causes an imbalance in the
ecosystem, producing more chaotic changes that harm the entire ecosystem ([Link], 2016).

This is but a pressing statement for people to know more about the importance of our diverse
environment, and how human activities can either contribute to its growth or destruction. There is a growing
importance of studying how society, environment, and health is interrelated to each other, that if human
beings fail to recognize the needs of one of those components, the other remaining components can be
affected and compromised. Thus, it is timely to know about the pressing effects of species being extinct and
that of our ecosystem being imbalanced.

10.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Determine the interrelatedness of society, environment, and health;

2. Create a diagram that would show the relatedness of species in forming up a diverse and healthy
society without compromising one another; and

3. Identify everyday tasks and evaluate whether they contribute to the wellness and health of
biodiversity an society or not.

10.3 Lesson 1 Biodiversity and Ecosystem

Biodiversity is defined as the vast variety of life forms in the entire Earth. It encompasses all kinds of
life forms, from the single-celled organisms to the largest multi-celled organisms. Its definition is the structural
and functional perspective and not as individual species.
 Another definition of biodiversity is “the variability among living organisms from all sources, including
terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this
includes diversity within species, and of ecosystems. Biodiversity is the source of the essential goods and
ecological services that constitute the source of life for all and it has direct consumptive value in food,
agriculture, medicine, and in industry.” (Villaggio Globale, 2009)

Understanding biodiversity within the concept of ecosystem needs a thorough study on the
relationship of the biotic, the living organisms and the abiotic, nonliving organisms. Interdisciplinary approach
is needed to study the ecosystem. Biodiversity plays a major role in this natural dynamics. For example, a
large number of golden snails in a certain area of a rice field can help predict a low production of rice harvest,
since eggs of the golden snails are considered pest for rice plant. On a positive view, the larger number of
different species in a certain area can be a predictor of sustainable life in that area. Sustainability of the
ecosystem ensures a better survival rate against any natural disaster. Therefore, we, as human inhabitants
of the ecosystem, must preserve and conserve the biodiversity of all creatures.

In simpler terms, it is true that people will always depend on biodiversity on the wholeness of our
being and in our everyday lives. More so, our health will ultimately depend upon the products and services
that we acquire from the ecosystem. Somehow, there are ways and processes in the ecosystem that are not
apparent nor appreciated by us, human beings. Think about the need to drink clean and fresh water, the
need to eat healthy vegetables and food or the need of man to transport which makes him rely on fuel. All of
these are human needs that are answered and provided by our ecosystem. Though, if we fail to keep the
process if taking care of the ecosystem, it is us who are actually putting our lives at risk. Significant decline
in biodiversity has direct human impact when ecosystem in its insufficiency can no longer provide the physical
as well as social needs of human beings. Indirectly, changes in the ecosystem affect livelihood, income, and
on occasion, may even cause political conflict (WHO, n.d.)

10.4 Lesson 2 Changes in Biodiversity

Alteration in any system could bring varied effects. A change in biodiversity could have erratic effects
not only in wildlife or marine life but also in human beings. For example, humans in habituating the forest
would disturb the natural order of life. Trees and plants would be affected un the land—clearing operations
where the houses would be built. The animals, insects, and all types of life forms in the cleared area would
either be displaced or most likely be killed. The loss of these life forms could affect the entire ecosystem
governing that environment. The food chain might be damaged. From this, we can clearly infer that when our
ecosystem is not well taken care of, biodiversity encounters change that may impact human health on such
different levels.

Threats to Biodiversity

There are major threats to biodiversity that were identified by the United Nations’ Environment
Programme (WHO, n.d.). these are the following:

1. Habitat loss and destruction. Major contributing factor is the inhabitation of human beings and the use
of land for economic gains.
 2. Alterations in ecosystem composition. Alterations and sudden changes, either within species groups
or within the environment, could being to change entire ecosystems. Alterations in ecosystems are a
critical factor contributing to species and habitat loss.
3. Over-exploitation. Over-hunting, overfishing, or over-collecting of species can quickly lead to its
decline, changing consumption patterns of humans is often cited as key reason for this unsustainable
exploitation of natural resources.
4. Pollution and contamination. Biological systems respond slowly to changes in their surrounding
environment. Pollution and contamination cause irreversible damage to species and varieties.
5. Global climate change. Both climate variability and climate change cause biodiversity loss. Species
and populations may be lost permanently if they are not provided with enough time to adapt to
changing climatic conditions.

