DI

GESTI
ON
Ter
msusedi
ndi
gest
ion

I
ndi
gest
ion:
thi
sist
het
aki
ngoff
oodi
ntot
hemout
h.

Di
gest
ion:
thisistheprocessbywhichl
argecomplexfoodsubstances
arebrokenintosimpl
esolubl
efoodsubstances.I
toccurs
alongthedigesti
vecanal
.

Absor
pti
on:
thisistheprocessbywhichdigestedfood(sol
ubl
efood)
di
ffuseintot
hebl oodci
rcul
ator
ysy stem.I
toccur
sintheil
eum.

Assi
mil
ati
on:thi
sist
heuti
l
isat
ionofdi
gest
edf
oodsubst
ances.I
t
occursint
hecel
l
s.

Egest
ion:
thisistheprocessbywhichi
ndi
gested(undi
gest
ed)foodis
removedfrom thebody
.Expul
sionofthesef
oodsubstances
occursint
heanus.

Di
gest
ionoff
oodi
nman
Mant akesinsevenkindsoff
oodsubstances,
outofthesev
enkindsof
foodsubstancesonly3foodsubst
ancesaredigest
[Link]
e
carbohydr
ates,pr
otei
nsandlipi
ds.

Thevit
ami ns,mi
ner alsal
tsandwat erarenotdigestedbecauset
heyar
e
al
readyinsolubl
ef [Link] oughageisnotdigestedbecausemanhas
nocell
ulasetodigestcell
ulosefoundint her
oughage.

Ty
pesofdi
gest
ion

Mechani
calDigesti
on:invol
v esthephy si
calbreakdownoffood.I
t
incl
udesmast ication(chewing,mashingandbreaki
ng),
roll
ingacti
onoft het ongueandsecr eti
onofsal
ivaand
swal l
owingleadingtoper i
stal
sis.

Chemi
calDigest
ion:
inv
olvest
hechemicalbreakdownoffoodbythe
acti
onofenzymes.I
tequal
l
yincludeshydrol
ysi
s(addi
ti
onof
water)
.

pg.1
Enzy
mesi
nvol
vedi
ndi
gest
ion

Car
bohy
drases/
amy
lases:
thesear
eenzy
mest
hatdi
gestcar
bohy
drat
es.

Pr
oteases:
thesear
eenzy
meswhi
chdi
gestpr
otei
ns.

Li
pids:
thesear
eenz
ymeswhi
chdi
gestf
ats/
oil
s.

THESTRUCTUREOFTHEALI
MENTARYCANAL

pg.2
 [Link]
gest
ioni
nthemout
h

Themouthhast eet
hwhi chphy
sical
l
ybr eakssol
idf
oodint
osmal
ler
[Link]
hesur
facear
eaf
orthe
act
ionofenzymes.

Tongue:
Itmi
xesf
oodwi
thsal
i
vaandl
aterr
oll
siti
ntot
hebol
us.

Sal
iv
a:Iti
ssecr
etedbyt
hesali
var
yglandsnamel
ythepar
oti
d,subl
i
ngual
andsubmandi
bul
argl
[Link]
ivai
suseful
int
hefol
lowi
ng
ways:

A.I
tmoi
stensandsof
tensf
ood.

B.I
thy
drol
ysesf
oodasi
tissol
vent
.

C.I
tmakest
hef
oodsl
i
pper
yforeasyswal
l
owi
ng.

[Link]
nssali
var
yamy l
ase(pt
y al
in)whi
chbegi
nsdi
gest
ionof
carbohydrat
esi.
e.i
tconver
tsstarchtomalt
ose.

St
arch Mal
tose

Oncefoodhasmixedthoroughl
ywithsali
va(bolus),t
her ol
l
si tt
othe
backofthemout
hinapr ocesscal
[Link]
cart
il
agi
nousmusclecal
ledepigl
otti
sclosesthetracheaasf oodpasses.

