WKU, ECE, Electrical engineering lab II

SAFETY
 Safety in the electrical laboratory, as everywhere else, is a matter of the
knowledge of potential hazards, following safety precautions, and
common sense.
 Observing safety precautions is important due to pronounced hazards in
any electrical engineering laboratory. Death is usually certain when 0.1
ampere or more flows through the head or upper thorax and have been
fatal to persons with coronary conditions.
 The current depends on body resistance, the resistance between body and
ground, and the voltage source. If the skin is wet, the heart is weak, the
body contact with ground is large and direct, and then 40 volts could be
fatal. Therefore, never take a chance on "low" voltage.
 When working in a laboratory, injuries such as burns, broken bones,
sprains, or damage to eyes are possible and precautions must be taken to
avoid these as well as the much less common fatal electrical shock.
 If any safety questions arise, consult the lab demonstrator or technical
assistant/technician for guidance and instructions.
 Observing proper safety precautions is important when working in the
laboratory to prevent harm to yourself or others. The most common
hazard is the electric shock which can be fatal if one is not careful.

Always observe the following safety precautions when working in the

laboratory:

1. Do not work alone while working with high voltages or on energized

electrical equipment or electrically operated machinery like a drill.

2. Power must be switched off whenever an experiment or project is being

assembled, disassembled, or modified. Discharge any high voltage points
to grounds with a well-insulated jumper. Remember that capacitors can
store dangerous quantities of energy.

3. Make measurements on live circuits or discharge capacitors with well

insulated probes keeping one hand behind your back or in your pocket. Do
not allow any part of your body to contact any part of the circuit or equipment
connected to the circuit.

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4. After switching power off, discharge any capacitors that were in the circuit.
Do not trust supposedly discharged capacitors. Certain types of capacitors
can build up a residual charge after being discharged. Use a shorting bar
across the capacitor, and keep it connected until ready for use. If you use
electrolytic capacitors, do not :
 put excessive voltage across them
 put ac across them
 connect them in reverse polarity

5. Take extreme care when using tools that can cause short circuits if accidental
contact is made to other circuit elements. Only tools with insulated handles
should be used.

6. If a person comes in contact with a high voltage, immediately shut off power.
Do not attempt to remove a person in contact with a high voltage unless you
are insulated from them. If the victim is not breathing, apply CPR
immediately continuing until he/she is revived, and have someone dial
emergency numbers for assistance.

7. Check wire current carrying capacity if you will be using high currents. Also
make sure your leads are rated to withstand the voltages you are using. This
includes instrument leads.

8. Avoid simultaneous touching of any metal chassis used as an enclosure for

your circuits and any pipes in the laboratory that may make contact with the
earth, such as a water pipe. Use a floating voltmeter to measure the voltage
from ground to the chassis to see if a hazardous potential difference exists.

9. Make sure that the lab instruments are at ground potential by using the
ground terminal supplied on the instrument. Never handle wet, damp, or
ungrounded electrical equipment.

10. Never touch electrical equipment while standing on a damp or metal floor.

11. Wearing a ring or watch can be hazardous in an electrical lab since such items
make good electrodes for the human body.

12. When using rotating machinery, place neckties or necklaces inside your shirt
or, better yet, remove them.

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13. Never open field circuits of D-C motors because the resulting dangerously
high speeds may cause a "mechanical explosion".
14. Keep your eyes away from arcing points. High intensity arcs may seriously
impair your vision or a shower of molten copper may cause permanent eye
injury.
15. In an emergency all power in the laboratory can be switched off by
depressing the large red button on the main breaker panel. Locate it. It
is to be used for emergencies only.
16. Chairs and stools should be kept under benches when not in use. Sit
upright on chairs or stools keeping the feet on the floor. Be alert for wet
floors near the stools.
17. Horseplay, running, or practical jokes must not occur in the laboratory.
18. Never use water on an electrical fire. If possible switch power off, then
use CO2 or a dry type fire extinguisher. Locate extinguishers and read
operating instructions before an emergency occurs.
19. Never plunge for a falling part of a live circuit such as leads or measuring
equipment.
20. Never touch even one wire of a circuit; it may be hot.
21. Avoid heat dissipating surfaces of high wattage resistors and loads because
they can cause severe burns.
22. Keep clear of rotating machinery.
Precautionary Steps before Starting an Experiment so as Not to Waste Time
Allocated

a) Read materials related to experiment beforehand as preparation for pre-

lab quiz and experimental calculation.
b) Make sure that apparatus to be used are in good condition. Seek help
from technicians or the lab demonstrator in charge should any problem
arises.
 Power supply is working properly i.e. Imax (maximum current)
LED indicator is disable. Maximum current will retard the dial
movement and eventually damage the equipment. Two factors
that will light up the LED indicator are short circuit and
insufficient supply of current by the equipment itself. To monitor
and maintain a constant power supply, the equipment must be
connected to circuit during voltage measurement. DMM are not
to be used simultaneously with oscilloscope to avert wrong
results.

