Network Topologies

What are network topologies?

 In communication networks, a topology is a usually schematic description of the
arrangement of a network, including its nodes and connecting lines.
Why we use network topologies?
 Network topology is used initially for planning the best way to design your
network to get maximum performance.

Types of Network Topologies

Mesh Topology

 Computers in mesh topologies are

connected directly to each other
with cables.
Mesh Topology

Advantages Disadvantages
 Data can be transmitted from  Connections not fully utilized.
different devices simultaneously.
This topology can withstand high  Overall cost of this network is way
traffic. too high as compared to other
network topologies.
 Even if one of the components fails
there is always an alternative  Set-up and maintenance of this
present. So data transfer doesn’t topology is very difficult. Even
get affected. administration of the network is
 Expansion and modification in tough.
topology can be done without
disrupting other nodes.
Star Topology

 In a star topology all computers are

connected to a central device
known as hub or switch.
 All the computers share data
through the Hub or Switch
Star Topology

Advantages Disadvantages
 A new node can be easily  If Hub or switch get faulty, all
connected to the existing network computer connected to it will be
by connecting it with unused port get affected.
of hub.
 Traffic increased when computers
 If there is fault in cable connected
with computer, only the particular are simultaneously sending data to
computer get affected. each other.
 Less cables required than Mesh
Topology. That’s why it is
affordable by small organisations
also.
Bus Topology

 In bus topology computers are

connected via a single cable known
as a Trunk or Backbone cable.
 Trunk cable was then connected to
the branch cables which were
further connected to the PCs.
Bus Topology

Advantages Disadvantages
 Uses less cables than star or mesh  Main disadvantage is the difficulty
topology of troubleshooting it.
 Don’t need any special device like  Bus topology is not scalable. New
Hub or Switch. node attaching to network is not
easy.
 Backbone cable become faulty all
computer connected to it get
affected.
Ring Topology

 In ring topology all the nodes are

connected to each-other in such a way
that they make a closed loop.
 Data travels around the network, in one
direction. Sending and receiving of data
takes place by the help of TOKEN.
 Token Passing: Token contains a piece of
information which along with data is sent
by the source computer. This token then
passes to next node, which checks if the
signal is intended to it. If yes, it receives
it and passes the empty to into the
network, otherwise passes token along
with the data to next node. This process
continues until the signal reaches its
intended destination.
Ring Topology

Advantages Disadvantages
 Each node gets to send the data when it  Each packet of data must pass
receives an empty token. This helps to through all the computers between
reduces chances of collision. source and destination. This makes it
 All the traffics flows in one direction only slower.
at a very high speed.
 If one workstation or port goes down,
 No need for network server to control the the entire network gets affected
connectivity between workstations.
 Difficult to add and remove devices
 Each computer has equal access to once the network has been set up.
resources.
 Receiver and repeater boost the signal  Data sharing accomplished through
and send it to the next node along with one direction only. It takes more
the token and data. time to send or receive data.
Tree Topology

 Integrates the characteristics of

star and bus topology.
 In tree topology number of star
network connected using bus. The
backbone cable is called as Bus.
Tree Topology

Advantages Disadvantages
 Expansion of Network is possible and  Relies heavily on the main bus
easy. cable, if it breaks whole network is
 Networks divided into segments, that crippled.
can be easily maintained.
 As more and more nodes and
 Error detection and correction is segments are added, the
easy.
maintenance becomes difficult.
 Each segment is provided with
dedicated point-to-point wiring to  Heavy traffic cause the network
the central hub. and make it slow.
 If one segment is damaged, other
segments are not affected.
Types of Networks:

• Local Area Networks -LAN

• Metropolitan Area Networks- MAN
• Wide Area Networks - WAN
• Personal Area Networks - PAN
Classification By Scale
 Local Area Network
Server

Network
Operating
System

Computer1
Other Network
Network Gateway

Computer2
Printer

Computer3
Local Area Networks

(a) Bus (b) Ring

 Local Area Network
 LAN is used to connect PCs or resources (e.g. printers) in one building or
several buildings in close proximity.
 LAN has higher transmission capacity than PBX (Private Branch Exchange).
 LAN can transmit video and graphics.
 LAN is more expensive to install than PBX and less flexible. It requires new
wiring each time a LAN is moved.
 The server acts as a librarian. It stores programs and data files for network
users. The server determines who will get access to what and in what
sequence.
 Sever can be powerful PCs with large hard-disk capacity, workstations,
minicomputers, or mainframes.
 The network gateway connects the LAN to public networks, such as the
telephone network, or to other corporate networks.
 Local Area Network
 A gateway is a communications processor that can connect
dissimilar networks by translating from one set of protocols
to another.
 LAN can use twisted wire, coaxial , or fiber-optic cable.
 LAN also can use wireless technology.
 The network operating system (NOS) can reside on every
computer in the network, or it can reside on a single server.
 The NOS routes and manages communications on the
network and sharing of network resources.
Metropolitan Area Networks - Cable TV
Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)

 Computer network of limited geographic scope, within a city.

