Engineering Physics (BPHY101L) Module 2.

Electromagnetic Waves

Module 2. Electromagnetic Waves

Physics of divergence - gradient and curl - Qualitative understanding of surface and volume integral -
Maxwell Equations (Qualitative) - Displacement current - Electromagnetic wave equation in free space
- Plane electromagnetic waves in free space - Hertz’s experiment.
Reference:
1. Griffiths, D. J. (2023). Introduction to electrodynamics. Cambridge University Press.

Prelude
Ordinary differential equation:
– The function depends only on one variable 𝑦 = 𝐹(𝑥)
– Slope = dy/dx
– Example: Force, simple harmonic motion
Partial differential equation:
– The function depends on more than one variable 𝑦 = 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑡)
𝜕𝑦
– 𝜕𝑥

– Examples: Wave equation, Heat equation

Dell operator: It is a vector. The del operator acts on both scalar and vector quantities.

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
⃗∇= 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Or
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
⃗∇= 𝑥̂ + 𝑦̂ + 𝑧̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Physics of divergence - gradient and curl

⃗ ⃗V) – Gives a scalar function
Divergence: acts on a vector function (∇
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
⃗∇= 𝑥̂ + 𝑦̂ + 𝑧̂
Definition: It measures how much a vector 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
spreads (outward or inward) from a point ⃗ = 𝑉𝑥 𝑥̂ + 𝑉𝑦 𝑦̂ + 𝑉𝑧 𝑧̂
V
𝜕𝑉𝑥 𝜕𝑉𝑦 𝜕𝑉𝑧
⃗𝑉
∇ ⃗ = + + 𝑧̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Positive divergence:
– Indicates that the vector field is spreading out from that point
– It is also called as a source
– Examples: water flowing from a faucet

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Engineering Physics (BPHY101L) Module 2. Electromagnetic Waves

Negative divergence:
– Indicates that the field is spread inwards (converging) towards that point
– It is also called as a sink
– Examples: water is flowing towards the drain
Zero divergence:
– Indicates the field is constant everywhere
– Example:
⃗ 𝑉) – Gives a vector function
Gradient: acts on a scalar function (∇
Definition: It measures the rate of change of a 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑑𝑉 = ( ) 𝑑𝑥 + ( ) 𝑑𝑦 + ( ) 𝑑𝑧
scalar function(field at different points in 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
space).
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
Example: Temperature in an AC room. 𝑑𝑉 = (𝑥̂ + 𝑦̂ + 𝑧̂ ) 𝑉. (𝑑𝑥𝑥̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝑦̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
– Cooler near the AC + 𝑑𝑧𝑧̂ )
– Less cool away from the AC ⃗ 𝑉. 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝑉 = ∇
⃗ 𝑉||𝑑𝑙| cos 𝜃
𝑑𝑉 = |∇
Mathematical interpretation: Gradient can be a maximum, minimum or saddle point.
– Gradient is maximum when 𝜃 = 0 (𝑑𝑉 = |∇ ⃗ 𝑉||𝑑𝑙|). Magnitude |∇
⃗ 𝑉| gives the slope along
the maximum direction.
– Gradient is minimum when 𝜃 = 180° (𝑑𝑉 = −|∇ ⃗ 𝑉||𝑑𝑙|)
– Gradient is zero when 𝜃 = 90° (𝑑𝑉 = 0). This point is known as a saddle point or a
stationary point. Here, the function 𝑉 is constant.
⃗ × ⃗V) – Gives a vector function
Curl: acts on a vector function (∇
Definition: It measures the "rotation" or "circulation" of the vector field around a point.
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
⃗∇ × ⃗V = (𝑥̂ + 𝑦̂ + 𝑧̂ ) × (𝑉𝑥 𝑥̂ + 𝑉𝑦 𝑦̂ + 𝑉𝑧 𝑧̂ )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑥̂ 𝑦̂ 𝑧̂
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
⃗∇ × ⃗V =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
[ 𝑉𝑥 𝑉𝑦 𝑉𝑧 ]
𝜕𝑉𝑧 𝜕𝑉𝑦 𝜕𝑉𝑧 𝜕𝑉𝑥 𝜕𝑉𝑦 𝜕𝑉𝑥
⃗ ×V
∇ ⃗ = 𝑥̂ ( − ) − 𝑦̂ ( − ) + 𝑧̂ ( − )
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Mathematical interpretation:
– If curl is zero. – If curl is not zero
o The vector is irrotational. The vector function is rotational
o The vector function is conservative. The vector function is not conserved
Example:
1. Tooth pick in a glass of water
2. whirlpool in a lake – The direction of the curl vector would point along the axis of the whirlpool,
and its magnitude would represent the speed of the rotation.

