Chemistry

Periodic Table
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Unit III
I.​ Organizing the Elements
A.​ Searching for an Organization Principle
1.​ 1700, 13 elements known
2.​ 1765-1775, 5 new elements found
3.​ Chemist used properties of elements to sort them into groups
4.​ 1829 Dobereiner organized elements into triads
B.​ Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
1.​ 1869 Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev, published a table of elements
2.​ Showed relations among 60 elements
3.​ He arranged the elements in order of increasing atomic mass
4.​ He left spaces for elements he predicted would be discovered based on
family properties
C.​ Development of the Periodic Table
1.​ He was able to predict where elements that weren’t discovered yet would
go
D.​ The Periodic Law
1.​ 1913 Henry Moseley determined an atomic number of each known
element
2.​ In the modern periodic table, elements are arranged in order of increasing
atomic number
3.​ There are 7 periods each being a principal energy level
4.​ Periodic Law: when elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic
number, there is a periodic repetition of their physical and chemical
properties
E.​ Labeling
1.​ U. S. A
a)​ Gives the most information and the best way
2.​ Europe
3.​ IUPAC, The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, sets
standard for chemistry
a)​ Numbers 1-18
F.​ Metals
1.​ Left side of periodic table
2.​ 80% of elements are metals
3.​ Good conductors of heat and electric current
4.​ Luster and sheen
5.​ All solids at room temperature, except Hg
6.​ Many are ductile
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7.​ Most are malleable

8.​ High melting points
G.​ Nonmetals
1.​ Upper right corner of periodic table
2.​ Greater variation in physical properties than in metals
3.​ Most are gasses at room temperature
4.​ A few are solids, S, P
5.​ One is a liquid, Br
6.​ Poor conductors of heat and electric current (C is an exception)
7.​ Solids are brittle
H.​ Metaloides
1.​ Found along stair - step line separating metals from nonmetals
2.​ Has properties similar to those of metals and nonmetals
3.​ Behavior can be controlled by changing the conditions
4.​ Mixing B with Si makes it a good conductor of electricity
II.​ Squares in the Periodic Table
A.​ Displays the symbols and names of the elements, along with information about
the structure of their atoms.
1.​ Symbols
2.​ Atomic Number
3.​ Average atomic mass
4.​ Element name
5.​ Number of electrons in each energy level
B.​ Special Groups of Atoms
1.​ Alkali metals, Alkaline Earth metals, Halogens
C.​ Electron Configuration in Groups
1.​ Elements can be sorted into groups based on their electron configuration
2.​ Only noble gasses can be used
3.​ Abbreviated Step one= find atomic number
4.​ step 2= find noble gas and go after that on the table
D.​ Representatives
1.​ Anything in 1A represents the rest of the elements through 7A
2.​ Display a wide range of physical and chemical properties
E.​ Alkaline Earth Metals
1.​ Group 2
F.​ Halogens
1.​ 7A
2.​ More reactive as you go up
G.​ Transition metals
1.​ Transition metals
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a)​ Group B element

b)​ Highest occupied sublevel and nearby d sublevel contain electrons
2.​ Inner transition metals
a)​ Appear below the main body of the periodic table
b)​ Highest occupied sublevel and nearby f sublevel contain electrons
H.​ Blocks of Elements
1.​ S block
a)​ 1A and 2A
2.​ P block
a)​ 3A, 4A, 5A, 7A, 8A
3.​ D block
a)​ Transition metals
4.​ F block
a)​ Inner transition metals
III.​ Periodic Trends
A.​ Trends in Atomic Size
1.​ Atomic Radius: one half of the distance between the nuclei of two atoms
of the same element when the atoms are joined
2.​ Measured in picometers
3.​ In I2 distance between Iodine atoms is 280 pm so 1 iodine atom has a
radius of 140 pm.
B.​ Sizes of Atoms
1.​ In general atomic size increases from top to bottom within a group and
decreases from left to right across a period
2.​ Going down: As principle quantum energy level increases radius increases
C.​ Ions
1.​ Metallic elements tend to lose one or more electrons forming positive
ions: cation
a)​ Think of small metallic happy cats
2.​ Nonmetallic elements tend to gain electrons forming negative ions: anions
a)​ Think of big onions that make you cry
D.​ Trends in Ionic Size
1.​ Cations are always smaller than the atoms from which they form
2.​ Anions are always larger than the atom from which they form
3.​ Size generally increases going down a group
4.​ Size of cations and anions generally decrease going across a period
E.​ Trends in Ionization Energy
1.​ Energy required to remove an electron from an atom
2.​ Energy to remove 1st electron is called 1st ionization energy: form cation
1 + charge
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3.​ The 1st ionization energy tends to decreases from the top to bottom within
a group and increase from left to right across a period
F.​ Trends in Electronegativity
1.​ Ability of an atom of an electron to attract electrons within the atom in a
compound
2.​ Values decrease from top to bottom within a group
3.​ For representative elements, the values tend to increase from left to right
across a period
4.​ Noble gasses have no desire for electrons
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Unit IV
I.​ Ionization and Metallic Bonding
A.​ Valence Electrons
1.​ Elements within each group of the periodic table behave similarly because
they have the same number of valence electrons
2.​ Group number = valence electron number
3.​ Electron dot diagram show valence electrons
B.​ The Octet Rule
1.​ In forming compounds, atom tend to achieve the electron configuration of
a noble gas
2.​ Set of eight
3.​ Exception: He and H like 2 outer electrons
4.​ Atoms of the metallic elements tend to lose their valence electrons,
leaving a complete octet in the next-lowest energy level
5.​ Atoms of some nonmetallic elements tend to gain electrons or to share
electrons with other nonmetals to achieve an octet.
C.​ Formation of Cations
1.​ Loss of valence electrons produces a positively charged ion
2.​ Na forms Na+
3.​ Sodium metal is reactive with water while sodium cations are not
4.​ Most common cations are produced by loss of 1-3 valence electrons
D.​ Formation of Atoms
1.​ Gain of valence electrons produces a negatively charged ion
2.​ Cl forms Cl-
3.​ Name of anion typically ends in ide so the chlorine ion is called chloride
4.​ Halogens form halide ions
E.​ Polyatomics
1.​ More than one atoms forms an ion
2.​ OH- Hydroxide
3.​ NO3 - Nitrate
4.​ CO32- Carbonate
5.​ SO42-
6.​ PO43-
II.​ Ionic Bonds and Ionic Compounds
A.​ Formation of Ionic Compounds
1.​ Compounds composed of cations and anions
2.​ Ionic compounds are electrically neutral
B.​ Ionic Bonds
1.​ Electrostatic forces that hold ions together
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2.​ Na loses an e- to form Na+

3.​ Cl gains an e- to form Cl-
4.​ Forming NaCl
5.​ All loses 3 e- for form Al3+
6.​ Br gains an e- to form Br-
7.​ Forming AlBr3
C.​ Formula Units
1.​ Chemical Formula shows the kinds and numbers in the smallest
representative unit of a substance
2.​ Formula Unit: the lowest whole-number ratio of ions in an ionic
compound
3.​ NaCl is 1:1
4.​ MgCl2 is 1:2
D.​ Properties of Ionic Compounds
1.​ Crystalline
2.​ Ions arranged in a repeating 3-D pattern
3.​ Surrounded
4.​ Very stable structure
5.​ High melting points
6.​ Ionic compounds can conduct an electric current when they are dissolved
or melted
III.​ Bonding in Metals
A.​ Metallic Bonds and Metallic Properties
1.​ The valence electrons of metal atoms can be modeled asa. Sea of electrons
2.​ Metallic bonds: consist of the attraction of free-flowing valence electrons
for the positively charged metal ions
B.​ Properties of Metals
1.​ Can be explained by sea of electrons model
a)​ Metals are good conductors because electrons can flow freely
among atoms of metal
b)​ Metals are ductile and malleable due to mobility of electrons
(1)​Metal cations easily slide past one another like ball
bearings immersed in oil
C.​ Crystalline Structure of Metals
1.​ Metals are arranged in very compact and orderly patterns
2.​ Close packed arrangements
a)​ Body centered cubic
(1)​All non-surface atoms have 8 neighbors
b)​ Face centered cubic
(1)​All non-surface atoms have 12 neighbors
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c)​ Hexagonal close packed