Oesophagus

Itmadeupofcircularandlongit
udinal
[Link]
es
foodundergoperistal
sis(
wavelikemov ementoffoodr
esult
ingf
rom
contr
acti
onandr elaxat
ionofthemuscles).

Di
gest
ioni
nthest
omach

Thest
omachisamuscul
arbagt
hatst
oresf
oodt
empor
ari
l
y.I
tismade
upoft
hreemuscl
es:

Cardi
acsphinctermuscl
es:t
hesear
elocatedattheent
rypar
toft
he
st
[Link]
owsonlythebol
ustopassthrough.

Py
lor
icsphi
nct
ermuscl
es:
Thi
sisl
ocat
edatt
heendofst
omach

pg.3
connect
ingt
heduodenum.I
tal
l
owsonl
ythechi
met
opasst
hrough.

Cir
cularmuscl
es:coverst
hemai nar
[Link]
l
ayersofmuscles.I
nsidethesemuscl
es,
therearegast
ri
cglands,
oxynt
iccel
lsandthegobletcell
s.

Car
diacsphi
nct
ermuscl
e

Py
lor
icsphi
nct
er

Ci
rcul
armuscl
es

Di
gest
ioni
nthest
omachi
sfaci
l
itat
edbyt
hef
oll
owi
ngst
ruct
ures:

[
a]Oxy
nti
ccel
ls:
theypr
oducehy
drochl
ori
caci
d.

I
mpor
tanceofhy
drochl
ori
caci
d.

 Ki
l
lsbact
eri
afoundi
nfood.

 Pr
ovi
desanaci
denv
ironmentf
ort
heact
ionofenzy
mes.

 Act
ivat
esenzy
mes.

 Hy
drol
ysessucr
oset
ogl
ucoseandf
ruct
ose.

[b]Gast
ri
cgl
ands:
producesgast
ri
cjui
cewhi
chcont
ainst
woenzy
mes
namely:

[
i]pepsi
n:itisrel
easedi naninact
ivef
orm call
edpepsi [Link]
s
madeact iv
ei ntheacidi
cmedium therebyturningtopepsin,
thereasonwhyt heenzy
mecannotdi gesttheor gan
producingitandwher ei
tworks.I
tbegi nsproteindi
gesti
on
asshownbel ow:

Pepsi
n act
son Pr
otei
ns conv
ert
sthem Pol
ypept
ides

[
ii
]Reni
n:pr
oducedinyoungmammal [Link]
ert
sthesolubl
emilki
nto
i
nsolubl
ecur
ds(coagul
ates)call
edcasei
[Link]
sisactedupon
bypepsi
ntoproducepol
ypepti
des.

pg.4
Sol
ubl
eMi
l
k actedon Reni
n conv
ert
edt
o I
nsol
ubl
emi
l
k(Casei
n)

Casei
n act
edon pepsi
n conv
ert
edt
o pol
ypept
ides

[
c]Gobl
etcell
s:[Link] ot
ectsthewal
l
sof
thestomachf rom t
heacidi
cpepsi
[Link]
essornomucusis
producedoneendsupwi t
hgastr
icul
[Link]
l
y
lubr
icatesthestomachforeasymovementoffood.

Whenfoodi
sthoroughl
ymixedwithal
lthecontent
soft
hestomach,i
t
f
ormsasubstancecall
edchymewhoseentryintot
heduodenum i
s
r
egul
atedbyt
hepy l
ori
csphinct
er.

DI
GESTI
ONI
NTHESMALLI
NTESTI
NES

Di
gest
ioni
nthesmal
li
ntest
inesoccur
sint
hreemai
nar
eas:

[
a]Duodenum:

Theaci dicchymeleavesthest omachatinter

valsthrought hepyl
oric
sphinctermuscle;uponreachingtheduodenum, theaci dinthestomach
sti
mul atesthewall
softheduodenum t osecreteahor moneknownas
[Link]
monei scarriedbythebloodtot heliver(
specif
ical
ly
gal
l bl
adder )andt
hepancr easemakingthem tor eleasethesecreti
ngs
oftheduodenum.