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 Digital multimeter (DMM) with low battery indicated is not to be

used. By proper connection, check fuses functionality (especially
important for current measurement). Comprehend the use of
DMM for various functions. Verify measurements obtained with
theoretical values calculated as it is quite often where 2 decimal
point reading and 3 decimal point reading are very much deviated.
 The functionality of voltage waveform generators are to be
understood. Make sure that frequency desired is displayed by
selecting appropriate multiplier knob. Improper settings (ie
selected knob is not set at minimum (in direction of CAL –
calibrate) at the bottom of knob) might result in misleading values
and hence incorrect results. Avoid connecting oscilloscope
together with DMM as this will lead to erroneous result.
 Make sure both analog and digital oscilloscopes are properly
calibrated by positioning sweep variables for VOLT / DIV in
direction of CAL. Calibration can also be achieved by stand alone
operation where coaxial cable connects CH1 to bottom left hand terminal of
oscilloscope. This procedure also verifies coaxial cable continuity.

c) Internal circuitry configuration of breadboard or Vero board should be

at students’ fingertips (ie holes are connected horizontally not vertically
for the main part with engravings disconnecting in-line holes).
d) Students should be rest assured that measured values (theoretical
values) of discrete components retrieved ie resistor, capacitor and
inductor are in accordance the required ones.
e) Continuity check of connecter or wire using DMM should be
performed prior to proceeding an experiment. Minimize wires usage to
avert mistakes.
f) It is unethical for students to falsify results as to make them appear
exactly consistent with theoretical calculations.

'Introduction to Applied Electronics-I, Laboratory Practices

1. Basic Guidelines
2. Lab Instructions
3. Lab Reports
4. Grading
5. Schedule and Experiment No. (Title)

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1. Basic Guidelines

The following guidelines will help you conduct the experiments quickly and
successfully.
1. Each experiment has been written so that you follow a structured logical
sequence meant to lead you to a specific set of conclusions. Be sure to
follow the procedural steps in the order which they are written.
2. Read the entire experiment and research any required theory beforehand.
Many times an experiment takes longer that one class period simply
because a student is not well prepared.
3. Once the circuit is connected, if it appears “dead’’ spend few moments
checking for obvious faults. Some common simple errors are: power not
applied, switch off, faulty components, lose connection, etc. Generally
the problems are with the operator and not the equipment.
4. When making measurements, check for their sensibility.
5. It’s unethical to “fiddle” or alter your results to make them appear
exactly consistent with theoretical calculation

2. Lab Instructions

1. . Each group is responsible in submitting 1 lab report upon completion of

each experiment.
2. Students are to wear proper attire i.e shoe or sandal instead of slipper.
Excessive jewelries are not advisable as they might cause electrical
shock.
3. Personal belongings i.e bags, etc are to be put at the racks provided.
Student groups are required to wire up their circuits in accordance with
the diagram given in each experiment.
4. A permanent record in ink of observations as well as results should be
maintained by each student and enclosed with the report.
5. The recorded data and observations from the lab manual need to be
approved and signed by the lab instructor upon completion of each
experiment.
6. Before beginning connecting up, it is essential to check that all sources
of supply at the bench are switched off.
7. Start connecting up the experiment circuit by wiring up the main circuit
path, then adds the parallel branches as indicated in the circuit diagram.

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8. After the circuit has been connected correctly, remove all unused leads
from the experiment area, set the voltage supplies at the minimum value,
and check the meters are set for the intended mode of operation.
9. The students may ask the lab instructor to check the correctness of their
circuit before switching on.
10. When the experiment has been satisfactory completed and the results
approved by the instructor, the students may disconnect the circuit and
return the components and instruments to the locker tidily. Chairs are to
be slid in properly and work place should be cleaned.

3. Lab Reports
a. Report format and Evaluation:

 The following format should be adhered to by the students in all their

laboratory reports:
(i) Objective (1 mark)
(ii) Brief Theory (1 marks)
(iii) Results (3 marks)
(iv) PSPICE (2 marks)
(v) Discussion and Conclusion (3 marks)

 Of those listed above each section included in a report should be clearly

nominated with the appropriate heading. The information to be given in
each section is set out below:

(i) Objective
 This should state clearly the objective of the experiment. It may be the
verification of law, a theory or the observation of particular phenomena.
Writing out the objective of the experiment is important to the student as
it emphasizes the purpose for which the experiment is conducted.