(1)​All non-surface atoms have 12 neighbors but the pattern is
different from face centered cubic
D.​ Alloys
1.​ Mixture composed of two or more elements, with at least one of them
being a metal
2.​ Alloys have properties often superior to those of their component elements
3.​ When atoms of the components in alloys, that are about the same size,
replace each other it is called a substitution alloy
4.​ If atoms are smaller, they fit in spaces forming a interstitial alloy (steel)
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Unit V
I.​ Ionic vs Molecular
A.​ Ionic
1.​ Transfer electron to form ions
a)​ (Cation and anion) which are attracted by electrostatic forces
2.​ Formed from metal and nonmetal
3.​ Salts, 3D repeating pattern of ions
4.​ High m.p and b.p
a)​ M.p means melting point
b)​ B.p means boiling point
5.​ Solids are room temperature
6.​ Conducts electricity when dissolved or melted
7.​ If they are metal and nonmetal, they are ionic
B.​ Molecular
1.​ Share electrons ie) diatomics
a)​ Diatomics are H, O, N, F Cl, Br, I
2.​ Formed from nonmetals
3.​ Several small molecules make up the compound
4.​ Low m.p and b.p
5.​ Most gasses and liquids at r.t
6.​ Does not conduct electricity
7.​ If they are both nonmetals, they are molecular compounds
C.​ Molecular vs Structural Formula
1.​ A molecular formula: H - O - H
2.​ Structural formula shows arrangement
II.​ Lewis Structures
A.​ Bonds
1.​ 3A to 8A
2.​ 2e- shared in a single bond H–H
3.​ 4e- shared in a double bond O=O
4.​ 6e- shared in a triple bond N=N
III.​ Bond dissociation energies & length​
A.​ Bond #
1.​ As #bonds goes up energy does up
2.​ As #bonds goes up length goes down
B.​ Exceptions
1.​ Boron only needs three bonds
2.​ Sulfur can use more than 6 bonds
3.​ The exceptions can break the octet rule
4.​ Ozone is O3
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a)​ :O:=O:=:O:
5.​ :C:.:.O:
IV.​ Molecular Shapes
A.​ VSEPR
1.​ VSEPR: valence shell repulsion theory
2.​ The repulsion between electron pairs causes shapes to adjust so that
valence electrons and unshared pairs are as far apart as possible
B.​ THings
1.​ HF, CO2 = :O:=C=:O:
a)​ Linear
b)​ Non polar
c)​ 180º
2.​ BH3 H-B-H-H​
a)​ Trigonal planar
b)​ 120º
3.​ CH4 H*4-C
a)​ Tetrahedral
b)​ Non polar
c)​ 109.5º
4.​ NH3 H*3-.N:
a)​ Pyramidal
b)​ Polar
c)​ 107º
d)​ 1 lone pair
5.​ H2O
a)​ Bent
b)​ Polar
c)​ 105º
C.​ Molecular Orbital Theory
1.​ Based on quantum mechanical model
2.​ When 2 atoms combine the atomic orbitals overlap to produce molecular
orbitals that apply to the entire molecule
D.​ Bonding Orbitals
1.​ Orbitals occupied by two electrons of a covalent bond
2.​ Electrons are between 2 nuclei
E.​ Sigma
1.​ Sigma bonds: end to end overlap, single bonds
2.​ Pi bonds: side to side overlap the 2nd and 3rd bond in a multiple bond
V.​ Polarity
A.​ Nonpolar Covalent Bond
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1.​ Electrons and equally shared

B.​ Polar Covalent Bond
1.​ Electrons are unequally shared
C.​ Intermolecular Attraction
1.​ Very weak
2.​ The strongest is Hydrogen bonding and it is only 5% the strength of a
covalent bond
D.​ Van der Waals Forces
1.​ Weakest of the weak
2.​ Dispersion forces: caused by electron motion
3.​ Dipole Interactions: polar molecules
E.​ Hydrogen Bonding
1.​ Strongest of intermolecular forces
2.​ N-H, O-H, F-H bonds
F.​ Network Solid
1.​ All atoms are covalently bonded, highest m.p and b.p of all compounds
VI.​ Acids and Bases
A.​ Properties of Acid
1.​ Taste sour
2.​ Conduce electricity
3.​ Can be strong or weak electrolytes in solution
4.​ React with metals to produce hydrogen gas
5.​ Many are corrosive
6.​ Changes color of acid-base indicator
B.​ Properties of Bases
1.​ Bitter taste
2.​ Feels slippery
3.​ Conducts electricity
4.​ Can be strong or weak electrolytes
5.​ Change color of indicator
C.​ H
1.​ Arrhenius
a)​ H+ producer
(1)​Acid
b)​ OH- Producer
(1)​Base
2.​ Brønsted-Lowry
a)​ H+ donor
(1)​Acid
b)​ H+ acceptor
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(1)​Base
3.​ Lewis
a)​ Electron-pair acceptor
(1)​Acid
b)​ Electron-pair donor
(1)​Base
D.​ Arrhenius
1.​ Hydrogen containing compounds that ionize to yield hydrogen ions, H+,
in aqueous solutions
2.​ Monoprotic
a)​ HCL
b)​ 1 ionizable H+
3.​ Diprotic
a)​ H2SO4
b)​ 2 ionizable H+
4.​ Tripotic
a)​ H3PO4
b)​ 3 Ionizable H+
E.​ Brønsted-Lowery
1.​ An acid is a hydrogen-ion donor
2.​ A base is a hydrogen-ion acceptor
3.​ Includes more substances that’s by Arrhenius’s theory
F.​ Lewis
1.​ Acids are electron pair acceptors
2.​ Bases are electron pair donors
G.​ Ph Scale
1.​ Goes from 0 to 14
2.​ 7 is neutral
a)​ Also if there is an equal amount of acid and bases
3.​ Less than 7 is an acid
4.​ More than 7 is a base
VII.​ Strengths of Acids and Bases
A.​ Safe Acids
1.​ Citric acid is safe to drink
B.​ Acid Strengths
1.​ Strong Acid: completely ionizes in aqueous solutions
a)​ H+
2.​ Weak Acid: ionizes slightly in aqueous solutions
a)​ A small amount of H+
3.​ Ionize means to break apart
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C.​ Concentration and Strength

1.​ Concentration: indicates how much of an acid or base is dissolved in
solution
2.​ Strength: extent of ionization or dissociation of an acid or base
3.​ Neutralization reaction: Acid+Base –> Salt + Water
D.​ Titration
1.​ Titration: The process of adding a known amount of solution of known
concentration to determine the concentration of another solution.
2.​ Equivalence point: in a titration when the number of moles of H+ = mole
of OH-
E.​ Molarity
1.​ MaVa = MbVb
2.​ Ma= molarity of acid
3.​ Va = volume of acid
4.​ Mb = molarity of base
5.​ Vb = volume of base
6.​ Ma = (Mb * Vb) / 1Va

I.​ Naming Ions

A.​ 2 Types of Compounds
1.​ Ionic: Metal and nonmetal
2.​ Covalent: nonmetals
a)​ Molecular
B.​ Cations
1.​ Form from metals when electrons are lost forming positive ions
2.​ Name like atom for 1A, 2A, and aluminum
3.​ For other metals must use a Roman numeral to indicate charge Iron(II) is
Fe2+
4.​ One polyatomic cation is NH4+
C.​ Anions
1.​ Form form nonmetals when electrons are gained forming negative ions
2.​ For monoatómica name ends in ide
3.​ For polyatomics learn names
II.​ Naming Compounds
A.​ Sodium Chloride
1.​ Na+1​ Cl-1
2.​ NaCl
B.​ Aluminum Oxide
1.​ Al+3​ O-2
2.​ Al2O3
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C.​ Chromium (III) Nitrate

1.​ Cr+3​ (No3)-1
2.​ Cr(N)3)3
D.​ Ammonium Oxalate
1.​ NH+4​ (C2O4)-2
2.​ (NH4)2C2O4
E.​ Formula to Name
1.​ SrCl2
a)​ Strontium
2.​ NH4NO3
a)​ Ammonium Nitrate
3.​ FeCl3
a)​ Iron(III) Chloride
4.​ Co2(So4)3
a)​ Cobalt+(III) Sulfate
F.​ Molecular Compounds
1.​ Prefix Name Prefix Name ending in ide
a)​ Don’t start with mono
b)​ Always end in ide
c)​ CO= carbon monoxide
d)​ N2O= dinitrogen monoxide
2.​ The word for 1 is Mono
3.​ 2 is Di
4.​ 3 is Tri
5.​ 4 is Tetra
6.​ 5 is Penta
7.​ 6 is Hexa
8.​ 7 is Hepta
9.​ 8 is Octa
10.​9 is Nona
11.​10 is Deca
III.​ Moles and Molar Mass
A.​ Finding amounts through weight
1.​ If a cup of pebbles weighs 20g, and each pebble weighs .2g, you can
divide the weight of all pebbles by the weight of one pebble. The number
you get will be the amount of pebbles
2.​ A mole is 6.02 x 1023
3.​ A mole is Avagadro’s number
4.​ Particles: atom, ions, molecules, formula units
B.​ Finding Volume
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1.​ Multiply by 22.4 when turning moles into volume

