Site Mapping Guide

International Organisation for Migration

Table of contents

Introduction 1
What is a Site Map? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Audience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
When and how to use site maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

I Part 1 - Preparation 5

1 Identifying requirements 6
1.1 Stakeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.1 Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.2 Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.3 Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.4 Funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.5 Hardware and Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.6 Connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2 Deciding on an approach 9
2.1 Decision Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Information Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Conflict and Data Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 Data Security and Responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.5 Community Engagement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.6 Regulatory Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

i
TABLE OF CONTENTS ii

2.7 Organizational Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.8 Level of Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

II Part 2 - Obtaining imagery 14

3 Satellite imagery 15
3.1 Types of satellite imagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2 Cloud cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3 Spatial resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.4 Imagery sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4 UAV imagery 19
4.1 Obtaining a drone kit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.2 Registration and certifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.3 Pre-flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.3.1 Nadir vs oblique images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.3.2 Ground control points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.3.3 Path and image overlap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.3.4 Flight altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.4 Post-Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.5 Post-Flight processing: Creating Orthomosaic . . . . . . . . . . . 24

III Part 3 - Developing Maps 25

5 Tracing and labeling 26

5.1 Manual tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.2 Automatic tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

6 Composing site maps 29

6.1 Examples of site maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.2 Working in GIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.2.1 Loading data layers and veryfying projections . . . . . . . 29
6.2.2 Layers and elements of a site map . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.2.3 Visualizing data layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.2.4 Adding fields and editing attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

6.2.5 Print Layouts and Using Templates . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

6.2.6 Saving the data layers and styles into a Geopackage . . . 33

7 Collaboration 34
7.1 Information and knowledge management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7.2 Interoperability of GIS and CAD data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.3 Generating, reading and annotating geoPDFs, GPS Exchange
Format or KMZ files. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
7.4 Gathering feedback and map iterations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
7.5 Using Site maps in Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

IV Annexes 37

Acknowledgements 38

Glossary 39

Further reading 40
List of Figures

1 The Site Mapping Workflow Source: IOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Rehabilation of Wau PoC site Source: IOM . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2.1 Uses and challenges of drone use Source: ICRC . . . . . . . . . . 9

3.1 Optical imagery sources are affected by cloud cover Source: Har-
ris Geospatial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

4.1 An example of an oblique angle image of Bakassi Camp, north-

eastern Nigeria Source: IOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.2 An example of a nadir angle image of Wau PoC, in South Sudan
Source: IOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.3 An example Ground Control Point Source: Pix4d . . . . . . . . . 23
4.4 GSD is the amount of actual ground captured by the distance
between the center point of two adjacent pixels. Source: [Link] 24

6.1 Examples of Site maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

6.2 An example of a dummy site map composed in QGIS using the
site map template included in this guide. Source: IOM . . . . . . 31

iv
Introduction

Welcome to [Link], an online guidance for the production of site

maps in humanitarian response. Site maps are a key resource at all stages of a
camp lifecycle; from the site planning of empty or partially settled land; the co-
ordination and management of services on a site; the development and improve-
ment of a sites’ infrastructure; to the site closure/handover/decommissioning
stage.
The aim of this guidance is fourfold:

1. Broaden the development of site maps to more humanitarian ac-

tors and profiles, mainstreaming the skills required and reducing reliance
on a limited pool of specialized profiles.
2. Increase the speed at which site maps are developed. The shorter
the lead time for creating site maps, the more useful they are for planning
activities and coordinating partners in site, especially in sudden onset
contexts.
3. Scale the availability of site maps to increase their benefit to reponses
in a wider number of sites as well as in a wider number of countries.
4. Encourage the creation of consistent site map products, in terms of
visuals, quality and process that are affected population-centric and that
adhere to data responsibility and safeguarding standards.

The Site Mapping Guide provides a full step-by-step workflow to develop site
maps. It also outlines key considerations and data protection risks associated
with the management of drone captured imagery, as well as the responsible
dissemination of related information products produced in the process.
This guide presents two different approaches to developing site maps. The first
approach uses existing satellite imagery and the second uses drones to capture
aerial imagery of sites when and where satellite imagery is not available or not
suitable.

What is a Site Map?