Consequences of Biodiversity Loss

Even with the improvement of technology and science at present, we still have a lot to learn about
biodiversity, more so about the consequences of biodiversity loss. However, the basic concept about
biodiversity loss was from Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace.

Intact ecosystems function best since the organisms composing them are specialized to function in
that ecosystem to capture, transfer, utilize and, ultimately, lose both energy and nutrients. The particular
species making up an ecosystem determine its productivity, affect nutrient cycles and soil content, and
influence environmental conditions such as water cycles, weather patterns, climate, and other nonbiotic
aspects. The loss of biodiversity has many consequences that we understand, and many that we do not. It is
apparent that humankind is willing to sustain a great deal of biodiversity loss if there are concomitant benefits
to society; we hope they are net benefits. In many cases, the benefits seem to accrue to a few individuals
only, with net societal loss. However, it is extremely difficult to estimate the future costs of losses in
biodiversity or of environmental damage (Rainforest Conservation Fund, 2017).

As stated by Tilman, “The Earth will retain its most striking feature, its biodiversity, only if humans
have the prescience to do so. This will occur, it seems, only if we realize the extent to which we use
biodiversity (Rainforest Conservation Fund, 2017).”

Nutritional Impact of Biodiversity

According to the World Health Organization, biodiversity is a vital element of a human being’s nutrition
because of its influence to food production. Biodiversity is a major factor that contributes to sustainable food
production for human beings. A society or a population must have access to sufficient variety of nutritious
food as it is a determinant of their health as human beings.

Nutrition and biodiversity are linked at many levels: the ecosystem, with food production as an
ecosystem service; the species in the ecosystem; and the genetic diversity within species. Nutritional
composition between foods and among varieties/cultivars/breeds of the same food can differ dramatically,
affecting micronutrient availability in the diet. Healthy local diets, with adequate average levels of nutrients
intake, necessitates maintenance of high biodiversity levels. Intensified and enhanced food production
through irrigation, use of fertilizer, plant protection (pesticides), or the introduction of crop varieties and
cropping patterns affect biodiversity and thus impact global nutritional status and human health. Habitat
simplification, species loss, and species succession often enhance communities, vulnerabilities as a function
of environmental receptivity to ill health (WHO, 2007).

Health, Biology, and Biodiversity

Almost all living organisms are dependent to their environment to live and reproduce. Basic needs of
living organisms such as air, water, food, and habitat are provided by its environment. The evolution of human
beings was due to the improved access to these basic needs. Advances in agriculture, sanitation, water
treatment, and hygiene have had a far greater impact on human health than medical technology.

Although the environment sustains human life, it can also cause diseases. Lack of basic necessities
is a significant cause of human mortality. Environmental hazards increase the risk of cancer, heart disease,
asthma, and many other illnesses. These hazards can be physical, such as pollution, toxic chemicals, and
food contaminants, or they can be social, such as dangerous work, poor housing conditions, urban sprawl,
and poverty. Unsafe drinking water and poor sanitation and hygiene are responsible for a variety of infectious
diseases, such as schistosomiasis, diarrhea, cholera, meningitis, and gastritis. In 2015, approximately
350,000 children under the age of five (mostly in the developing world) died from diarrheal diseases related
to unsafe drinking water, and approximately 1.8 billion people used drinking water contaminated with feces.
More than two billion people lacked access to basic sanitation.

The interrelation between human health and biological diversity is considerable and complex. With
the current biodiversity loss at unprecedented rates, the delicate balance between human health and
biological diversity is at risk.

Environment-Related Illnesses

Some human illnesses that are found to be related with its environment include Parkinson’s disease,
heart disease, cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, diabetes, obesity, occupational
injuries, dysentery, arthritis, malaria, and depression.