C.​ Finding Mass
1.​ Molar mass = density
2.​ g/mol
3.​ When trying to find mass, multiply the moles by the molar mass of the
element or compound
IV.​ Percent Composition
A.​ Percent Composition of a Compound
1.​ Find the molar mass of a compound
2.​ Then to find the percent of an element, take the molar mass of that
element and divide it by the total molar mass
3.​ Next multiply that by 100 and that will be your percent
B.​ Empirical Formula
1.​ The empirical formula of a compound gives the lowest whole-number
ratio of the atoms or moles of the elements in a compound
2.​ Simplify the formula like a fraction
V.​ Balancing Equations
A.​ Balancing Equations
1.​ Chemist use a chemical equation-a quick, shorthand
B.​ Word Equations
1.​ Reactants on the left
2.​ Products on the right
3.​ Arrow separates them
4.​ Reactants —> Products
C.​ Symbols
1.​ +
a)​ Separates two reactants or two products
2.​ <—>
a)​ Effects are reversible
3.​ - ->
a)​ ”Yields,” separates reactants from products
4.​ S, I, G
a)​ Says the state of matter
5.​ ∆
a)​ Heat
6.​ Pt
a)​ A formula written above or below the yield sign indicates its use as
a catalyst
D.​ Skeleton Equation
1.​ Unbalanced equation
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VI.​ Ph and Rxn Types

A.​ Combustion
1.​ CO2 + H2O
B.​ Combination
1.​ Two or more things coming together to form one thing
2.​ No plus signs on the product side
C.​ Decomposition
1.​ Breaking one thing apart into two things
D.​ Single Replacement
1.​ A + BC—>B + AC
E.​ Double Replacement
1.​ AB + CD —> AD + CB
2.​ Square dancing
VII.​ Stoichiometry​
A.​ Steps
1.​ First, balance the equation
2.​ Second, Calculate molar mass
3.​ Never put coefficients in the molar mass
a)​ Subscripts do
4.​ Do the rest of the steps
5.​ Grams/molar mass
a)​ Known compound
6.​ Moles unknown/moles known
7.​ Moles * molar mass
a)​ Unknown compound
B.​ Limiter
1.​ Whichever one gives less grams, is the limiter
VIII.​ Percent Yield
A.​ Percent Yield
1.​ Percent Yield is the ratio of the actual yield of the theoretical yield
expressed as a percent
2.​ Percent Yield = actual yield/theoretical yield * 100
3.​ Because the actual yield of a chemical reaction is often less than the
theoretical yield, the percent yield is often less than 100%
IX.​ Pressure
A.​ Boyle’s Law: Pressure and Volume
1.​ P1 * V1 = P2 * V2
B.​ Charles’s Law: Temperature and Volume
1.​ As the temperature of an enclosed gas increases, the volume increases, if
the pressure is constant
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2.​ V1/T1 = V2/T2

C.​ Gay-Lussac’s Law: Pressure and Temperature
1.​ As the temperature of an enclosed gas increases, the pressure increases, if
the volume in constant
2.​ P1/T1 = P2/T2
D.​ The Combined Gas Law
1.​ (P1 * V1)/T1 = (P2 ( V2)/T2
X.​ Gases that Move
A.​ Dalton’s Law
1.​ In a mixture of gases, the total pressure is the sum of the partial pressure
of the gases
2.​ Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3…
3.​ Dalton’s law of partial pressures states that, at constant volume and
temperature, the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the
sum of they partial pressure of the components gases
B.​ Graham’s Law
1.​ Diffusion: the tendency of molecules to move toward areas of lower
concentration until the concentration is uniform throughout
2.​ Effusion: gas escapes through a tiny hole in its container
3.​ Gasses of lower molar mass diffuse and Effie’s faster than gasses of
higher molar mass
C.​ PV = nRT
1.​ Constant is 0.08206
XI.​ Properties of Solutions
A.​ Solution Formula​
1.​ The composition of the solvent and the solute determine whether a
substance will dissolve
2.​ How fast the substance dissolved depending on
a)​ Stirring
b)​ Temperature
c)​ Surface of area of dissolving particles
B.​ Solubility
1.​ The amount of solute that dissolves in a given quantity of a solvent at a
specified temperature and pressure to produce a saturated solution.
2.​ Expressed in grams of solute per 100g of solvent
3.​ 36/100 = x/200
4.​ Saturated Solution
a)​ Contains the maximum amount of solute for a given quantity of
solvent at a constant temperature and pressure
5.​ Unsaturated Solution
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a)​ Contains less solute than a saturated solution at a given

temperature and pressure
6.​ Supersaturated Solution
a)​ Contains more solute than the solvent can theoretically hold at a
given temperature
7.​ Miscible
a)​ Pairs of liquids that dissolve in each other in all proportions
8.​ Immiscible
a)​ Liquids that are insoluble in one another
9.​ The rate at which excess solute deposits upon the surface of a seed crystal
can be very rapid
C.​ Temperature
1.​ The solubility of most solid substances increases as the temperature of the
solvent increases
2.​ For a few substances, solubility decreases with temperature
D.​ Factors Affecting Solubility
1.​ Temperature
a)​ Affects solubility of solid, liquid, and gaseous solutes in a solvent
b)​ The solubility of most solids substances increases as the
temperature of the solvent increases
c)​ The solubility of gases in liquid solvents increases as the
temperature decreases
2.​ Pressure
a)​ The drinks contain large amounts of carbon dioxide dissolved in
water
b)​ Dissolved CO2 makes the liquid fizz and your mouth tingle
c)​ Affects solubility of gaseous solutes
d)​ Gas solubility increases as the partial pressure of the gas above the
solution increases
e)​ Henry’s Law: states that at a given temperature, the solubility of a
gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas
above the liquid. As P increases S increases
f)​ You can write the relationship in the form of an equitation
g)​ S1/P1 = S2/P2
XII.​ Colligative Properties
A.​ Colligative Properties
1.​ Properties that depends only upon the number of solute particles, and not
upon their identity
2.​ Three important colligative properties of solutions
a)​ Freezing Point
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b)​ Boiling Point

c)​ vapor pressure lowering
3.​ More particles is the lower the freezing point and higher the boiling point
B.​ Freezing Point Depression
1.​ The magnitude of the freezing point depression is proportional to the
number of solute particles dissolved in the solvent and does not depend
upon their identity
2.​ The addition of solute particles lowers the freezing point (it takes colder
conditions to slow the solvent particles enough for them to combine).
3.​ Antifreeze, salt on roads
C.​ The Boiling Point Elevation
1.​ The difference in the temperature is between the boiling point of a solution
and the boiling point of the pure solvent.
2.​ The magnitude of the boiling point elevation is proportional to the number
of solute particles dissolved in the solvent.
3.​ The presence of solute particles elevates the boiling point (it is harder for
solvent particles to overcome attractive forces and escape).
D.​ Molarity
1.​ Molarity = moles solute / kg solvent
XIII.​ The Flow of Energy-Heat and Work
A.​ Energy Transformations
1.​ Thermochemistry
a)​ The study of energy changes that occur during chemical reactions
and changes in state
2.​ Chemical potential energy
a)​ The energy stored in the chemical bonds of a substance
3.​ Kinetic energy
a)​ The energy of motion
4.​ Heat
a)​ q, energy that transfers from one object to another because of
temperature differences between them
5.​ Heat always flows form a warmer object to a cooler object
B.​ Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
1.​ System
a)​ Part of universe which you focus attention on during energy
change
2.​ Surroundings
a)​ Everything else in the universe
3.​ Law of Conservation of Energy
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a)​ In any chemical or physical process, energy is neither created nor

destroyed
4.​ Endothermic Process
a)​ One that absorbs heat from the surroundings
5.​ Exothermic Process
a)​ One that releases heat to its surroundings
C.​ Units for Measuring Heat Flow
1.​ Heat flow is measured in two common units, the calorie and the joule
2.​ 1 Calorie = 1 kilocalorie = 1000 calories
3.​ 1J 0.239
D.​ Heat Capacity and Specific Heat
1.​ Heat capacity
a)​ The amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of an object
exactly 1 ºC
b)​ Depends on mass and chemical composition
2.​ Specific heat
a)​ The amount of heat it takes to raise the temperature of 1 g of the
substance 1 ºC
3.​ C=g m x ∆T = heat (J or cal) / mass(g) x Change in temperature(ºC)
E.​ Calorimetry
1.​ The precise measurement of the heat flow into or out of a system for
chemical and physical process
2.​ The heat released by the system is equal to the heat absorbed by its
surroundings
F.​ Constant Pressure Calortimeters
1.​ In a simple constant pressure calorimeter, a
2.​ q = mc∆T
3.​ c = q/m∆T
G.​ Exothermic
1.​ Negative product side
2.​ A + B —> C + 100 KJ
3.​ ∆H = -100 KJ
H.​ Endothermic
1.​ Positive reactant side
2.​ C + D + 100 KJ —> E
3.​ ∆H = 100 KJ
I.​ Heat of
1.​ Heat of Reaction
a)​ ∆H
2.​ Heat of combustion
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a)​ Exothermic
3.​ Heat of fusion
a)​ S —> L
4.​ Heat of solidification
a)​ L —> S
5.​ Heat of vaporization
a)​ L —> G
6.​ Heat of condensation
a)​ G —> L
7.​ Heat of solution
XIV.​ Heats of formation
A.​ Hess’s law of heat summation
1.​ Add two or more thermochemical equations
B.​ Standard Heat of Formation
1.​ enthalpy that accompanies the formation of one mole of a compound from
its elements with all substances in their standard states
XV.​ Factors Affecting the Rate of Chemical Reactions
A.​ Rate of Reaction
1.​ How quickly or slowly reactants turn into products is called the rate of
reaction
2.​ A reaction with a long time has a low rate
3.​ A reaction with a high time has a high rate
B.​ Factors that Affect the Rate of a Chemical Reaction
1.​ Increasing the temperature causes the particles to react faster
a)​ The higher the temperature the higher the rate of reaction
2.​ Concentration can change the rate of reaction
a)​ The more particles the higher the chance of a collision
b)​ The higher the concentration the higher the rate of reaction
3.​ Surface area of particles can make a difference in the rate
a)​ Many small particles have more surface area than one large
particle
b)​ Steel wool has a larger surface area than a block of steel
c)​ Surface area matters when mixing liquids too
(1)​Liquids that don’t mix will only collide with particles at the
area where they touch
(2)​If they do mix together, then there is no surface area at all
4.​ A catalyst is a substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction
without being used up in the reaction itself
a)​ They reduce the amount of energy required to break and form
bonds
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XVI.​ Le Chatelier’s Principle