(ii) Brief Theory

 In this section, the related theory of the experiment must be discussed
briefly. This section is important to assist student in making conclusion
by comparing the experimental results to the theory.

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(iii) Results
 All experimental results which have been approved by the lab instructor
(including graphs) must be attached in the report.

(iv) PSPICE or Work-bench

 PSPICE Work-bench output (as instructed in the lab manual) must be
attached in the report to show the comparison of simulation results and
experimental results.

(vi) Discussion and Conclusion

 Once the analysis of the results is complete, the student must forms some
deductions on the results of his analysis.
 Usually this involves deducing whether the final results show that the
aim of the experiment has been achieved or not, and if they verify some
law or theory presented to the student during the lectures.
 Comments and comparison asked in the lab manual must be
discussed in this section. In making a decision on the former point, the
student should reread the aim; and on the latter, the text book should be
referred to, to ascertain whether there is theoretical agreement or not.
 The student should give considerable thought to the material that he
intends to submit in this section. It is here that he is able to express his
own ideas on the experiment results and how they were obtained.
 It is the best indication to his teacher of whether he has understood the
experiment and of how well he has been able to analyze the results and
make deductions from them.
 It is recommended that the conclusion should be taken up by the student’s
clear and concise explanation of his reasoning, based on the experimental
results, that led to the deductions from which he was able to make the
two statements with which he began the conclusion.

 It is very rare for an experiment to have results which are entirely without
some discrepancy. The student should explain what factors, in his
opinion, may be the possible causes of these discrepancies. Similarly,
results of an unexpected nature should form the basis for a discussion of
their possible nature and cause.
 The student should not be reluctant to give his opinions even though they
may not be correct. He should regard his discussion as an opportunity to
demonstrate his reasoning ability.

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 Should the results obtained be incompatible with the aim or with the
theory underlying the experiment, then an acceptable report may be
written suggesting reasons for the unsatisfactory results.

 It is expected that the student should make some suggestions as to how

similar erroneous results for this experiment might be avoided in the
future. The student must not form the opinion that an unsatisfactory set
of results makes a report unacceptable.

b. Presentation of Lab Reports:

All students are required to present their reports in accordance with the following
instructions.

(i) Reports have to be handwritten for submission.

(ii) Writing should appear on one side of each sheet only.
(iii) The students’ name and matric number, section number, lab session and
the lecturer’s name must be printed in block letters at the top left-hand
corner of the first sheet of the report. This must be followed in the middle
of the sheet by:
 The course code
 The experiment number
 The title of the experiment
 The date on which the student carried out the experiment.

(iv) All sections such as objective, brief theory and so on, should be titled on
the left hand side of the working space of the page.
(v)
 Each type of calculation pertaining to the experiment should be preceded by
a brief statement indicating its objective.
 All calculations are to be shown in sufficient details to enable the reader to
follow their procedure.
 All formulas used are to be written in correct symbols prior to the substitution
of the known quantities.

(vi) All graphs are to be drawn on graph paper in blue or black ink. Other
colors may be used for identification. The abscissa and ordinate are to be
drawn in all times and scaled with the value clearly indicated at each
major division. The quantity at each axis represents and the unit in which

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it is calibrated should be clearly indicated. Each graph is to be titled so

as to indicate clearly what it represents.
(vii) The report submitted by each student should contain a conclusion and
discussion of more than 300 words.
(viii) The cover of the report must be as follows:

WOLKITE UNIVERSITY
Collage of Engineering and Technologies
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

EENG-2201: Applied Electronics-1

Lab No.
Title of experiment

Lab Instructor:

Group members:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Date

4. Schedule and Experiment No. (Title)

Week Laboratory No.&Title

1 Lab-1: Diode Characteristics
1 Lab-2: Zener diode and its application.
3 Lab-3: Rectification
1 Lab -4 Diode logic gate
2 Lab-5 Clipper and Clamper circuit
1 Lab-6: BJT Biasing Circuit

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EXP NO :
Diode Characteristics
1

Objective:
-To determine the polarity of diode.
-To study the characteristics of the forward and reverse biased junction diodes.
-To study the characteristics of silicon and germanium diodes.
-To gain knowledge of V/I characteristics of a diode

Equipment:
-DC power supply
-Function Generator
-Digital Multimeter (DMM)
-Diodes: Silicon (1N4007),
- Resistors: 1kΩ, 2k2. 10k.