While no strict definition of a site map exists, this guidance considers site maps
to be physical or electronic maps of IDP displacement sites that use imagery

1
Audience 2

Figure 1: The Site Mapping Workflow Source: IOM

(aerial or satellite), along with the tracing and labelling of infrastructure (cur-
rent or planned) as a tool for planning, coordination and risk analysis.

Ĺ Note

Infographics or maps that present the needs or activity/output-level indi-

cators are, for the purpose of this document, considered as Site Profiles
rather than Site Maps and are beyond the scope of this guide.

Audience
This guide is for any Camp Coordination Camp Management, Shelter, WASH or
assessment actor, working in humanitarian contexts, requiring site maps to do
site planning, camp coordination or risk analysis and working at either agency
or inter-agency level.
While some prior knowledge of GIS software is beneficial for those who plan to
use this guide, it is not a prerequisite. We hope that the steps documented in
the below chapters are sufficient in detail and clarity for first-time users and will
accompany new and experienced site mappers through the process of making
site maps, from digitising, creating and visualising spatial data to exporting and
disseminating standardized site maps. Learning materials and training resources
for first-time GIS users can be found here.
While the guidance is relevant for all humanitarian staff, sections that are specifc
to IOM can be found in blue boxes like the following:

Ĺ Note for IOM staff

Sections in the guidance that are specific to IOM staff will appear in boxes
like this.

When and how to use site maps

Site maps can illustrate camp and camp-like settings in both sudden-onset dis-
asters as well as protracted emergencies. Site maps are relevant throughout
the camp lifecycle and support the set-up, care and maintenance, closure and
Acknowledgments 3

post-closure or recovery stages of a site by being used to support the following

activities:

• Site planning during sudden-onset emergencies or protracted crises.

• Site improvements where site maps can be used to design and plan
improvements to site infrastructure and layout for disability and inclusion,
GBV and fire hazard risk mitigation.
• Site-level camp coordination amongst service providers and ensuring
coordination in the establishment of essential site infrastructure and camp
services.
• CCCM coordination at the Cluster-level.
• GBV/ Protection Safety Audits conducted through direct observation,
key informant interviews, focus group discussions.

Figure 2: Rehabilation of Wau PoC site Source: IOM

Acknowledgments
This guide was developed by International Organisation for Migration in 2022
and 2023, with considerable inputs, support and feedback from experts in fields
such as site planning, GIS, CCCM, GBV and WASH. Financial support for this
Feedback 4

guide was generously provided by the United States Department of State’s Bu-
reau of Population, Refugees, and Migration (BPRM) through the Safe From the
Start Initiative. This guide was compiled by Brian Mc Donald and Manon Jones
from IOM HQ Global CCCM with feedback and inputs from Wan Sophonpanich,
Amina Saoudi, Patricia Ocana, Amalia Torres, Jennifer Kvernmo, Louise Mary
O Shea, Agnes Kwoba Olusese, Agnes Tillinac, Andrea Cippa (SDC), Jim
Kennedy, Jessica Mamo (IOM), Joseph Ashmore (IOM), and Baudoin Luce
(IOM).

Feedback
Many of the approaches and software/hardware tools are quickly evolving and
improving. As such, we consider this guide to be a living document. If you
have any suggestions on how we can improve this guide, please reach out to
majones@[Link] and bmcdonald@[Link].
 Part I

Part 1 - Preparation

5
Chapter 1

Identifying requirements

Producing site maps requires a significant investment of personnel, time, soft-

ware and hardware. In addition to these, the political/security/conflict context
of the area, as well community acceptance and regulatory framework are factors
to consider in whether or not site maps can be developed in your context and
if so, which approach is most feasible.
Before jumping into how to develop site maps, it is important to first assess if
they can or should be developed:

1. Are site maps needed in your context and what activities or decisions
will they inform?

2. What stakeholders need to be involved, both in the development of

the site maps (affected population, local and national authorities, staff,
etc) and in their use (CCCM actors, local authorities, etc)? How will buy
in from these stakeholders be ensured?

3. What is required to develop site maps in your context? Regardless

of the chosen approach, the development of site maps requires funding,
personnel, time, hardware, software, and connectivity. A shortcoming on
any of these may affect the feasibility or timeline of the development of
site maps.
4. What red-line contextual challenges, risks and sensitivities exist or
may arise during the development of the site maps that could affect the
overall feasibility or appropriateness of their development?