[
b]Gal
lbl
adder
:

Thegallbladderstor
esbilewhichisproducedbytheli
[Link]
ns
somesal t
sandsodi um hydrogencarbonatewhichneutr
alisesthe
chymewhi chisacidi
c,becauseenzymesi nthesmalli
ntestinesdoesnot
[Link] t
sequal l
yemulsi
[Link]
emulsi
fyfatsistobreakthem intoti
nydroplet
ssoast oincreasethe
sur
faceareaf ortheenzymelipase.

NB:
Bil
edoesnotcont
ainenzy
me.

[
c]ThePancr
ease:

I
tproducest
hepancr
eati
cjuicewhichi
sletint
heduodenum t
hrought
he
pancr
eati
cduct
.Thepancreati
cjui
cecontai
nsthr
eeenzymes:

(
i)PANCREATI
CTRYPSI
N:i
tisr
eleasei
nani
nact
ivef
orm cal
l
ed
pg.5
tr
ypsinogenandlat
erconvert
edtot r
ypsi
ninthepresenceofsuccus
enter
okinase.I
tact
sont heprot
einsconver
ti
ngthem intopept
ides.I
t
al
soact sonpepti
desconvert
ingthem i
ntoaminoacids.

(
ii
)PANCREATI
CAMYLASE:
act
sont
hesugar
sconv
ert
ingi
ttomal
tose.

(
ii
i)LI
PASE:
act
sonf
atsconv
ert
ingt
hem t
ofat
tyaci
dsandgl
ycer
ol.

Thewal l
ofthejej
unum secr
etesanenzy
meint
est
inalj
uiceknownas
succusentri
[Link]
scontai
nsenzymeswhi
chcompletestheprocess
ofdigest
ion.

Thesummaryoft
heenzy
me–subst
rat
eandpr
oduct
soft
hei
rdi
gest
ion
aregi
venbel
ow:

Enzy
me Foodsubst
ance Pr
oduct
s

Pept
idase Pr
otei
ns(
pept
ones) Ami
noaci
ds

Li
pase Li
pids(
Oil
sandf
ats) Fat
tyaci
dsandgl
ycer
ol

Mal
tase Mal
tose Gl
ucosemol
ecul
es

Sucr
ose Sucr
ose Gl
ucose+f
ruct
ose

l
act
ase Lact
ose Gl
ucose+gl
ycogen

ABSORPTI
ONOFTHEDI
GESTEDFOOD

Al
mostal
lthedigest
edfoodisabsor
bedi
nthei
leum.I
tisv
eryl
ongand
gr
owsfi
ngerli
keproject
ionsi
nsi
deknownasVi
l
li.

Thel
engt
handv
il
li
prov
idesal
argesur
facear
eaf
oref
fi
ci
entabsor
pti
on.

NB:
Vil
l
us–si
ngul
arVi
l
li
-pl
ural

Adapt
ati
onofthei
leum t
oabsorpt
ionofdi
gestedf
oodsubst
ances
a)I
tislongtoproducelargesurfacearea.
b)I
tiscoi
l
edsot
hatt
her
eissl
owmov
ementoff
[Link]
s
f
aci
l
itat
est
otal
absor
pti
onoft
hedi
gest
edf
ood.
c)Thei
l
eum cont
ainsanumer
ousf
ingerl
i
kepr
oject
ions

pg.6
 call
edvil
li
.Thevi
ll
iarethestr
uct
ureswhi
chabsor
bthe
digest
edfoodsubstances.
Thedi
agr
am bel
owshowst
hest
ruct
ureoft
heVi
l
lus.