Theory:
Semiconductor Diodes made from a semiconductor material that has been
doped in such a way that it changes from P back to N or from N back to P.
A semiconductor diode is basically a PN junction that has two terminals: anode and
cathode. When the anode is positive with respect to the cathode, diode is said to be
forward biased. With increase of source voltage (Vs) from zero value, initially diode
current is zero. From Vs = 0 to cut-in (threshold or turn-on) voltage, the forward diode
current (IF) is small. Beyond the cut-in voltage, the diode current rises rapidly and the
diode is said to conduct.
The cut-in voltage for Si diode is around 0.5 - 0.7 V (for Ge diodes it is around 0.2 -
0.3V). When the diode conducts, there is a forward voltage drop of the order of 0.7-
0.8V.
When cathode is positive with respect to anode, the diode is said to be reverse biased.
In this condition, a small reverse current (IR) called leakage current of the order of
microamperes (or mill amperes for large diodes) flows. The reverse current increases
slowly with the reverse voltage until breakdown or avalanche voltage is reached. At this
breakdown voltage, diode is turned on in the reverse direction. If the current in the
reverse direction is not limited by a series resistor, the current will become quite high to
destroy the diode. The reverse avalanche breakdown of the diode is avoided by operating
the diode below the specified peak inverse voltage (PIV). This is the largest reverse
voltage to which a diode may be subjected during working. Diode manufacturers also
indicate the value of PIV. Other diode parameters of greatest interest are:
Forward voltage drop (VF = VD), Max forward current (IF), Reverse breakdown
voltage (PIV = VBR), Reverse saturation current (IRS), Static resistance (RDC = Rdf ),
Dynamic resistance (Rd)

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Figure 1.1 Diode nomenclature and identification of

polarity. (a) P-N junction (b)
schematic symbol (c) diode
packaging.[1]

Procedure:
I- Diode Testing
1. Connect the ohmmeter and the diode as shown in Fig 1.2 below.

Fig 1.2
2. Based on the result obtained, determine whether the diode is functional
or not.
3. Identify the anode and cathode terminals of the given diode.

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II- Forward-bias Diode Characteristics

1. Construct the circuit shown in Fig. 1.3 with DC power supply (Vs)
set at 0 V.

Fig. 1.3
2. Increase the supply voltage VS to 0.1 V. Then measure the diode
voltage VD, diode current ID, voltage drop across the resistor VR and
record the results in Table 1.1
3. Repeat step 3 for the remaining values of VS and complete the table.
4. Plot ID versus VD on a graph paper. Complete the curves by
extending the lower region of the curve to the intersection of the
axis at ID = 0 mA and VD = 0 V.
5. Take any two points (P1 and P2) anywhere from the characteristic
curve and determine the static resistance rd and dynamic resistance
RD
Table 1.1
VS 0 0. 0. 1. 2 3. 4. 10. 11. 2 2 2 2 2 3
[V] 1 5 5 5 6 7 8 0 5 6 8 9 0
VD
[V]
VR
[V]
ID
[mA
]

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III- Reverse-bias Diode Characteristics

6. In the given circuit Fig. 1.4, reverse either the polarities of the
supply or the terminals of the diode so that the diode is in reverse
bias mode as shown in the Fig. 1.4 below.

Fig. 1.4

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Fig. 1.5

7. Repeat procedure 3 and record the corresponding values of VD, VR,

ID in Table 1.2 below
Table 1.2
VS 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1 2 4 6 8 10
[V]
VD
[V]
VR
[V]
ID
[mA]

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Note: Vd =Vs –VR1 ; If = Id = VR1 / R1 = [VR1] mA

8. Determine whether the given diode is Germanium or silicon type.
Ex
1. Construct the circuit of fig. 1-6 on the construction board.

Fig. 1-6
2. Turn the potentiometer R2 to zero.
3. Switch on the power supply and adjust it to supply 20V.
4. Adjust the potentiometer to give a voltage of VS to 0 and measure VR1 and
record it in
Table 1-2
5. In the same way adjust and measure VR1 for each and record it in data table
1-2
6. Calculate VD and If, and record in the data table 1-2
V. CONCLUSIVE QUESTIONS:
1. Plot Vd against If on a square paper in your report.
2. At what approximate value of Vd does the current If begin to rise
noticeably? Estimate from
this value whether the diode is made of silicon or germanium.
3. Does Vd rise much above this value for larger values of If?
4. How accurate is the assumption of a diode as an “Ideal Electronic Switch”?
5. In fig. 1-3, what is the function of the 4K7 resistor in series with the diode?
6. Provide a substantive conclusion to this experiment.

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EXP NO; 2 Zener Diode Characteristics

Objectives:

 To study the characteristics of Zener diode.

 To study the voltage regulation in Zener diode regulation circuit.