1.1 Stakeholders
Whilst the development of site maps should be approach and context dependent,
typically the following stakeholders will be involved:

6
CHAPTER 1. IDENTIFYING REQUIREMENTS 7

• Affected population in sites. These need to be consulted before collect-

ing drone-captured imagery to make sure they are informed and consent
to the activity in order to minimize risks associated with this approach
and prevent any misunderstandings.
• Humanitarian actors. These can help inform which and how many
sites need to be mapped. Humanitarian actors, especially those on the
ground, will also feed into the iteration process of the site maps, in order
to validate geographic information and keep the maps and the underlying
data layers up to date.
• Authorities. The authorities are a crucial interlocutor for approvals.
In addition, their engagement can promote the use of the site maps in
decision making processes. The participation of authorities in the site
mapping process will also facilitate the handover and long term manage-
ment of information, expertise and equipment, as well as support capacity
development initiatives for future scenarios.
• Legal team. IOM Legal colleagues will provide any additional guidance
on data collection, processing and sharing related to your specific context
and are responsible for providing the final approval on the use of drones.

1.2 General Requirements

Developing site maps typically requires the following:

1.2.1 Personnel

Staff with relevant skills and expertise. Support staff such as drivers and pro-
curement support will also be needed. Depending on the number of sites and
how quickly the site maps are needed, the site mapping team may need to be
scaled up.

1.2.2 Context

The security, political and regulatory environment play a large role in deter-
mining the approach to site mapping in a country but also whether or not site
mapping is feasible at all. Identification of such challenges and potential risks
is best done as early as possible to avoid wasting resources or to allow sufficient
time to mitigate them.

1.2.3 Time

Developing site maps can be a time-intensive process, requiring prior consulta-

tions with various stakeholders, lead-time for procurement of equipment, travel
time for site visits, time for collecting and processing the imagery, composing the
site maps and collaboratively iterating and updating their content. These are
CHAPTER 1. IDENTIFYING REQUIREMENTS 8

important factors to consider when looking at the time frame of their intended
use.

1.2.4 Funding

There are a series of financial costs involved in the development of site maps
that need to be taken into account. Annex 4 provides a table with indicative
figures for the purpose of costing a site mapping exercise.

1.2.5 Hardware and Software

Hardware requirements include: a laptop (with sufficient processing power,

RAM and storage); a drone kit (drone, remote, batteries etc.); a smartphone
(for use as a remote control); ground-control points (printout or spray paint).
It is optional but advised to also have tablets, to support usage of the maps and
any connected data collection exercise.
Software requirements include: QGIS (or other GIS software like such as
ArcGIS); DJI Fly mobile app; Dronelink mobile app (or similar for flight plan-
ning); WebODM (or other drone image processing tool such as PIX4D); Avenza
Maps (or similar, for geoPDF usage) 1

1.2.6 Connectivity

In situations of sudden onset disasters, connectivity can be very challenging and

quite often can lead to bottlenecks and delays. While connectivity requirements
vary depending on the chosen approach, a minimum degree of connectivity
should be assumed for the initial gathering the required geographic information
and data layers.
If using satellite imagery sufficient connectivity to download the imagery is re-
quired, or alternatively all map development can be done remotely with feedback
from within country. Connectivity also affects the UAV imagery workflow as
limited connectivity will require the use of offline tools only and for all processing
of the imagery to be done locally. In areas with good connectivity, the imagery
can be transferred to remote tools and computers for processing, allowing for a
higher degree of remote support.

1 Where possible free and open source software is used in this mapping process, in-line with

the UN Secretary General’s Roadmap for Digital Cooperation. An exception for this are the
Dronelink app which is commercial and Avenza Maps which is free includes paid features.
Chapter 2

Deciding on an approach

There are two approaches to making sites maps presented in this guide. The
main differerence between the two is in how aerial imagery is obtained:

1. Using high-resolution satellite imagery.

2. Using drones to capture aerial images of the site.

Figure 2.1: Uses and challenges of drone use Source: ICRC

Each of these approaches have advantages and disadvantages and it is impor-

tant to evaluate each approach against the following criteria before assessing
which approach to take in your context:

9
CHAPTER 2. DECIDING ON AN APPROACH 10

2.1 Decision Matrix

Scenario Satellite Imagery UAV imagery

A site map is � �
needed in
the fastest
time possible
Very detailed � �
imagery is
required
The site is in � �
a conflict
affected area
There is � �
persistent
cloud-cover
over the site
The location � �
of the site is
inaccessible
Need to � �
build DM or
3D model
Need to � �
conduct
further
analysis and
thematic
hazard maps
(Vegetation
cover
analysis, Fire
hazard/
extent,
Flood
hazard/
extent )

2.2 Information Needs

Before flying a drone or acquiring satellite imagery, it is important to be clear
on what images you want to collect and for what specific purpose. Consider
whether you need only an image or whether you are look to create a Digital
Elevation Model, a 3D model, a NDVI index etc. as this will affect your choice
in approach. Think about whether there are others applications outside of site
mapping that you are in need of, such as drainage analysis, slope analysis,
CHAPTER 2. DECIDING ON AN APPROACH 11

landslide risk analysis or vegetation cover analysis. If so, satellite imagery is a

better suited imagery source that UAV imagery.
Consider what area needs to be covered whilst bearing in mind that larger areas
require longer flight times, more storage etc. You should not be flying the drone
above as many areas as possible to collect as many images as possible and then
decide what to do with them. The data collection must be adequate, relevant
and not excessive in relation to its purpose (only collect data which is needed).
However, depending on the purpose and audience of the map, it is important to
capture the site’s surroundings in order to situate it within its wider context.
You should not map only within the boundaries of the site. Where possible
include neighbouring host community settlements, transport linkages and other
key infrastructure facilities, potential hazards or environental vulnerabilities in
the area.

2.3 Conflict and Data Sensitivity

Due to protection risks, the humanitarian use of drones in conflict settings
is strongly discouraged. The term “dual-use technology” is commonly used to
describe a technology with both civilian and military applications. With the rise
of the use of drones for military use, there is a risk that the use of drones for
humanitarian purposes in sites may be perceived as a security threat by the site
population or cause trauma due to an association of drones with their military
uses. In conflict settings armed actors or authorities are likely to perceive the
flying of drones as both a security and informational risk. This means that the
importation of drone equipment and/ or the request for flight approvals will
likely be denied, or that their use in a site risk being perceived as a security
threat. [^footnote]
There are key considerations to take into account when collecting, pro-
cessing and sharing any type of data. These considerations determine the
degree of sensitivity applied throughout the data life cycle and include:

• The potential to harm data subjects and others;

• The potential to discriminate;
• The potential to harm IOM staff and individuals representing authorized
third parties.

In addition to the data risks and concerns outlined in the IOM Data Protection
Manual, there are additional specific concerns and risks associated with the use
of drones.1
Once your flight area is identified, a risk-benefit assessment should be conducted
prior to using drones. The assessment will evaluate the risks and benefits as-
sociated with collecting and processing drone captured imagery and determine
whether flying a drone for the collection of aerial imagery is the best approach
in your context.
1 IOM Data Protection Manual
CHAPTER 2. DECIDING ON AN APPROACH 12

2.4 Data Security and Responsibility

The use of drones to capture aerial images for site mapping does not require
the collection of personal data. Individuals must not be identifiable from
captured images. Ensure that the flight settings (altitude, angle etc.) eliminates
or reduces as much as possible the likelihood that the captured imagery may
directly or indirectly identify an individual. If, by mistake, you collect images in
which people can be identified, you should immediately delete them. However,
if the image taken must really be used, you can either crop the image or blur
the faces of people who could be identified. While collecting the data or shortly
thereafter, check whether any of the images captured contains sensitive data and
therefore should be deleted or otherwise removed from/made unrecognizable in
the image (for example, a group of individuals that could be identified as part
of a specific group, image of illegal crops or settlement).

2.5 Community Engagement

Creating Site Maps requires buy-in from the community in and around the sites
area of interest, in which they are informed of the planned activity, understand
how its planned to be used and why its needed and to be able to accept or
reject the activity or provide inputs into how the activity is conducted or how
its outputs are used.