A.​ Reactions
1.​ When you have a stress, the equilibrium will work to alleviate that stress
2.​ Changes in concentration
3.​ Changes in the pressure
4.​ Changes in the temperature
B.​ Changes in Concentration
1.​ When you add something, the equilibrium shifts to the other side
a)​ Product or reactant side
C.​ Changes in Pressure
1.​ Increase in pressure shifts to side the with less moles
a)​ Doesn’t want to be crowded
2.​ Decrease in pressure shifts to the side with more moles
XVII.​ Entropy
A.​ Entropy
1.​ Always increasing - 2nd law thermodynamics
2.​ Increases
a)​ S —> L —> G
b)​ AB —> A + B
c)​ More space = disorder
3.​ States
4.​ # of particles
5.​ Molar mass
6.​ Space
7.​ ∆S = + more disorder
8.​ ∆S = - more order
 24

AP Chemistry
I.​ Matter and Measurement
A.​ Chemistry
1.​ The study of matter and the changes it undergoes
B.​ Scientific Method
1.​ A systematic approach to solving problems
2.​ Observations and Experiments
3.​ Find Patterns, trends and laws
4.​ Formative and test hypothesis
5.​ Theory
C.​ Matter
1.​ Anything that has mass and takes up space
2.​ Atoms are the building blocks of matter
3.​ Each element is made of the same kind of atom
4.​ A compound is made of two or more different kinds of elements
D.​ States of Matter
1.​ Gas
2.​ Liquid
3.​ Solid
E.​ Classification of Matter
1.​ Is it Uniform Throughout
a)​ No
(1)​Heterogenous Mixture
b)​ Yes
(1)​Homogenous
(a)​ Does it have a variable composition
(i)​ Yes
(a)​ Homogenous Mixture (Solution)
(ii)​ No
(a)​ Pure Substance
(b)​Can it be separated into simpler
substances
(c)​ No - Element
(d)​Yes - Compound
II.​ Properties and Changes of Matter
A.​ Properties of Matter
1.​ Physical Properties
a)​ Can be observed without changing a substance into another
substance
(1)​Boiling point, density, mass, etc.
 25

2.​ Chemical properties

a)​ Can only be observed when a substance is changed into another
substance
(1)​Flammability, corrosiveness, reactivity with acid, etc.
3.​ Intensive Properties
a)​ Independent of the amount of the substance that is present
(1)​Density, boiling point, color, etc.
4.​ Extensive Properties
a)​ Dependent upon the amount of the substances present
(1)​Mass, volume, energy, etc.
B.​ Changes of Matter
1.​ Physical Changes
a)​ Changes in matter that do not change the composition of a
substance
(1)​Changes of state, temperature, volume, etc.
2.​ Chemical Changes
a)​ Changes that result in new substances
(1)​Combustion, oxidation, decomposition
C.​ Chemical Reactions
1.​ In the course of a chemical reaction, the reacting substances are converted
to new substances
D.​ Compounds
1.​ Compounds can be broken down into more elemental particles
III.​ Separation of Mixtures
A.​ Distillation
1.​ Separates homogeneous mixture on the basis of difference in boiling point
B.​ Filtration
1.​ Separates solid substances from liquids and solutions
C.​ Chromatography
1.​ Separates substances on the basis of differences in solubility in a solvent
IV.​ Units of Measurement
A.​ Accuracy versus Precision
1.​ Accuracy refers to the proximity of a measurement to the true value of a
quantity
2.​ Precision refers to the proximity of several measurements to each other
B.​ SI Units
1.​ Mass
a)​ Kilogram
(1)​kg
2.​ Length
 26

a)​ Meter
(1)​m
3.​ Time
a)​ Second
(1)​sa
4.​ Temperature
a)​ Kelvin
(1)​K
5.​ Amount of substances
a)​ Mole
(1)​mol
6.​ Electric Current
a)​ Ampere
(1)​A
7.​ Luminous intensity
a)​ Candela
(1)​cd
8.​ Système International d’Unités
9.​ uses a different base unit for each quantity
C.​ Metric System
1.​ Prefixes convert the base units into units that are appropriate for the item
being measured
D.​ Volume
1.​ The most commonly used metric units for volume are the liter (L) and the
milliliter (mL)
a)​ A liter is a cube 1 dm long on each side
b)​ A milliliter is a cube 1 cm long on each side
2.​ 1 dm3 = 1L
3.​ 1 cm3 = 1mL
E.​ Temperature
1.​ A measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a sample
2.​ 100º C is boiling
3.​ Absolute 0 is 0º
a)​ Water Freezes
4.​ It is based on the properties of gasses
5.​ K = C + 273.15
6.​ The Fahrenheit scale is not used in scientific measurements
7.​ ºF = 9/5(ºC) + 32
8.​ ºC = 5/9(ºF - 32)
F.​ Density
 27

1.​ Physical property of a substance

2.​ d = m/v
a)​ d = density
b)​ m = mass
c)​ v = volume
G.​ Significant Figures
1.​ All nonzero digits are significant
2.​ Zeroes between two significant figures are themselves significant
3.​ zeroes at the beginning of a number are never significant
4.​ Zeroes at the end of a number are significant if a decimal point is written
in the number
5.​ When addition or subtraction is performed, answers are rounded to the
least significant decimal place
6.​ When multiplying or division is performed answers are rounded to the
number of digits that corresponds to the least number of signings figured
in any of the numbers used in the calculation
V.​ Atoms, Molecules and Ions
A.​ Atomic Theory of Matter
1.​ The theory that atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter
reemerged in the early 19th century, championed by John Dalton
B.​ Dalton’s Postulates
1.​ Atoms of an element are not changed into atoms of a different element by
chemical reactions; atoms are neither created nor destroyed in chemical
reactions
2.​ Each element is composed of small particles called atoms
3.​ All atoms of a given element are identical to one another in mass and other
properties, but the atoms of one element are different from the atoms of all
other elements
4.​ Compounds are formed when atoms of more than one element combine; a
given compound always has the same relative number and kind of atoms
C.​ Law of Constant Composition
1.​ Also known as the law of definite proportions
2.​ The elemental composition of a pure substance never varies
D.​ Law of Conservation of Mass
1.​ The total mass of substances present at the end of a chemical process is the
same as the mass of substances present before the process took place
E.​ The Electron
1.​ Streams of negatively charged particles were found to emanate from
cathode tubes
2.​ J. J. Thompson is credited with their discovery
 28

3.​ Thompson measured the charge/mass ratio of the electron to be 1.76 x 108
coulombs/g.
F.​ Millikan Oil Drop Experiment​
1.​ Once the charge/mass ratio of the electron was known, determination of
either the charge or the mass of an electron would yield the other
2.​ Robert Millikan (University of Chicago) determined the charge on the
electron in 1909
G.​ Radioactivity
1.​ The spontaneous emission of radiation by an atom
2.​ First observed by Henri Becquerel
3.​ Also studied by Marie and Pierre Curie
4.​ Three types of radiation were discovered by Ernest Rutherford
a)​ a particles
b)​ B particles
c)​ y rays
5.​ The Atom, circa 1900
a)​ “Plum pudding” model put forward by Thompson
b)​ Positive sphere of matter with negative electrons imbedded in it
c)​ Ernest Rutherford shot a particles at a thin sheet of gold foil and
observed the pattern of scatter of the particles
H.​ The Nuclear Atom
1.​ Since some particles were deflected at large angles, Thompson’s model
could not be correct
2.​ Rutherford postulated a very small, dense nucleus with the electrons
around the outside of the atom
3.​ Most of the volume of the atom is empty space
I.​ Other Subatomic Particles
1.​ Protons were named by Rutherford around 1920 (in 1886 Goldstein
discovered positively charged rays in a discharge tube)
2.​ Neutrons were discovered by James Chadwick in 1932
J.​ Subatomic Particles
1.​ Protons and electrons are the only particles that have a charge
2.​ Protons and neutrons have essentially the same mass
3.​ The mass of an electron is so small we ignore it
K.​ Symbols of Elements
1.​ 126C
a)​ Bottom number is the number of protons
(1)​The atomic number
b)​ Top number is the mass
(1)​Protons plus neutrons
 29