 MAN is a better option for organizations that need high-speed data
transmission within a limited geographic area.
 Wide Area Networks

 Relation between hosts on LANs and the subnet.

Wide Area Networks (2)

 A stream of packets from sender to receiver.

 Wide Area Network
 It spans a broad geographical distance, ranging from several miles
to the span of entire continent.
 WAN may consist of a combination of switched and dedicated
lines, microwave, and satellite communications.
 Switched lines are telephone lines that a person can access from
his or her terminal to transmit data to the designated destination.
 Dedicated lines are continuously available for transmission. This
lines can be leased or purchased from a common carriers or
private communications media vendors.
 Most WANS are switched.
 Personal Area Networks (PAN)
 It uses wireless communication to exchange data between computing devices using short-range
radio communication (10 m).
 It uses Bluetooth technology, a new technology.
 Uses for networking of desktop computers, pagers, portable devices, mobile phones, and other
handheld devices.
The OSI Reference Model
Why a layered model?

– Easier to teach communication process.

– Speeds development, changes in one layer does not
affect how the other levels works.
– Standardization across manufactures.
– Allows different hardware and software to work together
– Reduces complexity
The OSI Model

 OSI “ Open Systems Interconnection".

 OSI model was first introduced in 1984 by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO).
– Outlines WHAT needs to be done to send data from one computer
to another.
– Not HOW it should be done.
– Protocols stacks handle how data is prepared for transmittal (to be
transmitted)
 In the OSI model, The specification needed
– are contained in 7 different layers that interact with each other.
What is “THE MODEL?”

 Commonly referred to as the OSI reference model.

 The OSI model

– is a theoretical blueprint that helps us understand how data gets
from one user’s computer to another.

– It is also a model that helps develop standards so that all of our

hardware and software talks nicely to each other.

– It aids standardization of networking technologies by providing

an organized structure for hardware and software developers to
follow, to insure there products are compatible with current and
future technologies.
7 Layer OSI Model

 Why use a reference model?

– Serves as an outline of rules for how protocols can be used to allow
communication between computers.
– Each layer has its own function and provides support to other layers.

 Other reference models are in use.

– Most well known is the TCP/IP reference model.
– We will compare OSI and TCP/IP models

 As computing requirements increased, the network modeling had to

evolve to meet ever increasing demands of larger networks and
multiple venders.

 Problems and technology advances also added to the demands for

changes in network modeling.
What Each Layer Does

2
 Gives end-user applications access
to network resources

 Where is it on my computer?
– Workstation or Server Service in
MS Windows

3
Presentation Layer

3
Session Layer

 Allows applications to
maintain an ongoing session

 Where is it on my
computer?
– Workstation and Server
Service (MS)
– Windows Client for
NetWare (NetWare)

3
Transport Layer

 Provides reliable data

delivery
 It’s the TCP in TCP/IP

 Receives info from upper

layers and segments it into
packets

 Can provide error detection

and correction 3
Figure 2.9 Transport layer

The transport layer is responsible for

the delivery of a message from one
process to another.
 Network Layer

 Provides network-wide addressing

and a mechanism to move packets
between networks (routing)

 Responsibilities:
– Network addressing
– Routing

 Example:
– IP from TCP/IP 3
 Network layer

The network layer is responsible for

the delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
Network Addresses

 Network-wide addresses
 Used to transfer data across subnets
 Used by routers for packet forwarding
 Example:
– IP Address
 Where is it on my computer?
– TCP/IP Software
Data Link Layer

 Places data and retrieves it

from the physical layer and
provides error detection
capabilities

3
 Data link layer

The data link layer is responsible for

moving frames from one hop (node) to
the next.
 Sub-layers of the Data Link Layer

 MAC (Media Access Control)

– Gives data to the NIC
– Controls access to the media through:
 CSMA/CD Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision
Detection
 Token passing

 LLC (Logical Link Layer)

– Manages the data link interface (or Service Access Points
(SAPs))
– Can detect some transmission errors using a Cyclic
Redundancy Check (CRC). If the packet is bad the LLC will
request the sender to resend that particular packet.
Physical Layer