2.6 Regulatory Environment

It is crucial to be aware of and fully understand the laws at both national
and local-levels, as well the regulatory procedures and norms related to the
use of UAVs, as these can vary significantly between contexts. The regulatory
environment can refer to import procedures and restrictions; limitations on size
and types on drones; pilot qualification requirements; and geographic limitations
for UAV flight.
The Global Drone Regulations Database keeps an updated collection of country-
specific regulations. It can be used to better understand the source of legal in-
formation, find relevant contact information, operating rules, as well as licensing
and approval procedures. 2

2.7 Organizational Requirements

Many organizations have internal rules and guidance governing the use of tech-
nologies such as Drones. Donors may also have their own rules around their uses
and the use of data resulting from the exercise. During the planning stage, it is
2 [Link] launched by the UAVatiors network in 2014, is a database of

national-level UAV regulations

CHAPTER 2. DECIDING ON AN APPROACH 13

important to contact the relevant organisation focal-point to ensure compliance

with these rules.

Ĺ Note for IOM staff

During the planning phase, it is important that IOM staff reach out to
IOM’s Office of Legal Affairs (LEG) leg@[Link]. They will provide legal
and compliance guidance, as well as the latest version of the Drone usage
checklist and Risk-benefit analysis template.

2.8 Level of Accuracy

In emergency contexts, the use of drones or acquiring high resolution satellite
imagery of the site and its surrounding environment may not be feasible. Addi-
tionally, in the first days of an emergency, exisiting maps or preliminary spatial
data on a site may not be digital (for example only photocopies of printed doc-
uments from local authorities or hand drawn maps may be available). In such
cases, producing site maps with a high level of accuracy can be challenging.
Whilst low accuracy maps should not be used to conduct risk analysis such as
flooding or fire hazards and cannot be used for activities such as site planning,
they can still be used in for coordination purposes or as tools for focus group
discussions.
Whilst there are some issues and limitations to translating and integrating hand
drawn maps into GIS environments, existing printed or hand drawn maps should
be digitized by redrawing features to create georeferenced spatial data layers in
a GIS environment. Verifying the resulting data layers in the field can help
mitigate these limitations and improve the accuracy of the digital map. One
approach is to coordinate a walk-around the site where participants check and
annote the map using Avenza maps (more of this in 7.2).
If neither of the above options are available and depending on the intended use
of the site map and the level of accuracy required for that activity, maps of the
site can be hand drawn onto large surfaces by either experienced site planners or
members of the affected population and digitized at a later stage when needed.
 Part II

Part 2 - Obtaining imagery

14
Chapter 3

Satellite imagery

The choice of using satellite imagery, instead of capturing aerial imagery using
drones, may be due to the need for rapid mapping turnaround time, lack of
direct access to the area of interest or limitations to flying a drone listed in the
previous chapter.
This section introduces the different types of satellite imagery, what to consider
when choosing imagery most appropriate for your use case and where to source
the imagery.

3.1 Types of satellite imagery

There are different types of satellite imagery. The types of imagery generated
from a satellite depends on the kind of image-capturing method (remote sens-
ing technology) it uses: active or passive sensors. Active sensors emit radiation
towards the Earth’s surface and collect the reflected radiation. Lidar and Syn-
thetic Aperture Radar (SAR) are both example of active sensors. SAR emits
electromagnetic pulses whereas Lidar emits light pulses towards the Earth sur-
face, both measuring the reflection. Passive (or Optical) sensors detect radiation
naturally reflected from the Earth’s surface and are dependent on the day-night
cycle.
For the purpose of site mapping, satellite imagery sourced using Optical
satellites is most prevalent and useful (as these typically produce imagery
with colour similar to how the human eye preceives color).

Á Note on Colour bands

Satellites produce a range of different visual outputs. These visual outputs

differ in their color combinations. Wavelengths detected by the satellites
are translated into color bands then can combined to form an Index. This
allows further analysis to be conducted. True-color images, as pro-
duced by Optical satellites and often used for mapping purposes, are a

15
CHAPTER 3. SATELLITE IMAGERY 16

Synthetic Aperature Radar(active) vs Optical(passive) sensors Source: ESMA Lisbon

combination of the red, green and blue bands which results in an visual
output similar to how we see color with our eyes. Other types of out-
puts include the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NVDI),
which can be used to monitor changes in vegetation, or the False Color
Infrared combination, which can be used in water detection during the
heavy rain seasons or in the event of flooding.