Equipment:

DC power supply
Function Generator
Digital Multimeter (DMM)
Diode : Zener (6.8v)
Resistors: 2k2kΩ, 10kΩ, 3.3kΩ, 1k,

Theory:
Sometimes a circuit that produces constant output voltage while operating from
a variable supply voltage is needed. Circuits which perform such operation are
called voltage regulators. Zener diodes are widely used to regulate the voltage
across a circuit. When connected in parallel with a variable voltage source so
that it is reverse biased, a zener diode conducts when the voltage reaches the
diode's reverse breakdown voltage. From that point it keeps the voltage at that
value. In the circuit shown in Fig.4.1, resistor R provides the voltage drop
between input and output. A zener diode used in this way is known as a shunt
voltage regulator, and voltage regulator being a class of circuit that produces a
stable voltage across any load (RL).

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Procedure:
1. Construct the circuit of Fig. 2.1 and set up E at 0V.

Fig. 2.1
2. Measure the value of VL and VR. And record the measured values.

VR meas = ________, VL meas = ________

3. Using the measured values in step 2, calculate the values of currents IR, IRL,
and IZ.
IR = VR / R = _______, IRL = VL / RL = ________, IZ = IR – IRL =
_________
4. Vary the input voltage from 0 to 15 V in steps of 1V and measure and record
the corresponding values of Vz, VR, IR, Iz, IRL in Table 2.1.

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Table 2.1 for RL = 1K ohm constant

E [V] 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
VZ [V]
VR [V]
IZ
[mA]
IRL
[mA]
IR [mA]

5. Draw the curve of Vz versus Iz in reverse bias mode and determine the zener
resistance RZ as:
RZ = ΔVZ / ΔIZ Where: ΔIZ = IZ max - IZ min, and take IZ min just
below the knee
6. What is the value of regulated voltage delivered to the load resistor regardless
of the input voltage increment beyond the zener breakdown?
7. From the data in Table 2.1, check that, IR = Iz + IRL and E = Vz + VR.
8. Now keep the input voltage, E at 12 V constant and vary the load resistance
from 400 to 1.2 kΩ in steps of 80 Ω. Measure and record the corresponding
values of Vz, VR, IR, Iz, IRL in Table 2.2.
Table2.2. for E = 12 V constant

RL [Ω] 2k2 3k3 10k

VZ [V]
VR [V]
IZ [mA]
IRL
[mA]
IR [mA]

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9. Draw the curve of Vz versus Iz in reverse bias mode and determine the value
at which the zener diode holds the output voltage VRL constant.
10. Determine the minimum value of RL that can be used for successful
regulation.
11. Write your own conclusions based on the results obtained in the
experiments.

Ex what happen zener diode construct forward characteristics?

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EXP NO: 3 Rectifier Circuits

Experiment No: 3.1 Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifier without Filter

Aim: (i) To study the operation of Half wave and Full wave rectifier
without filter

(ii) To find its:

1. Ripple Factor
2. Efficiency
3. Percentage Regulation

Components:

Name Quantity
Digital Ammeter, Voltmeter 1
Connecting Wires -
Diodes 1N4007(Si) 2
CRO 1
Resistor 2K2 1
CRO probes 2

Theory:

A rectifier is a circuit that converts a pure AC signal into a pulsating DC

signal or a signal that is a combination of AC and DC components.

A half wave rectifier makes use of single diode to carry out this
conversion. It is named so as the conversion occurs for half input signal cycle.
During the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased and it conducts and
hence a current flows through the load resistor. During the negative half
cycle, the diode is reverse biased and it is equivalent to an open circuit, hence

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the current through the load resistance is zero. Thus the diode conducts only
for one half cycle and results in a half wave rectified output.

A full wave rectifier makes use of a two diodes to carry out this
conversion. It is named so as the conversion occurs for complete input signal
cycle. The full-wave rectifier consists of a center-tap transformer, which
results in equal voltages above and below the center-tap. During the positive
half cycle, a positive voltage appears at the anode of D1 while a negative
voltage appears at the anode of D2. Due to this diode D1 is forward biased it
results in a current Id1 through the load R. During the negative half cycle, a
positive voltage appears at the anode of D2 and hence it is forward biased.
Resulting in a current Id2 through the load at the same instant a negative
voltage appears at the anode of D1 thus reverse biasing it and hence it doesn’t
conduct.

Ripple Factor:

Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of the effective value of AC

components to the average DC value. It is denoted by the symbol ‘γ’.

Rectification Factor:

The ratio of output DC power to input AC power is defined as

efficiency.

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Percentage of Regulation:

It is a measure of the variation of AC output voltage as a function of DC output

voltage.

Percentage of regulation =

VNL = Voltage across load resistance, when minimum current flows through it.

VFL = Voltage across load resistance, when maximum current flows through.