2.​ The mass of an atom in atomic mass units is the total number of protons
and neutrons in the atom
L.​ Isotopes
1.​ Atoms of the same element with different masses
2.​ Isotopes have different numbers of neutrons
M.​ Atomic Mass
1.​ Atomic and molecular masses can be measured with great accuracy with a
mass spectrometer
N.​ Periodic Table
1.​ A systematic catalog of elements
2.​ Elements are arranged in order of atomic number
3.​ The rows on the periodic chart are periods
4.​ Columns are groups
5.​ Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties
6.​ Nonmetals are on the right side of the periodic table (with the exception of
Al and Po)
7.​ Metals are on the left side of the chart
O.​ Periodicity
1.​ When one looks at the chemical properties of elements, one notices a
repeating pattern of reactivities
P.​ Groups
1.​ 1A
a)​ Alkali metals
2.​ 2A
a)​ Alkaline earth metals
3.​ 6A
a)​ Chalcogens
4.​ 7A
a)​ Halogens
5.​ 8A
a)​ Noble gases (or rare gases)
6.​ These five groups are known by their names
Q.​ Chemical Formulas
1.​ The subscript to the right of the symbol of an element tells the number of
atoms of that element in one molecule of the compound
R.​ Molecular Compounds
1.​ Molecular compounds are composed of molecules and almost always
contain only nonmetals
S.​ Diatomic Molecules
1.​ These seven elements occur naturally as molecules containing two atoms
 30

a)​ H
b)​ N
c)​ O
d)​ F
e)​ Cl
f)​ Br
g)​ I
T.​ Types of Formulas
1.​ Empirical formulas give the lowest whole-number ratio of atoms of each
element in a compound
2.​ Molecular formulas give the exact number of atoms of each element in a
compound
3.​ Structural formulas show the order in which atoms are bonded
4.​ Perspective drawing also show the three-dimensional array of atoms in a
compound
U.​ Ions
1.​ When atoms lose or gain electrons, they become ions
a)​ Cations are positive and are formed by elements on the left side of
the periodic chart
b)​ Anions are negative and are formed by elements on the right side
of the periodic table
V.​ Ionic Bonds
1.​ Ionic compounds (such as NaCl) are generally formed between metals and
nonmetals
W.​ Writing Formulas
1.​ Because compounds are electrically neutral, one can determine the
formula of compound this way
a)​ The charge on the cation becomes the subscript on the anion
b)​ The charge on the anion becomes the subscript on the cation
X.​ Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature
1.​ When there are two oxyanions involving the same element
a)​ The one with fewer oxygens end in -ite
b)​ The one with more oxygens end in -ate
2.​ The one with the second fewest oxygens ends in -ite
3.​ The one with the second most oxygens ends in -ate
Y.​ Compounds
1.​ The less electronegative atom is usually listed first
2.​ A prefix is used to denote the number of atoms of each element
VI.​ Stoichiometry: Calculations with Chemical Formulas and Equations
A.​ Chemical Equation
 31

1.​ Concise representations of chemical reactions

B.​ Anatomy of a Chemical Equation
1.​ Reactants appear on the left side of the equation
2.​ Products appear on the right side of the equitation
3.​ Coefficients are inserted to balance the equation
C.​ Subscripts and Coefficients Give Different Information
1.​ Subscripts tell the number of atoms of each element in a molecule
2.​ Coefficients tell the number of molecules
VII.​ Reaction Types
A.​ Combination Reactions
1.​ Two or more substances react to form one product
B.​ Decomposition Reactions
1.​ One substances break down into two or more substances
C.​ Combustion Reactions
1.​ Rapid reactions that produce a flame
2.​ Most often involve hydrocarbons reacting with oxygen in the air
VIII.​ Limiting
A.​ Limiting Reactants
1.​ The limiting reactant is the reactant present in the smallest stoichiometric
amount
a)​ In other words it’s the reactant you’ll run out of first (in this case,
the H2)
B.​ Theoretical Yield
1.​ The theoretical yield is the amount of product that can be made
a)​ In other words it’s the amount of product possible as calculated
through the stoichiometry problem
2.​ This is different from the actual yield the amount one actually produces
and measures
IX.​ Aqueous Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry
A.​ Solutions​
1.​ Homogenous mixtures of two or more pure substances
2.​ The solvent is present in greatest abundance
3.​ All other substances are solutes
B.​ Dissociation
1.​ When an ionic substance dissolves in water, the solvent pulls the
individual ions from the crystal and solvates them
2.​ The processes is called dissociation
C.​ Electrolytes
1.​ Substances that dissociate into ions when dissolved in water
 32

2.​ A nonelectrolyte may dissolve in water, but it does not dissociate into ions
when it does so
3.​ A strong electrolyte dissociates completely when dissolved in water
4.​ A weak electrolyte only dissociates partially when dissolved in water
D.​ Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
1.​ Soluble ionic compounds tend to be electrolytes
2.​ Molecular compounds tend to be nonelectrolytes, except for acids and
bases
E.​ Strong Electrolytes Are…
1.​ Strong acids
2.​ Strong bases
3.​ Strong ionic salts
F.​ Precipitation Reactions
1.​ When one mixes ions that form compounds that are insoluble (as could be
predicted by the solubility guidelines), a precipitate is formed
G.​ Metathesis (Exchange) Reactions
1.​ Metathesis comes from a Greek word that means “to transpose”
2.​ It appears the ions in the reactant compounds exchange, or transpose, ions
H.​ Solution Chemistry
1.​ It is helpful to pay attention to exactly what species are present in a
reaction mixture
2.​ If we are to understand reactivity, we must be aware of just what is
changing during the course of a reaction
I.​ Molecular Equation
1.​ The molecular equation lists the reactants and products in their molecular
form
J.​ Ionic Equation
1.​ In the ionic equation all strong electrolytes (strong acids, strong bases, and
soluble ionic salts) are dissociated into their ions
2.​ This more accurately reflects the species that are found in the reaction
mixture
K.​ Net Ionic Equation
1.​ To form the net ionic equation, cross out anything that does not chance
from the left side of the equation to the right
2.​ The only things left in the equation are those things that change during the
course of the reaction
3.​ Those things that didn’t change (and were deleted from the net ionic
equation) are called spectator ions
L.​ Writing Net Ionic Equations
1.​ Write a balanced molecular equation
 33

2.​ Dissociate all strong electrolytes

3.​ Cross out anything that remains unchanged from the left side to the right
side of the equation
4.​ Write the net ionic equation with the species that remain
M.​ Acids
1.​ Substances that increase the concentration of H+ when dissolved in water
(Arrhenius)
2.​ Proton donors (Brønsted-Lowry)
3.​ There are only seven strong acids
a)​ Hydrochloric (HCL)
b)​ Hydrobromic (HBr)
c)​ Hydroiodic (HI)
d)​ Nitric (HNO3)
e)​ Sulfuric (H2SO4)
f)​ Chloric (HClO3)
g)​ Perchloric (HClO4)
N.​ Bases
1.​ Substances that increase the concentration of OH- when dissolved in water
(Arrhenius)
2.​ Proton acceptors (Brønsted-Lowry)
3.​ The strong bases are the soluble salts of hydroxide ion
a)​ Alkali metals
b)​ Calcium
c)​ Strontium
d)​ Barium
O.​ Acid-Base Reactions
1.​ In an acid-base reaction, the acid donates a proton (H+) to the base
P.​ Neutralization Reactions
1.​ Generally, when solutions of an acid and a base are combined, the
products are a salt and water
2.​ When a strong acid reacts with a strong base, the net ionic equation is
a)​ HCL + NaOH —> NaCl + H2O
3.​ Observe the reaction between Milk of Magnesia, Mg(OH)2, and HCl
Q.​ Gas-Forming Reactions
1.​ These metathesis reactions do not give the product expected
2.​ The expected product decomposes to give a gaseous product
3.​ The reaction gives the predicted product, but you had better carry it out in
the hood, or you will be very unpopular!
a)​ What does this even mean
 34