 Determines the specs for

all physical components
– Cabling
– Interconnect methods (topology
/ devices)
– Data encoding (bits to waves)
– Electrical properties
 Examples:
– Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)
– Token Ring (IEEE 802.5) 3
– Wireless (IEEE 802.11b)
Physical layer

The physical layer is responsible

for the movement of individual bits
from one hop (node) to the next.
 Physical Layer (cont’d)

 What are the Physical Layer components on my

computer?
 NIC
– Network Interface Card
– Has a unique 12 character Hexadecimal number
permanently burned into it at the manufacturer.
– The number is the MAC Address/Physical address of a
computer
 Cabling
– Twister Pair
– Fiber Optic
– Coax Cable
 How Does It All Work Together

 Each layer contains a Protocol Data Unit

(PDU)
– PDU’s are used for peer-to-peer contact
between corresponding layers.

– Data is handled by the top three layers, then

Segmented by the Transport layer.

– The Network layer places it into packets and

the Data Link frames the packets for
transmission.

– Physical layer converts it to bits and sends it

out over the media.
2
– The receiving computer reverses the process
using the information contained in the PDU.
Figure 2.2 OSI layers
Encapsulation
Figure 2.3 An exchange using the OSI model
Figure 2.14 Summary of layers
Figure 2.1 Tasks involved in sending a letter

2.35
 The Postal Analogy

How would the OSI compare to the regular Post Office

Application  A- Write a 20 page letter to a foreign country.

Presentation  P- Translate the letter so the receiver can read it.

 S- Insure the intended recipient can receive letter.

Session
 T- Separate and number pages. Like registered mail,
Transport tracks delivery and requests another package if one is
“lost” or “damaged” in the mail.
Network  N- Postal Center sorting letters by zip code to route
them closer to destination.
 D- Local Post Office determining which vehicles to
Data-Link deliver letters.
 P- Physical Trucks, Planes, Rail, autos, etc which
Physical carry letter between stations.
Remembering the 7 Layers

7 - Application Away
6 - Presentation Pappu
5 - Session Sambar
4 - Transport Throw
3 - Network Not
2 - Data Link Do
1 - Physical Please
 Comparing TCP/IP with OSI
OSI Model TCP/IP Hierarchy Protocols

7th
Application Layer

6th
Presentation Layer Application Layer

5th
Session Layer

4th
Transport Layer
Transport Layer

3rd
Network Layer
Network Layer

2nd
Link Layer
Link Layer
1st
Physical Layer

Link Layer : includes device driver and network interface card

Network Layer : handles the movement of packets, i.e. Routing
Transport Layer : provides a reliable flow of data between two hosts
Application Layer : handles the details of the particular application
 How the OSI and TCP/IP Models Relate in a Networking Environment

OSI
OSI Model Equipment Words to TCP/IP
Model Pneumonic Equipment Data Protocols
Name Purpose Remember Model
Layer
Redirector,
Layer 7 Application All FTP, Telnet, Browsers Application
Regular Computer SMTP,
or A Special SNMP, Common Data
Layer 6 Presentation People Computer Data Application
Gateway. Used to Netware Format
combine networks Core
using different NFS, SQL, Dialogues and
Layer 5 Session Seem communication RPC, X-Win
Application
Conversations
protocols Quality of
Layer 4 Transport To Computer Segment TCP and UDP Service, and Transport
Reliability
Segment Network Routable
Path Selection,
into Smaller Protocols.
Layer 3 Network Need Router Packet Routing, and Internet
Broadcast (IP, IPX,
Addressing
AppleTalk)
Domains
Bridge (2
Data Link Segment Network NDIS, ODI, Frames and
Ports) or Network
Layer 2 -MAC Data into Smaller Frame MAC Address, Media Access
Switch and Ether Talk Control (MAC) Access
-LLC Collision Domains
NIC
Repeater,
One Collision AND
Hub (Multi- Signals and Network
Layer 1 Physical Processing One Broadcast Bit Physical
Media
port), Access
Domain
Cabling
Devices and the layers at which
they operate

Layer Name of Layer Device

3 Network Routers, layer 3
switches

2 Data Link Switches,

bridges, NIC’s

1 Physical Hubs
The OSI Model

The Seven Layers

Layer Name Description Examples
Application User Level Processing Telnet, FTP, Mail
Presentation Data Representation & Syntax ISO Presentation
Session Sync Points and Dialogs ISO Session
Transport Reliable End to End TCP
Network Unreliable Thru Multi-Node Network X.25 Pkt, IP
Link Reliable Across Physical Line LAPB, HDLC
Physical Unreliable Wire, Telco Line RS232, T1, 802.x