For an ideal rectifier, the percentage regulation is 0 percent. The percentage of

regulation is very small for a practical half wave and full wave rectifier.

Peak- Inverse – Voltage (PIV):

It is the maximum voltage that has to be with stood by a diode when it is

reverse biased

PIVHWR = Vm PIVFWR = 2Vm

Comparison of Half-wave and Full-wave rectifier

Table 3.1
S. No. Particulars Type of Rectifier
Half-Wave Full-Wave
1. No. of diodes 1 2
2. Maximum Rectification 40.6% 81.2%
Efficiency
3. Vd.c (no load)

4. Ripple Factor 1.21 0.48

5. Peak Inverse Voltage Vm 2Vm
6. Output Frequency f 2f
7. Transformer Utilization Factor 0.287 0.693

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Circuit Diagram:

Half wave Rectifier (without filter):

Fig. 3.1: Circuit diagram of Half-wave rectifier

Full Wave Rectifier (without filter):

Fig 3. 2: Circuit diagram of Full wave rectifier

Procedure:

PART-I: Half wave rectifier without filter

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the fig.3.1.

2. Connect the multimeter across the 2.2kΩ load.
3. Measure the AC and DC voltages by setting multimeter to ac and dc
mode respectively.
4. Now calculate the ripple factor using the following formula.

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Ripple factor ( ) = VAC / VDC

5. Connect the CRO channel-1 across input and channel-2 across output i.e
load and Observe the input and output Waveforms.
6. Now calculate the peak voltage of input and output waveforms and also
the frequency.
PART-II: Full wave rectifier without filter

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the fig 3.2.

2. Repeat the above steps 2-6
3. Plot different graphs for wave forms and calculate ripple factor
Observations:

Table 3.2 half wave rectifier without Filter

Load VAC(V) VDC(V) Ripple Factor Input Signal Output Signal
Resistance
(RL) Vm Frequency Vm Frequency
p-p(v) (Hz) p-p(v) (Hz)

Table 3.3. Full wave rectifier without Filter

Load VAC(V) VDC(V) Ripple Factor Input Signal Output Signal
Resistance
(RL) Vm Frequency Vm Frequency
p-p(v) (Hz) p-p(v) (Hz)

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Calculations:

1. Ripple Factor

2.

Percentage Regulation

Expected Waveforms:

Results:

1. Half Wave and Full Wave rectifier characteristics are studied.

2. Ripple factor of Half wave rectifier = -------------
3. Ripple factor of Full wave rectifier = -------------
4. Regulation of Half wave rectifier = -------------
5. Regulation of Full wave rectifier = -------------

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Experiment No: 3.2 Half Wave Rectifier with Filter

Aim:
(i) To study the operation of a Half wave and Full wave rectifier with filters
(ii) To find Ripple Factor and Percentage Regulation.
Components:

Name Quantity
Digital Ammeter, Voltmeter 1
Connecting Wires -
Capacitor 1
Diodes 1N4007(Si) 2
CRO 1
Resistor 2K2 1
CRO probes 2

Theory:

A rectifier is a circuit that converts a pure AC signal into a pulsating

DC signal or a signal that is a combination of AC and DC components. In DC
supplies, a rectifier is often followed by a filter circuit which converts the
pulsating DC signal into pure DC signal by removing the AC component.

Procedure:

[Link] a capacitor of 1uF in parallel with the load resistor.

2. Note the mean value and peak-to-peak ripple amplitude of the rectified
waveform.
3. Compare this figure with those obtained in expt. 3.1 for the same load and
capacitor values.

Fig. 3.3: Circuit diagram of Full wave rectifier.

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EXP NO: 4
Diode logic gate

Objective:

To understand basic gate operation of following logic families: (I)Diode-

Resistor Logic (DRL)

(II)Diode-Transistor Logic (DTL)

Theory:

All digital electronic circuits and microprocessor based systems contain

hardware elements called Digital Logic Gates that perform the logical
operations of AND, OR and NOT on binary numbers. In digital logic only two
voltage levels or states are allowed and these states are generally referred to as
Logic "1" or Logic "0", High or Low, True or False and which are represented
in Boolean Algebra and Truth Tables by the numbers "1" and "0" respectively.
A good example of a digital logic level is a simple light as it is "ON" or "OFF".
Logic operations can be performed using any non-linear device that has at least
two distinct regions of operation. Obvious choices for the electrical engineer
are the semiconductor diode and the bipolar junction transistor. Particular
voltage levels are assigned to logic levels 0 and 1. While many voltage level
assignments are possible, one common assignment is: logic 1 (HIGH)---- ~ 5 V
logic 0 (LOW) ---- ~ 0 V. This is known as "Positive logic" system. There is
also a complementary "Negative Logic" system in which the values and the
rules of a logic "0" and a logic "1" are reversed. But, unless stated otherwise,
we shall only refer to the Positive Logic convention for all the experiments. It
is important to note that noise, power source fluctuations, loading by other
circuits, and other factors will cause the logic level voltages to vary over some
range.