4.​ Just as in the previous examples, a gas is formed as a product of this

reaction
R.​ Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
1.​ An oxidation occurs when an atom or ion loses electrons
2.​ A reduction occurs when an atom or ion gains electrons
3.​ One cannot occur without the other
S.​ Oxidation Numbers
1.​ To determine if an oxidation-reduction reaction has occurred, we assign an
oxidation number to each element in a neutral compound or charged
entity
2.​ Elements in their elemental form have an oxidation number of 0
3.​ The oxidation number of a monatomic ion is the same as its charge
4.​ Nonmetals tend to have negative oxidation numbers, although some are
positive in certain compounds or ions
a)​ Oxygen has an oxidation number of -2, except in the peroxide ion
in which it has an oxidation number of -1
b)​ Hydrogen is -1 when bonded to a metal, +1 when bonded to a
nonmetal
c)​ Fluorine always has an oxidation number of -1
d)​ The other halogens have an oxidation number of -1 when they are
negative; they can have positive oxidation numbers, however, most
notably in oxyanions
5.​ The sum of the oxidation numbers in a neutral compound is 0
6.​ The sum of the oxidation numbers in a polyatomic ion is the charge on the
ion
T.​ Displacement Reactions
1.​ In displacement reactions, ions oxidize an element. The ions, then, are
reduced
2.​ In this reaction, silver ions oxidize copper metal
3.​ The reverse reaction, however, does not occur
U.​ Molarity
1.​ The solutions can contain the same compounds but be quite different
because the proportions of those compounds are different
2.​ Molarity is one way to measure the concentration of a solution
V.​ Titration
1.​ The analytical technique in which one can calculate the concentration of a
solute in a solution
W.​ Neutralization
1.​ MaVa=MbVb
X.​ Thermochemistry
 35

A.​ Energy
1.​ The ability to do work or transfer heat
a)​ Work: Energy used to cause an object that has mass to move
b)​ Heat: Energy used to cause the temperature of an object to rise
B.​ Potential Energy
1.​ Energy an object possesses by virtue of its position or chemical
composition
C.​ Kinetic Energy
1.​ Energy an object possesses by virtue of its motion
2.​ KE = ½mv2
D.​ Units of Energy
1.​ The SI units of energy is the joule (J)
a)​ 1 J = 1(kg m^2/s^2)
2.​ An older, non-SI unit is still in widespread use: The calorie (cal)
a)​ 1 cal = 4.184 J
3.​ System and Surrounding
a)​ The system includes the molecules we want to study (here, the
hydrogen and oxygen molecules)
4.​ The surroundings are everything else (here, the cylinder and piston)
E.​ Work
1.​ Energy used to move an object over some distances
2.​ w = F * d
a)​ Where w is work, F is the force, and d is the distance over which
the force is exerted
F.​ Heat
1.​ Energy can also be transferred as heat
2.​ Heat flows from warmer objects to cooler objects
G.​ Transferal of Energy
1.​ The potential energy of this ball of clay is increased when it is moved
from the ground to the top of the wall
2.​ As the ball falls, its potential energy is converted to kinetic energy
3.​ When it hits the ground, its kinetic energy falls to zero (since it is no
longer moving); some of the energy does work on the ball, the rest is
dissipated as heat
H.​ First Law of Thermodynamics
1.​ Energy is neither created nor destroyed
2.​ In other words, the total energy of the universe is a constant; if the system
loses energy it must be gained by the surrounding, and vice versa
I.​ Internal Energy
 36

1.​ The internal energy of a system is the sum of all kinetic and potential
energies of all components of the system; we call it E
2.​ By definition, the change in internal energy, ∆E, is the final energy of the
system minus the initial energy of the system:
a)​ ∆E = Efinal - Einitial
J.​ Changes in Internal Energy
1.​ If ∆E > 0, Efinal > Einitial
a)​ Therefore, the system absorbed energy from the surroundings
b)​ This energy change is called endergonic
2.​ When energy is exchanged between the system and the surroundings, it is
exchanged as either heat (q) or work (w)
3.​ That is , ∆E = q + w
K.​ ∆E, q, w, and Their Signs
1.​ For q ​ + means system gains heat​ - means system loses heat
2.​ For w​ + means work done on system​ - means word done by system
3.​ For ∆E​ ​ + means net gain of energy by system ​ - means net
loss of energy by system
L.​ Exchange of Heat between System and Surrounding
1.​ When heat is absorbed by the system from the surroundings, the process is
endothermic
2.​ When heat is released by the system to the surroundings the process is
exothermic
M.​ State Function
1.​ Usually we have no way of knowing the internal energy of a system;
finding that value is simply too complex a problem
2.​ However, we do know that the internal energy of a system is independent
of the path by which the system achieved that state
a)​ In the system below, the water could have reached room
temperature from either direction
3.​ Therefore, internal energy is a state function
4.​ It depends only on the present state of the system, not on the path by
which the system arrived at that state
5.​ And so, ∆E depends only on Einitial and Efinal
N.​ The Truth about Enthalpy
1.​ Enthalpy is an extensive property
2.​ ∆H for a reaction in the forward direction is equal to the size, but opposite
in sign, to ∆H for the reverse reaction
3.​ ∆H for a reaction depends on the the state of the
O.​ Solution of ∆H
1.​ ∆H = ∑ n ∆Hºf(products)
 37

XI.​ Electronic Structure of Atoms

A.​ Exciting Electrons
1.​ Ground state is your lowest energy state
2.​ Excited state
a)​ Heat
b)​ Electricity
c)​ Chemical
d)​ Light
(1)​Phosphorescence
(a)​ The electrons jump and fall slowly
(b)​The light slowly goes away
(2)​Fluorescent
(a)​ Only when the lights are on
(b)​The jumps are fast
B.​ Orbitals​
1.​ Aufbau Principle
a)​ Lowest energy first
2.​ Pauli Exclusion principle
a)​ 2 closest per orbital
3.​ Hund's rule
a)​ Elections like to be on their own
C.​ Waves
1.​ To understand the electronic structure of atoms, one must understand the
nature of electromagnetic radiation
2.​ The distance between corresponding points on adjacent waves in the
wavelength (λ)
3.​ The number of waves passing a given point per unit of time is the
frequency (v)
4.​ For waves traveling at the same velocity, the longer the wavelength, the
smaller the frequency
D.​ Electromagnetic waves
1.​ All electromagnetic radiation travels at the same velocity: the speed of
light ©, 3.00 x 10^8 m/s
2.​ c = λv
3.​ λ = c/v
4.​ v = c/λ
E.​ The Nature of Energy
1.​ The wave nature of light does not explain how an object can glow when its
temperature increases
 38

2.​ Max Planck explained it by assuming that energy comes in packets called
quanta
3.​ Einstein used this assumption to explain the photoelectric effect
4.​ He concluded that energy is proportional to frequency : E = hv
a)​ Where h is Planck’s constant, 6.63 x 10^-34 J-s
5.​ Therefore, if one knows the wavelength of light, one can calculate the
energy in one photon, or packet, of that light:
a)​ c = λv
b)​ E = hλ
6.​ Another mystery involved the emission spectra observed from energy
emitted by atoms and molecules
7.​ One does not observe a continuous spectrum, as one gets from a white
light source
8.​ Only a line spectrum of discrete wavelengths is observed
9.​ Niels Bohr adopted Planck’s assumption and explained these phenomena
in this way:
a)​ Electrons in an atom can only occupy certain orbits (corresponding
to certain energies)
b)​ Electrons in permitted orbits have specific, “allowed” energies;
these energies will not be radiated from the atom
c)​ Energy is only absorbed or emitted in such a way as to move an
electron from one “allowed” energy state to another; the energy is
defined by E = hv
10.​The energy absorbed or emitted from the process of electron promotion or
demotion can be calculated by the equation:
a)​ ∆E = -RH(1/n2f - 1/n2i)
11.​Where Rh is the Rydberg constant 2.18e-18 J, and ni and no are the initial
and final energy levels of electron
F.​ The Wave Nature of Matter
1.​ Louis de Broglie posited that if light can have material properties, matter
should exhibit wave properties
2.​ He demonstrated that the relationship between mass and wavelength was
λ = h/mv
G.​ The Uncertainty Principle
1.​ Heisenberg showed that the more precisely the momentum of a particle is
known, the less precisely is its position known: (∆x) (∆mv) ≥ h/4π
2.​ In many cases, our uncertainty of the whereabouts of an electron is greater
than the size of the atom itself!
XII.​ Periodic Properties of the Elements
A.​ Development of the Periodic Table
 39

1.​ Elements in the same group general have similar chemical properties
2.​ Properties are not identical, however
3.​ Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer independently came to the same
conclusion about how elements should be grouped
4.​ Mendeleev, for instance, predicted the discovery of germanium (which he
called ekasilicon) as an element with an atomic weight between that of
zinc and arsenic, but with chemical properties similar to those of silicon
B.​ Periodic Trends
1.​ In this chapter, we will rationalize observed trends in
a)​ Sizes of atoms and ions
b)​ Ionization energy
c)​ Electron affinity
C.​ Effective Nuclear Charge
1.​ In a many-electron atom, electrons are both attracted to the nucleus and
repelled by other electrons
2.​ The nuclear charge that an electron experiences depends on both factors
3.​ The effective nuclear charge, Zeff, is found this way
a)​ Zeff = Z - S
4.​ where Z is the atomic number and S is a screening constant, usually close
to the number of inner electrons
D.​ Size of Atoms
1.​ The bonding atomic radius is defined as one-half of the distance between
covalently bonded nuclei
2.​ Bonding atomic radius tends to…
a)​ Decrease from left to right across a row
(1)​Due to increasing Zeff-
b)​ Increase from top to bottom of a column
(1)​Due to increasing value of n
3.​ Ionic size depends upon
a)​ Nuclear charge
b)​ Number of electrons
c)​ Orbitals in which electrons reside
4.​ Cations are smaller than their parent atoms ​
a)​ The outermost electron is removed and repulsions are reduced
5.​ Anions are larger than their parent atoms
a)​ Electrons are added and repulsions are increased
6.​ Ions increase in size as you go down a column
a)​ Due to increasing value of n
7.​ In an isoelectronic series, ions have the same number of electrons
8.​ Ionic size decreases with an increasing nuclear charge
 40