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Assistant Professor Junior
Engineering Physics (BPHY101L) Module 2. Electromagnetic Waves

Function Acts on Gives

Divergence Vector Scalar

Gradient Scalar Vector

Curl Vector Vector

Second Derivatives:
⃗ 𝑉) – Gives a vector function
1. Gradient (∇
a. Divergence of a gradient – Gives a scalar quantity
⃗ . (∇
∇ ⃗ 𝑉) = ∇2 𝑉 → ∇2 knowns as LAPLACIAN
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
∇2 = 2 + 2 + 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
b. Curl of a gradient – Gives a vector quantity
⃗ × (∇
∇ ⃗ 𝑉) = 0
2. Divergence (∇⃗𝑉
⃗ ) – Gives a scalar function
a. Gradient of divergence – Gives a vector quantity
⃗ (∇
∇ ⃗ . 𝑉)
⃗ ×𝑉
3. Curl (∇ ⃗ ) – Gives a vector function
a. Divergence of a curl – Gives a scalar quantity
⃗ . (∇
∇ ⃗ ×𝑉 ⃗)=0
b. Curl of a curl: – Gives a vector quantity
⃗∇ × (∇
⃗ ×𝑉 ⃗ ) = ⃗∇(∇⃗ .𝑉
⃗ ) − ∇2 𝑉

Problems:
1. Find the divergence of the following vector functions
a. ⃗⃗⃗
V1 = 𝑥𝑥̂ + 𝑦𝑦̂ + 𝑧𝑧̂
b. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
V2 = 𝑧𝑧̂
c. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
V3 = 𝑦 2 𝑥̂ + (2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 2 )𝑦̂ + 2𝑦𝑧𝑧̂
d. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
V4 = − 𝑥𝑥̂ − 𝑦𝑦̂ − 𝑧𝑧̂
2. Find the gradient of the following scalar functions
a. 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 4
b. 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑧 4
c. 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦 ln 𝑧
3. The height of a certain hill (in feet) is given by ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦) = 10(2𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑦 2 − 18𝑥 +
28𝑦 + 12). Where y is the distance (in miles) north and x is the distance (in miles) east of South
Hadley.
a. Where is the top of the hill located
b. Height of the hill?
c. Steep at a point of 1 mile north and 1 mile east of South Hadley, the Direction of slope
is steepest at that point.
4. Find the curl of the following vector functions
a. ⃗⃗⃗
V1 = − 𝑦𝑥̂ + 𝑥𝑦̂
b. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
V2 = 𝑥𝑦̂

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Assistant Professor Junior
Engineering Physics (BPHY101L) Module 2. Electromagnetic Waves

Qualitative understanding of surface and volume integral

Line Integral: For an infinitesimally small distance
𝑏
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
∫𝑉
𝑎

Surface Integral: For an infinitesimally small area patch

⃗ . 𝑑𝐴
∯𝑉

Volume Integral: For an infinitesimally small volume (𝑑𝜏). 𝑉 is a scalar quantity

∫ 𝑉 𝑑𝜏 = ∭ 𝑉 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧

Fundamental Theorem of Gradient: The line integral of the gradient is given by the value of the function
at the boundaries.

𝑏
⃗ V) 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑇(𝑏) − 𝑇(𝑎)
∫ (∇
𝑎
𝑏
– ⃗ V) ⃗⃗⃗
∫𝑎 (∇ 𝑑𝑙 is independent of the path taken from a to b.
– For closed surface: ∮(∇ ⃗⃗⃗ = 0. Since 𝑇(𝑎) = 𝑇(𝑏)
⃗ V) . 𝑑𝑙

Fundamental Theorem of Divergence: The integral of divergence over a volume is equal to the value of
the function at the boundary. The surface that bounds the volume

∫ ⃗ 𝑉
(∇ ⃗ ) 𝑑𝜏 = ∫ ⃗ 𝑑𝐴
𝑉
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

– Relates surface to volume

How much flows out of How much are present
– ∮ =∫
the surface in the volume
– Also known as Green’s function, Gauss – Divergence Theorem.
Fundamental Theorem of Curls: The integral of curl over a surface is equal to the value of the function
at the boundary.