By contrast, activities that promote health and extend human life could have adverse environmental
effects. For example, food production causes environmental damage from pesticides and fertilizers, soil
salinization, waste produced by livestock, carbon emissions form food manufacturing and transportation,
deforestation, and overfishing. Health care facilities also have adverse environmental impacts. Hospitals use
large quantities of electricity and fossil fuels and produce medical wastes. To prevent some diseases, it may
be necessary to alter the environment. For example, malaria was eradicated in the United States and other
developed nations in the 1940s and 50s as a result of draining wetlands and spraying DDT to kill mosquitoes.
A reduction in mortality from starvation or disease can lead to overpopulation, which stresses the environment
in many different ways—increasing use of fossil fuels, clearing of and, generating pollution and waste, and
so on (Rensik &Portier, 2017).
 Interestingly, according to experts, climate change could also have a serious impact on human health
and could deteriorate farming systems and reduce nutrients in some foods. In this case, biodiversity increases
resilience, thus helping adjust to new environmental conditions. Safeguarding of coral reefs, for instance, is
essential to reduce the risk of floods, as this extraordinary ecosystem can reduce wave energy by 97%, thus
protecting over 100 million people all over the world.

Relationships between human health and the environment raise many ethical, social, and legal
dilemmas by forcing people to choose among competing values. Many of the issues at the intersection of
health and the environment have to do with managing benefits and risks. For example, pesticides play an
important role in increasing crop yields, but they can also pose hazards to human health and the environment.
Alternatives to pesticide use create trade-offs in health. The extreme action of stopping all pesticide uses
could significantly reduce agricultural productivity, leading to food shortages and increased food prices which
would, in turn, increase starvation in some parts of the world. Public health authorities have opted to regulate
the use of pesticides to enhance food production while minimizing damage to the environment and human
health. Energy production and use help sustain human life, but it can also pose hazards to human health and
the environment, such as air and water pollution, oil spills, and destruction of habitats (Rensik & Portier,
2017).

No issues and greater care in balancing benefits and risks than global warming. A significant
percentage of global climate change is due to the human production of greenhouses gases. Climate change
is likely to cause tremendous harm to the environment and human health, but taking steps to drastically
reduce greenhouse gases could have adverse consequences for global, national, and local economies. For
example, greatly increasing taxes on fossil fuels would encourage greater fuel efficiency and lower carbon
dioxide emissions, but it would also increase the price of transportation, which would lead to widespread
inflation and reduced consumer spending power. Managing benefits and risks also raises social justice
concerns. In general, people with lower socio-economic status have greater exposure to certain harmful
environmental conditions in their homes or at work, such as lead, mercury, pesticides, toxic chemicals, or air
and water pollution. Communities and nations should wisely choose a site for a factory, a power plant, or
waste dump, or regulating safety in the workplace to minimize impact to the society. The decision-making
process should be fair, open, and democratic, so that people who will be affected by environmental risks
have a voice in these deliberations and can make their concerns known (Rensik &Portier, 2017).

When drafting and implementing environmental health regulations, it is important to consider

vulnerable subpopulations. A vulnerable subpopulation is a group with an increased susceptibility to the
adverse effects of an environmental risk factor, due to their age, genetics, health status, or some other
condition. If an environmental regulation is designed to protect average members of the population, it may
fail to adequately protect vulnerable subpopulations. Justice demands that we take care if people who are
vulnerable. However, almost everyone in the population has an above-average susceptibility to at least one
environmental risk factor. Since providing additional protection to everyone would be costly and impractical,
protections must be meted out carefully and the populations who are vulnerable to a particular environmental
risk factor must be defined clearly (Rensik & Portier, 2017).
 In addition to this, various public health strategies pit the rights of individuals against the good of
society, such as mandatory treatment, vaccination or diagnostic testing; isolation and quarantine; and disease
surveillance. The owner of a coal-burning power plant must deal with many laws concerning the operation of
the plant, workplace safety, and carbon emissions. A developer who plans to build 150 new homes with land
he has purchased may also have to deal with laws concerning storm drainage, water and sewage lines, gas
lines, sidewalks, and so on. Restrictions on property rights are justified to protect human health and the
environment. However, opponents of these restrictions argue that they are often excessive or not adequately
supported by scientific evidence (Rensik &Portier, 2017).

Human rights issues also come up with research on environmental health that involves human
subjects. For such research to be ethical, human subjects must give consent, and great care must be taken
to ensure that they understand that they can opt out of the research project. Since the late 1990s, some
pesticide companies have tested their products on human subjects to gather data to submit to the government
for regulatory purposes. Some commentators charge that these experiments are unethical because they
place people at unacceptably high risk without a clear benefit to society. Others have argued that the
experiments, if properly designed and implemented, could produce important benefits to society by providing
useful knowledge about the effects of pesticides that lead to stronger regulations (Rensik & Portier, 2017).