I)Diode-Resistor Logic (DRL) Diode logic gates use diodes to perform OR

and AND logic functions as shown in the circuit diagram. Connection of the
LED at the output is optional which simply displays the logical state of the
output, i.e. the logic state of output is 0 or 1, if LED is off or on, respectively.
Diodes have the property of easily passing an electrical current in one
direction, but not the other. Thus, diodes can act as a logical switch. Diode
logic gates are very simple and inexpensive, and can be used effectively in
limited space. However, they cannot be used extensively due to the obvious
logic level shift when gates are connected in series. In addition, they cannot

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perform a NOT function, so their usefulness is quite limited. This type of logic
circuit is rarely found in integrated form.

Circuit Components/Equipment’s

1. Resistors (1K ,10K ,)

2. 1N4007 diodes or equivalent (2 Nos.)
3. D.C. Power supply (5V)
4. A Red/Green LED
5. Connecting wires
6. Breadboard Circuit Diagram:

DRL OR gate

DRL AND Gate

Procedure:

1. Assemble the circuit on your breadboard for OR/AND operation.

2. Turn on power to your experimental circuit.
3. Apply all four possible combinations of inputs at A and B from the power
supply using dip switch.
4. For each input combination, note the logic state of the output, Q, as
indicated by the LED (ON = 1; OFF = 0), and record that result in the
table.

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5. Compare your results with the truth table of a logic “OR”/ “AND”
operation.
6. When you have completed your observations, turn off the power to your
experimental circuit

Truth Tables:

Logic “OR” operation Logic “AND” operation

A B Q = A+B A B Q = A.B
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1
1 1 1 1

Observations:

(I) DRL OR gate:

Input Output
A B Q=
A+B
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1

(II) DRL AND gate:

Input Output
A B Q = A.B
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1

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EXP NO: 5 clipper and clamper circuits

Objectives:
 To analyze the action of clipper and clamper circuits.
Equipment:
Instruments
Variable AC power supply
Diode: Silicon (1N4007)
Digital Multimeter (DMM)
Resistors: 1 kΩ
Oscilloscope
Capacitors: 0.1μF
Connecting wires
DC power supply

Theoretical Hints:
It is frequently necessary to modify the shape of various waveforms for use in
instrumentation, controls, computation, and communications. Wave shaping is often
achieved by
Relatively simple combinations of diodes, resistors, and voltage sources. Such circuits
are called
Clippers, limiters, amplitude selectors. Clipper circuits are primarily used to prevent a
Waveform from exceeding a particular limit, either positive or negative. For example,
one may
Need to limit a power supply’s output voltage so it does not exceed +5 V.
In certain instances, it may be desirable to keep the output waveform essentially
unchanged,
But modify its dc level to some required value. This can be done by the use of diodes,
resistors,
Capacitors and voltage sources. Such circuits are known as clampers. For example, if
the input
voltage signal swings from -10V to +10V, a positive dc clamper can produce an output
that

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keeps the signal wave shape intact but swings the voltage from 0V to +20V. TV
receivers use adc clamper to add a dc voltage to the video signal. Here the dc clamper
is usually called a dc
restorer
PROCEDURE:
I- clipper

1. Construct the circuit of Fig. 3.1. Set the supply to Vs = 10 V p-p

(sinusoidal wave) with the frequency of f = 1KHz. Put the
oscilloscope probes at the output of signal generator and sketch the
input waveform obtained. Set the DC power supply to 2 V.
2. Switch ON the DC power supply and function generator
3. Observe and sketch the wave shape of the output voltage from Ch.
B of the oscilloscope.

Fig. 3.1 negative clipper

4. Measure and record the DC and AC level of the output using digital
multimeter.

5. Repeat the above procedures for the positive clipper network

below.

Fig. 3.2 positive clipper

Did the above clipper circuits work as expected?

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Explain the effect of using an actual diode.

II- clamper
1. Construct the circuit of Fig. 3.3. Set the supply Vs = 10 V p-p with
the frequency of
f = 1KHz. Observe and sketch the wave shape of the input signal
using one channel of the oscilloscope.
2. Put the second channel of oscilloscope as shown in the figure and
sketch the wave shape of the output obtained.
3. Measure and record the DC and AC level of the output voltage
using the DMM.
4. Extract the capacitor voltage waveform and sketch it on paper.