∫ ⃗ × 𝑉
(∇ ⃗ ) 𝑑𝐴 = ∮ 𝑉 ⃗⃗⃗
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

– Relates surface to line

– ⃗ × 𝑉
∫𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒(∇ ⃗ ) 𝑑𝐴 depends only on the boundary line, not
on the surface
– For any closed surface: ∮(⃗∇ × 𝑉
⃗ ) 𝑑𝐴 = 0. Since
∮𝑉⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 0
– Also known as Stokes’s Theorem.

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Assistant Professor Junior
Engineering Physics (BPHY101L) Module 2. Electromagnetic Waves

Maxwell Equations (Qualitative)

Maxwell law:

Gauss law:
The total flux in a closed surface 𝜌 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
⃗∇. ⃗E = ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐴 =
is equal to the total charge inside 𝜖0 𝑆 𝜖0
the volume enclosed by the
surface.

Gauss' law for magnetism:

The total magnetic flux in a
closed surface is zero. This is due ⃗∇. 𝐵
⃗ =0 ⃗ . 𝑑𝐴 = 0
∮ 𝐵
𝑆
to the non-existence of isolated
magnetic monopoles.

Faraday’s law of induction:

The magnitude of the emf
induced in a circuit is ⃗
𝜕𝐵 𝜕𝜙𝐵
⃗ ×E
∇ ⃗ =− ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = −
proportional to the rate of change 𝜕𝑡 𝑐 𝜕𝑡
with time t of the magnetic flux
Φ that cuts across the circuit

Maxwell – Ampere law

We can make a magnetic field 𝜕𝐸⃗ ⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼 + 𝜇0 𝜖0
𝜕𝜙𝐸
⃗∇ × 𝐵
⃗ = 𝜇0 ⃗⃗⃗
𝐽𝐷 + 𝜇0 𝜖0 ∮ 𝐵
with a changing electric field 𝜕𝑡 𝑐 𝜕𝑡
with a current

Maxwell – Ampere law:

Ampere's circuit law: It states that for any closed loop path, the sum of the length elements times the
magnetic field in the direction of the length element is equal to the permeability times the electric
current enclosed in the loop.

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Assistant Professor Junior
Engineering Physics (BPHY101L) Module 2. Electromagnetic Waves

Displacement current
Maxwell’s correction to Ampere’s circuit law: A changing electric field induces a magnetic field.
We know that the divergence of curl is always zero for any vector (𝐴)
⃗ .( ∇
∇ ⃗ × 𝐴) = 0
𝜕𝐵 ⃗
From Maxwell’s third equation: ⃗∇ × ⃗E = −
𝜕𝑡

𝜕
⃗ . (∇
∇ ⃗ ×E
⃗)=− ⃗ .B
(∇ ⃗)=0
𝜕𝑡
From Maxwell’s fourth equation: ⃗∇ × 𝐵
⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐽⃗⃗⃗𝐷 → This is not true for all cases
⃗ . (∇
∇ ⃗ ×B
⃗)= ∇
⃗ . (𝜇0 ⃗⃗⃗
JD )
⃗ . (𝜇0 ⃗⃗⃗
For a steady current: ∇ JD ) = 0

For non-steady current: ⃗∇. (𝜇0 ⃗⃗⃗

JD ) ≠ 0
Correction:
– Maxwell’s correction to Ampere’s law originates from the basic principle of conservation of
charge
– ⃗⃗⃗
JD gives the amount of charge flowing per unit area per unit time (Current density)
𝜕𝜌
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∇ JD = −
𝜕𝑡
From Maxwell’s law, the first law: 𝜌 = 𝜖0 ⃗∇. ⃗E
⃗ .E
𝜕(𝜖0 ∇ ⃗)
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∇ JD = −
𝜕𝑡
⃗
𝜕E
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∇ ⃗.
JD = −𝜖0 ∇
𝜕𝑡
Displacement current:
⃗
𝜕E
⃗⃗⃗
JD = −𝜖0
𝜕𝑡
Let us substitute the above equation in
⃗ . (∇
∇ ⃗ ×B
⃗ ) = ⃗∇. (𝜇0 ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
JD ) = 𝜇0 ∇ JD
⃗
𝜕E
⃗ . (∇
∇ ⃗ ×B
⃗)= ∇
⃗ . (𝜇0 ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ . (𝜇0 𝜖0
JD ) = −∇ )
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝐸⃗
⃗∇ × 𝐵
⃗ = 𝜇0 ⃗⃗⃗
𝐽𝐷 + 𝜇0 𝜖0
𝜕𝑡
The Maxwell correction to Ampere’s circuital law establishes the fact that not only changing magnetic
field induce an electric field, but also a changing electric field can also induce a magnetic field.