41
The OSI Model

The Standards
Layer Name Standards
Application X.400, Telnet, FTP, Mail
Presentation ASN.1, X.409
Session X.225
Transport X.224, TCP
Network X.25 Pkt, Q.931, IP
Link X.25 LAPB,
Reliable
Q.921
Across
LAPD,
Physical
ISO 3309
Line HDLC
Physical RS232,
Unreliable
V.35, EIA530,
Wire, Telco
X.21,Line
T1, E1

42
 Outline

 Network Devices
– Repeater/Hub/Bridge/Router/Gateway
 Backbone Network
– Bus/Star/VLAN

43
/
25
 Connecting Devices

Internetworking
Networking Devices
Devices

Repeaters Bridges Routers Gateways

Connecting Devices

Hub
 TCP/IP model development

 The late-60s The Defense Advance Research

Projects Agency (DARPA) originally developed
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) to interconnect various defense
department computer networks.
 The Internet, an International Wide Area Network,
uses TCP/IP to connect networks across the world.
4 layers of the TCP/IP model

 Layer 4: Application
 Layer 3: Transport
 Layer 2: Internet
 Layer 1: Network access

It is important to note that some of the

layers in the TCP/IP model have the same
name as layers in the OSI model.
Do not confuse the layers of the two models.
 The network access layer

 Concerned with all of the issues that an IP packet

requires to actually make the physical link. All the
details in the OSI physical and data link layers.
– Electrical, mechanical, procedural and functional
specifications.
– Data rate, Distances, Physical connector.
– Frames, physical addressing.
– Synchronization, flow control, error control.
 The internet layer

 Send source packets from any network on the

internetwork and have them arrive at the
destination independent of the path and networks
they took to get there.
– Packets, Logical addressing.
– Internet Protocol (IP).
– Route , routing table, routing protocol.
 The transport layer

 The transport layer deals with the quality-of-

service issues of reliability, flow control, and error
correction.
– Segments, data stream, datagram.
– Connection oriented and connectionless.
– Transmission control protocol (TCP).
– User datagram protocol (UDP).
– End-to-end flow control.
– Error detection and recovery.
TCP/IP Reference Model (cont)

 3. Transport layer (layer 3)

– Allows end-to-end communication
– Connection establishment, error control, flow control
– Two main protocols at this level
 Transmission control protocol (TCP),
– Connection oriented
 Connection established before sending data
 Reliable

 user datagram protocol (UDP)

– Connectionless
 Sending data without establishing connection
 Fast but unreliable


 The application layer

 Handles high-level protocols, issues of

representation, encoding, and dialog control.
 The TCP/IP combines all application-related
issues into one layer, and assures this data is
properly packaged for the next layer.
– FTP, HTTP, SMNP, DNS ...
– Format of data, data structure, encode …
– Dialog control, session management …
TCP/IP protocol stack
TCP/IP Reference Model

Layer Protocols

Application HTTP TELNET FTP SMTP SNMP

Transport TCP UDP

Internet IP ICMP

Network Access
ETHERNET PACKET RADIO
(Host-to-network)
Protocols at the application layer
 HTTP:
– browser and web server communicatin
 FTP :
– file transfer protocol
 TELNET:
– remote login protocol
 POP3: Retrieve email
– POP3 is designed to delete mail on the server as soon as the user has
downloaded it

 IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol )

– Retrieve emails,
– retaining e-mail on the server and for organizing it in folders on the serve
Protocols at the transport layer

 Transmission control protocol (TCP),

– Connection oriented
 Connection established before sending data

 Reliable

 user datagram protocol (UDP)

– Connectionless
 Sending data without establishing connection

 Fast but unreliable

Protocol at the network layer

 IP
– Path selection ,
– routing and addressing
 ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol )
– sends error messages relying on IP
 a requested service is not available
 a host or router could not be reached
Protocols at the link layer

 Ethernet
– Uses CSMA/CD
 Token Ring
 Data Formats
Application data message
application
layer

transport TCP TCP TCP

segment
layer header data header data header data

network IP TCP
packet
layer header header data

data link Ethernet IP TCP Ethernet

frame
layer header header header data trailer
 Packet Encapsulation (TCP/IP)
 The data is sent down the protocol stack
 Each layer adds to the data by prepending headers

22Bytes 20Bytes 20Bytes 4Bytes

64 to 1500 Bytes
Internet applications

 TCP/IP takes care of the hard problems

– Location of the destination host
– Making sure the data is received in the correct order and
error free

 Coding Internet applications

– Turns out to be straightforward.