Fig 3.3 negative clamper

5. Repeat the above procedures for the network below.

Fig 3.4 positive clamper

Questions

1. Design a clipper circuit to remove a voltage level greater than 2 V and less
than -2 V of a sinusoidal input signal with a peak value of 5 V.
2. Design a clamper circuit to add a DC value of 3 V to a sinusoidal input signal
of peak vale 5 V.

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EXP NO: 5 BJT characteristic

Objectives:
 To be able to test and identify terminals of BJT
 To obtain the input and output characteristics of BJT
 To determine current gain of BJT

Materials Required:
DC power supply
Transistor:
Digital multimeter
Resistors: 10KΩ, 1KΩ
Connecting wires

Theoretical hints:
A BJT is a 3 layer, 3 terminal, two junction semiconductor device. There are two types of BJT: NPN and PNP. The
transistor is one of the most important examples of an active device which amplifies and produces an output signal
with more power than input signal. Of course, the additional power comes from the external power source we have
to provide to the component. This experiment has two components: Collector current characteristics, and Base
characteristics. Specifically, the first one requires connecting IC and VCE with a given set of IB’S. It again asks for
connecting VCE and PD with the IB’S, where PD, power dissipated, is given by:
PD=IBVBE+ ICVCE.
On the other hand, the second one requires connecting VBE and IB under different conditions of VCE. The other
important formulae for the experiment are:
VBB =VE+VBE
= VE+0.6
VCC =VCE+ICRC+ VE
Note that, the given transistor must be tested and all important parameters should be obtained at hand before it is
used for circuit application. In a common emitter configuration, the current gain β = IC/ IB.
The most common, at least at the lab, NPN transistors are 2N2222, C1815Y, BFY51. And there are two poplar types
of packaging the transistor: TO-92 and TO-18.

I. Testing of BJT
1. Identify the terminals and obtain all important parameters of the given transistor from ECG book.

BJT type: ______, hfe (β): ________, Imax:______, Pd:_______

2. Check the functionality of the given transistor using the circuit given in Fig 5.1. Identify the base terminal.

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Forward bias resistances Reverse bias resistances

Fig 5.1
II. Common emitter characteristic
1. Connect the common-emitter circuit configuration shown in Fig. 5.2. Note base current requires
micro-amp meter and the collector current requires milli-amp meter.

Fig. 5.2

2. Adjust VBB to obtain base current IB of 30μA. Keep it there (i.e. fixed). The variable voltage supply
provides desired VBB & VCC voltages.
3. Now vary Vcc according to the Table 5.1 below and record values of VBB, VBE VCE and IC at every
step.
4. It's apparent that, We can use digital multimeters or two channels oscilloscope to measure IB, VBE,
VCC, VCE, and IC.

5. Do steps 2 and 3 for all four different IB values.

Table 5.1
iB = 30 μA VBB = VBE =
VCC (volts) 0 0.5 1 2 4 8 12 15
VCE (volts)

IC (mA)

IB = 20 μA VBB = VBE =
VCC (volts) 0 0.5 1 2 4 8 12 15
VCE (volts)

IC (mA)

IB = 10 μA VBB = VBE =
VCC (volts) 0 0.5 1 2 4 8 12 15
VCE (volts)

IC (mA)

IB =0 (short) VBB = 0 VBE =

VCC (volts)
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6. On the same graph plot IC versus VCE for fixed IB's and hence obtain β graphically. Use a
multimeter to measure β. Compare these two results with the manufacturer's data.

7. Plot (On the same graph) the power dissipated PD versus VCE for each base current.

III. Base characteristic

Using same circuit in figure 5.2, replace the 1 kΩ resistor by short circuit. Adjust VCC
So that the voltage across Collector-Emitter, VCE = 10V.
1. Measure and record the value of VBB, VBE and IB.
Again you can use digital multimeters or two channel oscilloscope to measure the
required parameters.

2. Repeat step 1 and 2 for the other two values of VCE and complete Table 5.2.

Table 5.2
VCE = 10 V
IB (μA) 0 1 2 3 6 9 12
VBE (V)
VBB (V)

VCE = 4 V
IB (μA) 0 1 2 3 6 9 12
VBE (V)
VBB (V)

VCE = 0 V
IB (μA) 0 1 2 3 6 9 12
VBE (V)
VBB (V)

3. On the same graph, plot VBE versus IB for each VCE setting. Comment on your
result.

Include the following points on your Lab report

1. On the output characteristic curve indicate the three operating regions.
2. Explain the dependency of IC on VCE and IB.
3. State the factors that affect current gain.

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 Reference

1. Electronics device and circuit theorem Seventh edition (Robert Boylestad Louis nashelsky)
2. Floyd Electronics device Ninth edition.
3. Text Books: laboratory manual provided.