E.​ Ionization Energy

1.​ Amount of energy required to remove an electron from the ground state of
a gaseous atom of ion
a)​ First ionization energy is that energy required to remove first
electron
b)​ Second ionization energy is that energy required to remove a
second electron, etc.
2.​ It requires more energy to removing each successive electron
3.​ When all valence electrons have been removed, the ionization energy
takes a quantum leap
F.​ Trends in First Ionization Energies
1.​ As one goes down a column, less energy is required to remove the first
electron
a)​ For atoms in the same group, Zeff is essentially the same, but the
valence electrons are farther from the nucleus
2.​ Generally, as one goes across a row, it gets harder to remove an electron
a)​ As you go from left to right, Zeff increases
3.​ However, there are two apparent discontinuities in this trend
4.​ The first occurs between Groups IIA and IIIA
5.​ Electron removed from p-orbital rather than s-orbital
a)​ Electron farther from nucleus
b)​ Small amount of repulsion by s electrons
6.​ The second occurs between Groups VA and VIA
a)​ Electron removed comes from doubly occupied orbital
b)​ Repulsion from other electron in orbital helps in its removal
G.​ Electron Affinity
1.​ Energy change accompanying addition of electron to gaseous atom:
a)​ Cell + e- ————> CL-
H.​ Trends in Electron Affinity
1.​ In general, electron affinity becomes more exothermic as you go from left
to right across a row
2.​ There are again, however two discontinuities in this trend
3.​ The first occurs between Groups IA and IIA
a)​ Added electron must go in p-orbital, not s-orbital
b)​ Electron is farther from nucleus and feels repulsion form
s-electrons
4.​ The second occurs between Groups IVA and VA
a)​ Groups VA has no empty orbitals
b)​ Extra electron must go into occupied orbital, creating repulsion
I.​ Metal versus Nonmetals
 41

1.​ Differences between metals and nonmetals tend to revolve around these
properties
2.​ Metals tend to form cations
3.​ Nonmetals tend to form anions
J.​ Metals
1.​ Tend to be lustrous, malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat and
electricity
2.​ Compounds formed between metals and nonmetals tend to be ionic
3.​ Metal oxides tend to be basic
K.​ Nonmetals
1.​ Dull, brittle substances that are poor conductors of heat and electricity
2.​ Tend to gain electrons in reactions with metals and acquire noble gas
configuration
3.​ Substances containing only nonmetals are molecular compounds
4.​ Most nonmetal oxides are acidic
L.​ Metalloids
1.​ Have some characteristics of metals, some of nonmetals
2.​ For instance, silicon looks shiny, but is brittle and fairly poor conductor
XIII.​ Group Trends
A.​ Alkali Metals
1.​ Soft, metallic solids
2.​ Name comes from Arabic word for ashes
3.​ Found only as compounds in nature
4.​ Have low densities and melting points
5.​ Also have low ionization energies
6.​ Their reactions with water are famously exothermic
7.​ Alkali metals (except Li) react with oxygen to form peroxides
8.​ K, Rb, and Cs also form superoxides
a)​ K + O2 —> KO2
9.​ Produce bright colors when placed in flame
B.​ Alkaline Earth Metals
1.​ Have higher densities and melting points than alkali metals
2.​ Have low ionization energies, but not as low as alkali metals
3.​ Be does not reaction with water, Mg reacts only with steam, but others
react readily with water
4.​ Reactivity tends to increase as go down group
C.​ Group 6A
1.​ Oxygen, sulfur, and selenium are nonmetals
2.​ Tellurium is a metalloid
3.​ The radioactive polonium is a metal
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D.​ Oxygen
1.​ Two allotropes
a)​ O2
b)​ O3, ozone
2.​ Three anions
a)​ O2-, oxide
b)​ O22-, peroxide
c)​ O21-, superoxide
d)​
e)​ Tends to take electrons from other elements (oxidation)
E.​ Sulfur
1.​ Weaker oxidizing agent than oxygen
2.​ Most stable allotrope is S8, a ringed molecule
F.​ Group VIIA: Halogens
1.​ Prototypical nonmetals
2.​ Name comes from the Greek halos and gennao: “salt formers”
3.​ Large, negative electron affinities
a)​ Therefore tend to oxidize other elements easily
4.​ React directly with metals to form metal halides
5.​ Chlorine added to water supplies to serve as disinfectant
G.​ Group VIIIA: Noble Gases
1.​ Astronomical ionization energies
2.​ Positive electron affinities
a)​ Therefore, relatively unreactive
3.​ Monatomic gases
4.​ Xe forms three compounds
a)​ XeF2
b)​ XeF4 (at right)
c)​ XeF6
5.​ Kr forms only one stable compound:
a)​ KrF2
6.​ The unstable HArF was synthesized in 2000
XIV.​ Concepts of Chemical Bonding
A.​ Chemical Bonds
1.​ Three basic types of bonds
a)​ Ionic
(1)​Electrostatic attraction between ions
b)​ Covalent
(1)​Sharing of electrons
c)​ Metallic
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(1)​Metal atoms bonded to several other atoms

XV.​ Ionic Bonding
A.​ Energetic of Ionic Bonding
1.​ As we saw in the last chapter, it takes 495 kj/mol to remove electrons from
sodium
2.​ We get 349 kj/mol back by giving electrons to chlorine
3.​ But these numbers don’t explain why the reaction of sodium metal and
chlorine gas to form sodium chloride is so exothermic!
4.​ There must be a third piece to the puzzle
5.​ What is as yet unaccounted for is the electrostatic attraction between the
newly formed sodium cation and chloride anion
B.​ Lattice Energy
1.​ The third piece of the puzzle is the lattice energy
a)​ The energy required to completely separate a mole of a solid ionic
compound into its gaseous ions
2.​ The energy associated with electrostatic interactions is governed by
Coulomb’s law
3.​ Lattice energy, then, increases with the charge on the ions
4.​ It also increases with decreasing size of ions
C.​ Energetic of Ionic Bonding
1.​ By accounting for all three energies (ionization energy, electron affinity,
ad lattice energy), we can get a good idea of the energetics involved in
such a process
2.​ These phenomena also help explain the “octet rule.”
3.​ Metals, for instance, tend to stop losing electrons once they attain a noble
gas configuration because energy would be expended that cannot be
overcome by lattice energies
D.​ Covalent Bonding
1.​ In these bonds atoms share electrons
2.​ There are several electrostatic interactions in these bonds
a)​ Attractions between electrons and nuclei
b)​ Repulsion between electrons
c)​ Repulsions between nuclei
E.​ Polar Covalent Bonds
1.​ Although atoms often from compounds by sharing electrons, the electrons
are not always shared equality
2.​ Fluorine pulls harder on the electrons it shares with hydrogen than
hydrogen does
3.​ Therefore, the flouring end off the molecule has more electron density
than the hydrogen end
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4.​ When two atoms share electrons unequally, a bond dipole results
5.​ The dipole moment, µ, produced by two equal but opposite charges
reparative by a distance, r, is calculated: µ = Qr
6.​ It is measured in debates (D)
7.​ The greater the difference in electronegativity the more polar is the bond
F.​ Electronegativity
1.​ The ability of atoms in a molecule to attract electrons to itself
2.​ On the periodic chart, electronegativity increases as you go
a)​ From left to right across a row
b)​ From the bottom to the top of a column
XVI.​ Molecular Geometries and Bonding Theories
A.​ Molecular Shapes
1.​ The shape of a molecule plays an important role in its reactivity
2.​ By nothing the number of bonding and nonbonding electron pairs we can
easily predict the shape of the molecule
B.​ What Determines the Shape of a Molecule?
1.​ Simply put, electron pairs, whether they be bonding or nonbonding, repel
each other
2.​ By assuring the electron pairs are placed as far as possible from each
other, we can predict the shape of the molecule
C.​ Electron Domains
1.​ We can refer to the electron pairs as electron domains
2.​ In a double or triple bond, all electrons shared between those two atoms
are on the same side of the central atom; therefore, they count as one
electron domain
D.​ Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR)
1.​ ”The best arrangement of a given number of electron domains is the one
that minimizes the repulsion among them.”
E.​ Electron-Domain Geometries
1.​ These are the electron-domain geometries for two through six electron
domains around a central atom
2.​ All one must do is count the number of electron domains in the Lewis
structure
3.​ The geometry will be that which corresponds to that number of electron
domains
F.​ Molecular Geometries
1.​ The electron-domain geometry is often not the shape of the molecule,
however
2.​ The molecular geometry is that defined by the positions of only the atoms
in the molecules, not the nonbonding pairs
 45