 The key concept of Internet programming is

– The client-server model
Client-Server model
 Client and server processes operate on machines which are able to communicate through
a network:
– The Server waits for requests from client
– When a request is received
– The server lookup for the requested data
– And send a response the client

 Sockets and ports

– A socket is and end-point of way communication link between two programs
– A port number bound to a socket specifies the protocol need the be used at the receiving end

 Example of servers
– File servers
– Web servers
 Example of client applications
– Browsers
– Email clients
A Critique of the OSI Model and Protocols
• Why OSI did not take over the world
•Bad timing
•Bad technology
•Bad implementations
•Bad politics

1
Bad Timing
• The apocalypse of the two elephants.
investment
opportunity

right time
new
to make
discovery

2
Bad Technology
•The choice of seven layers was political
• - session and presentation layers are nearly
empty
• - Data and network layers are overfull
•The OSI model is extraordinarily complex
•Some functions e.g. addressing, flow control, error
control reappear again and again

3
Bad Implementations
•Huge, Unwieldy, and Slow

•Bad Politics
•Bureaucrats involved too much (European
telecommunication ministries, community, us
government)

4
A Critique of the TCP/IP Reference Model
• Problems:
• Service, interface, and protocol not distinguished
• Not a general model
• Host-to-network “layer” not really a layer (is an interface)
• No mention of physical and data link layers
• Minor protocols deeply entrenched, hard to replace
• (The virtual terminal protocol, TELNET, was designed for
mechanical teletype terminal)

5
The ARPANET

1
 ARPANET
It is abbreviated as “Advanced Research
Project Agency Network”.
In mid 60’s, Department of Defense (DoD)
started ARPANET to build a network that
could resist any attacks from USSR; &
Help academicians (professors & students)
share research.

2
 ARPANET
It was in response to USSR’s Sputnik
launch in 1957.
It connected 4 major universities:
– University of California (@Los Angles)
– University of California (@Berkeley)

– University of Utah
– Stanford Research Institute

3
 ARPANET
ARPANET used the packet-switching
technology to interconnect four nodes.
Hence DoD divided the network into subnets
& host computers.
Subnet would consist of minicomputers called
“Interface Message Processors” (IMPs)
connected by transmission lines.
For high reliability, each IMP would be
connected to atleast 2 IMPs.
4
 ARPANET
Even if some IMPs or lines were damaged, the
network still worked for others.
Each node of the network was to consist of an IMP
and a host, in same room connected by a short wire.
A host could send messages up to 8063 bits to its
IMP, which would break these into packets of atmost
1008 bits and forwards them independently towards
the destination.
Each packet was received fully before forwarding to
next hop.

5
ARPANET

6
 ARPANET
The software was needed between IMPs to
provide communication.
Also, software was needed to provide host-
IMP, user-host & host-host communication.
This model of ARPANET expanded to 8
nodes, then 15 nodes and so on expanded to
form today’s Internet.

7
The Internet
 The Internet is an informal term for the world-wide communication
network of computers.
 It sends information quickly between computers around the world.
 It has millions of smaller domestic, academic, business, and government
networks, which together carry many different kinds of information.
 The World Wide Web is one of its biggest services. It is used by a few
billion people all over the world.
 World Wide Web
 The World Wide Web (“WWW” or “The Web“) is the part of the Internet
that contains websites and webpages.
 It was invented in 1989 by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN, Geneva,
Switzerland. Sir Tim Berners-Lee created a new webpage called HTML.
 Websites are composed of pages linked by hypertext links. They are all
written in the HTML page.
 The World Wide Web is used to describe HTML webpages that are part of
the Internet.
 In order to see the World Wide Web one needs a computer, and a modem.
One also needs a connection to the Internet.
• client calls his or her ISP over a dial-up telephone line
• The modem is a card within the PC that converts the digital signals the
computer produces to analog signals that can pass unhindered over the
telephone system.
• These signals are transferred to the ISP's POP (Point of Presence), where they
are removed from the telephone system and injected into the ISP's regional
network
• The ISP's regional network consists of interconnected routers in the various cities
the ISP serves.
• If the packet is destined for a host served directly by the ISP, the packet is
delivered to the host. Otherwise, it is handed over to the ISP's backbone operator.
• If a packet given to the backbone is destined for an ISP or company served by the
backbone, it is sent to the closest router and handed off there
• All the major backbones connect at the NAPs discussed earlier. Basically, a NAP is a
room full of routers, at least one per backbone.
• A LAN in the room connects all the routers, so packets can be forwarded from any
backbone to any other backbone.
• In addition to being interconnected at NAPs, the larger backbones have numerous
direct connections between their routers, a technique known as private peering.