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Assistant Professor Junior
Engineering Physics (BPHY101L) Module 2. Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic wave equation in free space

Wave equation in free space (in vacuum):
In a vacuum, there is no charge or current
Maxwell's equations

𝜌
⃗∇. ⃗E = (1)
𝜖0

⃗ .𝐵
∇ ⃗ =0 (2)

⃗
𝜕𝐵
⃗ ×E
∇ ⃗ =− (3)
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝐸⃗
⃗ ×𝐵
∇ ⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜖0 (4)
𝜕𝑡

Apply curl on equation (3) Apply curl on equation (4)

𝜕 𝜕
⃗∇ × (∇
⃗ × ⃗E) = − ⃗ ×𝐵
(∇ ⃗) (5) ⃗∇ × (∇
⃗ ×𝐵
⃗ ) = 𝜇0 𝜖0 ⃗ × 𝐸⃗ )
(∇ (8)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

𝜕 𝜕𝐸⃗ 𝜕 𝜕𝐵⃗
⃗∇. (∇
⃗ ⃗E) − ∇2 ⃗E = − (𝜇0 𝜖0 ) ⃗∇. (∇
⃗𝐵⃗ ) − ∇2 𝐵
⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜖0 (− )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
(6) (9)
𝜕 𝜕𝐸⃗ 𝜕 𝜕𝐵⃗
= −𝜇0 𝜖0 = −𝜇0 𝜖0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

We know that, ⃗∇. (∇

⃗ ⃗E) = 0 We know that, ⃗∇. (∇
⃗ ⃗E) = 0

𝜕 2 𝐸⃗ 𝜕2𝐵⃗
⃗ = −𝜇0 𝜖0
−∇2 E (7) ⃗ = −𝜇0 𝜖0
−∇2 E (10)
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕 2 𝐸⃗ 𝜕2𝐵⃗
⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜖0
∇2 E ⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜖0
∇2 B
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡 2
1 𝜕2 𝑓
We know that ∇2 𝑓 = 𝑣 2 𝜕𝑡 2

1
𝑣2 =
𝜇0 𝜖0
Speed of electromagnetic waves in free space:

1 1
𝑣=√ =√ ≈ 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
𝜇0 𝜖0 4𝜋 × 10 𝐻/𝑚 × 8.85 × 10−12 𝐹/𝑚
−7

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Assistant Professor Junior
Engineering Physics (BPHY101L) Module 2. Electromagnetic Waves

Plane electromagnetic waves in free space

Solution to the wave equation: Here, ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸0 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵0 are the corresponding amplitudes and are
independent of 𝑟 and t.
In free space: ⃗∇. ⃗E = 0 and ⃗∇. ⃗B = 0
⃗ .E
1. ∇ ⃗ =0 ⃗ .B
2. ∇ ⃗ =0
2⃗ ⃗
𝜕 𝐸 𝜕2𝐵
⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜖0
∇2 E ⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜖0
∇2 B
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡 2

⃗ (𝑟, 𝑡) = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗ (𝑟, 𝑡) = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗

E 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑟−𝑤𝑡) B 𝐵0 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑟−𝑤𝑡)

(𝑖𝑘⃗ )(𝑖𝑘⃗ )E
⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜖0 (−𝑖𝜔)(−𝑖𝜔)E
⃗ (𝑖𝑘⃗ )(𝑖𝑘⃗ )B
⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜖0 (−𝑖𝜔)(−𝑖𝜔)B
⃗