3.​ Within each electron domain, then, there might be more than one
molecular geometry
G.​ Linear Electron Domain
1.​ In this domain, there is only one molecular geometry: linear
2.​ NOTE: If there are only two atoms in the molecule, the molecule will be
linear no matter what the electron domain is
H.​ Trigonal Planar Electron Domain
1.​ There are two molecular geometries
a)​ Trigonal planar, if all the electron domains are bonding
b)​ Bent, if one of the domains is a nonbonding pair
I.​ Nonbonding Pairs and Bond Angle
1.​ Nonbonding pairs are physically larger than bonding pairs
2.​ Therefore, their repulsions are greater; this tends to decrease bond angles
in a molecule
J.​ Multiple Bonds and Bond Angles
1.​ Double and triple bonds place greater electron density on one side of the
central atom than do single bonds
2.​ Therefore, they also affect bond angles
K.​ Tetrahedral Electron Domain
1.​ There are three molecular geometries
2.​ Trigonal pyramidal if one is a nonbonding pair
3.​ Bent if there are two nonbonding pairs
XVII.​ Properties of Solutions
A.​ Solutions
1.​ Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more pure substances
2.​ In a solution, the solute is dispersed uniformly throughout the solvent
3.​ The intermolecular forces between solute and solvent particles must be
strong enough to compete with those between solute particles and those
between solvent particles
B.​ How does a Solution form?
1.​ As a solution forms, the solvent pulls solute particles apart and surrounds,
or solvates them
2.​ If an ionic salt is soluble in water, it is because the ion dipole interactions
are strong enough to overcome the lattice energy of the salt crystal
C.​ Energy Changes in Solution
1.​ SImply put, three processes affect the energetics of the process
a)​ Separation of solute particles
b)​ Separation of solvent particles
c)​ New interactions between solute and solvent
 46

2.​ Then enthalpy change of the overall process depends on ∆H for each of
these steps
D.​ Why Do Endothermic Process Occur
1.​ Things do not tend to occur spontaneously unless the energy of the system
is lowered
2.​ Yet we know that in some processes, like the dissolution of NH4NO3 in
water, heat is absorbed, not released
E.​ Enthalpy Is Only Part of the Picture
1.​ The reason is that increasing the disorder or randomness of a system tends
to lower the energy of the system
2.​ So even though enthalpy may increase, the overall energy of the system
can still decrease if the system becomes more disordered
F.​ Student, Beware!
1.​ Just because a substance disappears when it comes in contact with a
solvent, it doesn't mean the substance dissolved
2.​ Dissolution is a physical change - you can get back the original solute by
evaporating the solvent
3.​ If you can’t, the substances didn’t dissolve, it reacted
G.​ Types of Solutions
1.​ Saturated
a)​ Solvent holds as much solute as is possible at that temperature
b)​ Dissolved solute is in dynamic equilibrium with solid solute
particles
2.​ Unsaturated
a)​ Less than the maximum amount of solute for that temperature is
dissolved in the solvent
3.​ Supersaturated
a)​ Solvent holds more solute than is normally possible at that
temperature
b)​ These solutions are unstable; crystallization can usually be
stimulated by adding a “seed crystal” or scratching the side of the
flask
H.​ Factors Affecting Solubility
1.​ Chemists use the axiom “like dissolves like”:
a)​ Polar substances tend to dissolve in polar solvents
b)​ Nonpolar substances tend to dissolve in nonpolar solvents
2.​ The more similar the intermolecular attractions, the more likely one
substance is to be soluble in another
3.​ Glucose (which has hydrogen) bonding is very soluble in water, while
cyclohexane (which only has dispersion forces) is not
 47

4.​ Vitamin A is soluble in nonpolar compounds (like fasts)

5.​ Vitamin C is soluble in water
I.​ Gases in Solution
1.​ In general, the solubility of gases in water increases with increasing mass
2.​ Larger molecules have stronger dispersion forces
3.​ The solubility of liquids and solids does not change appreciably with
pressure
4.​ The solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to its pressure
J.​ Henry’s Law
1.​ Sg - kPg where
a)​ Sg is the solubility of the gas;
b)​ K is the Henry’s law constant for that gas in that solvent
c)​ Pg is the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid
K.​ Temperature
1.​ Generally, the solubility of solid solutes in liquid solvents increases with
increasing temperature
a)​ The opposite is true of gases
(1)​Carbonated soft drinks are more “bubbly” if stored in the
refrigerator
(2)​Warm lakes have less o2 dissolved in the m than cool lakes
XVIII.​ Ways of Expressing Concentration of Solutions
A.​ Mass Percentage
1.​ Mass % of A = mass of A in solution/total mass of solution * 100
B.​ Parts per Million and Parts
1.​ Parts per Million (ppm)
a)​ ppm = Mass of A in solution/ total mass of solution * 106
2.​ Parts per Billion (ppm)
a)​ ppb = mass of A in solution / total mass of solution * 109
C.​ Mole Fraction (X)
1.​ XA = mole of A / total moles in solution
2.​ In some applications, one needs the mole fraction of solvent, not solute
a)​ Make sure you find the quantity you need!
D.​ Molarity (M)
1.​ M = mole of solute / L of solution
2.​ You will recall this concentration measure from Chapter 4
3.​ Because volume is temperature dependent, molarity can change with
temperature
4.​ Because both moles and moss do not change with temperature, molality
(unlike molarity) is not temperature dependent
E.​ Changing Molarity to Molality
 48

1.​ If we know the density of the solution, we can calculate the molarity from
the molarity, and vice versa
F.​ Colligative Properties
1.​ Changes in colligative properties depend only on the number of solute
particles present, not on the identity of the solute particles
2.​ Among colligative properties are
a)​ Vapor pressure lowering
b)​ Boiling point elevation
c)​ Freezing point depression
d)​ Osmotic pressure
G.​ Vapor Pressure
1.​ Because of solute, solvent intermolecular attraction higher concentration
of nonvolatile solutes make it harder for solvent to escape to the vapor
phase
2.​ Therefore, the vapor pressure of a solution is lower than that of the pure
solvent
H.​ Raoult’s Law
1.​ Pa = XaPºa
2.​ Where
a)​ Xa is the mole fraction of compound A
b)​ Pºa is the normal vapor pressure of A at that temperature
3.​ THis is one of those times when you want to make sure you have the
vapor pressure of the solvent
I.​ Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point Depression
1.​ Nonvolatile solute-solvent interactions also cause solutions to have higher
boiling points and lower freezing points than the pure solvent
J.​ Boiling Point Elevation
1.​ The change in boiling point is proportional to the molarity of the solution
a)​ ∆Tb = Kb * m
2.​ Where Kb is the molar boiling point elevation constant, a property of the
solvent
K.​ Freezing Point Depression
1.​ The change is freezing point can be found similarly
2.​ Here Kf is the molal freezing point depression constant of the solvent
XIX.​ Collimating Properties of Solutions
A.​ Colligative Properties
1.​ Properties that depends only upon the number of solute particles, and not
upon their identity
2.​ Three important colligative properties of solutions
a)​ Vapor pressure lowering
 49

b)​ Boiling point elevation

c)​ Freezing point depression
B.​ Freezing Point Depression
1.​ The magnitude of the freezing point depression is proportional to the
number of solute particles dissolved in the solvent and does not depend
upon their identity
2.​ The addition of solute particles lowers the freezing point (it takes colder
conditions to freeze)
C.​ Boiling Point Elevation
1.​ ∆Tb = Kb * m *df
2.​ ∆Tf = Kf * m * df
XX.​ Chemical Equilibrium
A.​ The Concept of Equilibrium
1.​ Chemical equilibrium occurs when a reaction and its reverse reaction
proceed at the same rate
2.​ As a system approaches equilibrium, both the forward and reverse
B.​ Depicting Equilibrium
C.​ The equilibrium Constant​
1.​ To generalize this expression, consider the reaction
2.​ aA + bB <——> cC + dD
XXI.​ Le Châteliers’s Principle
A.​ Châteliers’s Principle
1.​ Changes in concentration
2.​ Changes to the pressure
3.​ Changes to the temperature
4.​ Increase in pressure favors the side with more moles
XXII.​ Acids and Bases
A.​ Some Definitions
1.​ Arrhenius
a)​ Acid: substance that, when dissolved in water, increases the
concentration of hydrogen ions.
b)​ Base: Substance that, when dissolved in water, increases the
concentration of hydroxide ions
2.​ Brønsted - Lowry
a)​ Acid: Proton donor
(1)​Must have nonbonding electrons
b)​ Base: Proton acceptor
(1)​Must have a removed acidic proton
B.​ Strong Bases
1.​ HCl, HBr, HNO3, H2SO4, HClO3, and HClO4