Adapt
ati
onoft
hev
il
li
toabsor
pti
on
Epi
thel
i
um

Theouterwal l
softhev i
l
liaremadeofasingl
elayerofcel
[Link]
ashortdistancebetweent hedigest
edf
oodandthebloodcapi l
l
ari
esand
thel
[Link],therei
squi
ckandeasydif
fusi
on( absor
ption)
ofdi
gestedf oodsubstances.

DenseNet
wor
kofbl
oodcapi
ll
ari
es

Thevil
l
iar
esuppl
i
edwit
hnumer
ouscapil
l
ariest
hatcr
eatealarge
sur
facear
eaandsot
herei
smor
eabsorpti
onofthedi
gestedfood

pg.7
subst
[Link]
oodcapi
l
lar
iesar
eresponsi
blef
orabsor
pti
onof
sugar
sandami noaci
ds.

Lact
eal

Thevi
ll
icont
ainl
act
[Link]
ist
hepartwhi
chisspeci
ali
sedi
n
absor
pti
onofthedi
gestedfatt
yacidsandgl
ycer
ol.

Mi
cro-
vil
li

Micr
o-v
il
li
increasesf
urt
hert
hesur
facear
eaf
orabsor
pti
onofdi
gest
ed
f
oodsubstances.

COMMONAI
LMENTSOFTHEALI
MENTARYCANAL

[Link]
omachdi
seases:
thesei
ncl
udet
hef
oll
owi
ng:

 Gastr
iti
s:t
hisi
sthei
nfl
ammat
ionoft
hest
omachbyan
i
nfect
ion.

 Gastr
icul
cers:t
hisresult
sfrom t
heinabi
l
ityt
oproduce
enoughmucusthatpr ot
ectsthei
nnerpar
tsofthestomach
fr
om hydr
ochlor
icacid.

 Vomit
ingbl
oodwhi
chr
esul
tsf
rom r
apt
ureofar
ter
iesor
vei
ns.

 Diar
rhoeawhichleadst olossofexcesswat erinthecaseof
chol
era,t
yphoidwhi chleadstoreleaseofstoolwithafever
anddysenter
ychar acteri
sedbyfrequentint
esti
nal
contr
acti
onsthatleadst opassi
ngoutl i
quidfaeces.[
Whatar
e
di
ff
erencesbet
weent
heset
ypesofdi
arr
hoea?
]

[Link]
pati
on:istheinabi
lit
ytorel
easefaeces(
stool
)more
of
ten.I
tisusuall
ycausedbyi nadequat
eroughageorthe
di
srupt
ionofregularrout
inediet
.

[Link]
ds:thi
sischar
act
eri
sedbyanal
itchi
ngoft
he
r
ectum andanus.

[Link]
cit
is:i
taf
fect
sthelargei
ntest
inesasi
tcausedbyt
he
i
nfl
ammat i
onoftheappendix.

pg.8
FATEOFDI
GESTEDFOOD

Aft
erthedi
gestedfoodshavebeenabsorbedi
nthevi
ll
i,
thefoodis
car
riedt
otheliv
erbythehepati
cport
alveinwher
eiti
sinvol
vedin
var
iousact
ivi
ti
es:

1)REGULATI ONOFSUGARS: Uponr eachi

ngtheli
versomesugars
arecarr
iedtothecel
l
sfortheprocessofrespi
rat
ion.I
fther
eare
excesssugarsthent
heli
vercel
l
shav et
oregul
atetheexcess
sugars.

*Thenor malsugarl
evel i
s80mg/ 100cm3wherethebloodhav e
someexcesssugar s,theliv
ercell
swill
convertsugar
st o
glycogenwiththehelpofinsuli
[Link]
theglycogenisstor
edi ntheli
verandmuscles.

*I
fthelevel
ofsugardropsinbl
ood,theli
vercel
l
swiththehel
p
ofglucagonactonthestor
edglycogenthenconver
titt
obackto
gl
ucose.