𝑘 2 = 𝜇0 𝜖0 𝜔2 𝑘 2 = 𝜇0 𝜖0 𝜔2
⃗ | = √𝜇0 𝜖0 𝜔
|k

Putting the solution back into Maxwell’s first and second equations,
(𝑖𝑘⃗ )E
⃗ =0 (𝑖𝑘⃗ )B
⃗ =0

𝑘⃗ . E
⃗ =0 𝑘⃗ . B
⃗ =0

– The electric field ⃗E and magnetic field ⃗B of the electromagnetic wave propagating in free space
are oscillating perpendicular to the direction of propagation vector k.
– This proves the transverse nature of electromagnetic waves propagating in free space.
Substitute in Maxwell’s third and fourth equations:
⃗
𝜕𝐵 𝜕𝐸⃗
⃗∇ × ⃗E = − ⃗∇ × 𝐵
⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜖0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
⃗ × ⃗E = −(−𝑖𝜔)𝐵
𝑖k ⃗ ⃗ ×𝐵
𝑖k ⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜖0 (−𝑖𝜔)𝐸⃗
⃗ ×E
k ⃗ = 𝑖𝜔𝐵
⃗ ⃗ ×𝐵
k ⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜖0 𝜔𝐸⃗

– This implies that the electric field vector ⃗E and the magnetic field vector ⃗B are oscillating
perpendicular to each other and also to the propagation vector ⃗k in free space.
– According to Huygen’s wave theory, a wave propagates through the repeated formation of wave
fronts.
– A wave front is the locus of all points vibrating with the same phase.
– For a monochromatic electromagnetic wave propagating in free space, the requirement of
constant phase at a particular time t implies:
𝑘⃗ . r = constant
– Expanding this in terms of Cartesian coordinates:
𝑘𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑦 𝑦 + 𝑘𝑧 𝑧 = constant
– The above equation represents the equation of a plane
𝑙𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑛𝑧 = constant
– Thus, electromagnetic waves propagating in free space travel as plane waves with repeated
formation of plane wave fronts.

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Assistant Professor Junior
Engineering Physics (BPHY101L) Module 2. Electromagnetic Waves

Questions
Physics of divergence - gradient and curl
1. Explain the physical significance of gradient, divergence, and curl with proper examples.
2. Explain the physical meaning of gradient, Laplacian, divergence and curl’s operator in electric
and magnetic fields.
3. Define and discuss in detail the physical meaning of divergence and curl for a vector field
using a relevant example for each.
Surface and volume integral
4. Describe the Gauss Divergence theorem with suitable mathematical expressions and diagrams.
In the context of electromagnetic theory, discuss its physical significance.
Maxwell Equations (Qualitative) - Displacement current
5. Discuss shortcomings in Ampere’s laws and Maxwell’s modification.
6. Derive Maxwell's correction to Ampere’s equation in electrodynamics. Show that the corrected
equation obeys the scalar triple product.
7. With a theoretical argument, show that Ampere’s law fails for non-steady current and
explain Maxwell’s contribution to the Ampere law.
8. Explain the major contribution of Maxwell in correcting Ampere’s circuit law.
Electromagnetic wave equation in free space
9. Write down Maxwell’s equations in differential form. Obtain the wave equation for the
electromagnetic waves propagating in free space.
10. Write the differential form of Maxwell’s equations in free space. Using them, find the speed of
the electromagnetic waves.
11. Using Maxwell’s equations, derive wave equations for electromagnetic field propagation in free
space. Calculate the wave velocity in free space.
12. Using Maxwell's equations as a starting point, find the wave equation for the
electromagnetic (EM) wave in free space for both the electric E and magnetic B fields.
Comparing it with a classical wave equation, find the speed of the electromagnetic wave.
13. Write Maxwell’s equations in free space, with proper definitions of the parameters. Derive the
wave equation for the electric and the magnetic field in free space. Deduce the speed of the
wave in free space.
14. Derive the electromagnetic wave equation in free space from Maxwell’s equations for both the
electric and magnetic field. Compare them with the classical wave equation and demonstrate
that light is a form of electromagnetic wave.

Problems
Physics of divergence - gradient and curl
1. Calculate the divergence of a vector field
4𝑦
𝐺(𝑥, 𝑦. 𝑧) = 𝑖 + sin 𝑦 𝑗 + 3𝑘
𝑥2

Basil Chacko ([Link]@[Link]) Page | 9

Assistant Professor Junior