2)DEAMI NATIONOFEXCESSAMI NOACI DS: Whent heami noacids

areabsor bedtheliver,cell
swi l
lusethem andsendt heneeded
ami noacidstoal lbodypar tst hatmayr [Link]
proteinsorami noacidscannotbest or edinanypar tofthebody
ast hebodyhasnost oragemechani [Link] econv ertedto
glucoseandammoni a( toxic).Deami nationact ual
l
yi sthe
breakdownofpr otei
nst or eleaseglucoseandammoni [Link]
ammoni aistoxicthelivercel l
sconv ertsittour eawhi chisless
[Link] oredasgl y
cogeni nt hebodycel l
sin
organssuchasmuscl es, ur eaistakent ot hekidneyf orexcret
ion.

3)REGULATI ONOFFATS: Theli

vercel
l
sr egul
atest
hef at
sby
stor
ingtheusef
ulonesandsendingtheexcesstootheror
gansof
thebodysuchastheadiposelay
eroftheskin,muscl
es,ki
dney
,
heartet
c.

4)Pr
oduct
ionofbi
le:Theli
verpr
oducesbil
ebybreakingdownt
he
ol
dredbl
oodcel
[Link]
eisusef
uli
ndigesti
onoffats.

5)St
orageofv
itami
nsandmi
ner
alsal
ts:
Thel
i
verst
oresessent
ial

pg.9
 vi
taminssuchvi
tami
nAandVitami
[Link]
l
ystoresthev
ital
miner
alsalt
ssuchasir
onwhi
chisusedi
nthesynt
hesisof
haemoglobi
n.

6)Detoxif
icati
on:theli
vercell
sconv er
tstoxi
nspr oducedinthebody
i
ntohar [Link]
sremov edf r
om bl
oodbyt he
l
ivercell
sandoxi di
sedifnotconv er
[Link]
oxic
substancesareremov edfrom bloodbysweat ,uri
neandduring
breat
hing.

7)Synthesi
sofplasmapr ot
eins:Thel
iv
erproducespl
asmaprotei
ns
suchasfibr
inogen,
globuli
nandserum f
rom aminoaci
[Link]
areusual
lyusedforbloodclot
ti
ng.

8)Stor
ageofblood:Theli
verhasar i
chsuppl
yofbloodfrom the
hepat
icart
eryandthehepaticpor
talv
einwhil
edeoxygenated
bl
oodistakenbythehepaticvei
[Link]
slar
gespaces
andcapi
ll
arynetworki
tholdsalargevol
umeofblood.

9)Pr
oducti
onofheatenergy:Duetonumer ousmet abolic
pr
ocesses,
thel
iv
erproducesal [Link]
sdi str
ibut
ed
ar
oundthebodyther
ebyreplaci
ngthelostenergyint hebody.

10) Excreti
onofbil
epigments:Haemoglobi
nisbr
okenint
obi
l
e
pi
gment
sbili
rubi
nandbili
ver
dinswhichar
eexcret
edasbil
e
pi
gment
sintotheduodenum.

COMMONAI
LMENTSOFTHELI
VER

a)Jaundice:itchar
acter
isedbythepresenceofabnor
mal
bi
li
rubi
ni nt hebl
[Link]
[Link]
hingthatmakestheliverf
ail
tocarr
yout
i
tsfunctionscanleadtot hi
scondi
ti
on.

b)Hepati
ti
s:i
stheinf
lammati
onoft
hel
ivercausedbyv
iral
i
nfect
ionsorr
eacti
ontocer
tai
ndr
ugs

c)Ci
rrhosi
s:t
hisist
hedecli
neofl
iverf
unct
ionsdueto
al
coholi
sm andmalnut
ri
ti
[Link]
rr
hosisl
eadstoli
verf
ail
ure.

d)Gal
lst
ones:
thi
siscausedbyi
ncr
easedconcent
rat
ionof

pg.10
 cholest
eroll
eadingtof
ormat
ionofsol
i
dst
ruct
ure/
s(st
ones)
i
nt hegallbl
adder.

pg.11