3.2 Cloud cover

Passive satellites are not able to capture through clouds and therefore can be
limited when observing certain areas with dense cloud coverage, posing a chal-
lenge to rapid response to hazards such as cyclones or floding.

Figure 3.1: Optical imagery sources are affected by cloud cover Source: Harris
Geospatial
CHAPTER 3. SATELLITE IMAGERY 17

3.3 Spatial resolution

The resolution of a satellite image is categorized as follows:

• High resolution: 30cm-5m/pixel

• Medium resolution: 10-30m/pixel
• Low resolution: over 60m/pixel

Comparison of different spatial resolutions Source: X. Yao

A 10m resolution means that each pixel represents a 10m x 10m area on the
[Link] smaller the spatial resolution, the higher the level of detail.
Depending on the user’s needs, different image resolutions can be used:

• High resolution images are used in scale analysis or monitoring since a

smaller area is often covered. The level of detail at such spatial resolution
allows for small and individual objects to be identified. High resolution im-
ages are ideal for humanitarian aid applications, detailed mapping, urban
planning, as well as infrastructure, forestry and agriculture monitoring.
However, high-resolution imagery is expensive and as a result, less of it
is openly accessible. For the purposes of creating site maps, high
resolution imagery is preferable.

• Low to Medium resolution images are useful for understanding the bigger
picture, whether that is looking at historical trends or deriving insights
from spectral analysis. For example, ESA’s Sentinel and NASA/USGS
Landsat data provide historical data at this resolution.

3.4 Imagery sources

Some free data sources for low to medium resolution imagery include
USGS/NASA’s Landsat and ESA’s Sentinel series.
High-resolution imagery can be sourced from UNOSAT. Some satellite image
providers also provide imagery for certain select disasters. An example of this
is Maxar’s Open Data Program. OpenAerialMap can also be a useful source,
where open licenced aerial imagery is made available for download.
CHAPTER 3. SATELLITE IMAGERY 18

Ĺ Note for IOM staff

For IOM staff, subject to availability, high-resolution Satellite imagery can

be requested from IOM DTM GIS unit dtmgis@[Link]
Chapter 4

UAV imagery

Once you have understood what is required to collect aerial imagery using
drones, the site mapping exercise and the use of drones has been discussed
with the various affected stakeholders, a risk-benefit assessment has been con-
ducted and approvals and permissions has been received from relevant actors,
you are ready to start planning the flight.

4.1 Obtaining a drone kit

Ĺ Note for IOM staff

On request, the Global CCCM team in Geneva can coordinate, with the
support of the site mapping team, the deployment of a drone kit located at
IOM HQ. IOM staff can reach out to CCCM Support globalcccm@[Link]
with a brief description of the site mapping exercise and the intended use
of the site maps, as well as the risk-benefit assessment and approval from
IOM LEG colleagues. If and when available, the drone kit will then be
sent with staff deployments or shipped to the requesting mission.

Online courses are available to accompany first-time UAV operators such as dis-
placement site planner Andrea Cippa’s 5-part tutorial on mapping with drones
available here.

Ĺ Note for IOM staff

IOM staff planning on using the CCCM deployable drone kit should reg-
ister and complete the following online course and present certification
upon requesting the kit. Whilst you may not plan to operate the drone
in Switzerland or the EU, the certificate will show an understanding of
how to operate drones and depending on the requirements of the intended
country of flight, certification issued by an ICAO member state is required.
Switzerland is a member state (The full list of member states can be found

19
CHAPTER 4. UAV IMAGERY 20

here).

As a drone pilot, you are responsible for operating your UAV safely. It is crucial
to check your drone is registered with the national authority and the registration
number is displayed on the drone. The following is a simple checklist applicable
to open category drones weighing under 250g with a camera. Please note this list
may differ between country so it is very important to always check the national
aviation authorities website.

• Insure the drone and carry the insurance certificate with you when oper-
ating the drone;
• Check no-fly zones any potentials obstacles in the planned flight area;
• Maintain visual contact with your drone at all times;
• Maintain a safe distance between the drone and people, animals, buildings,
infrastructure, or other aircraft;
• If there is an accident with the drone which results in a serious or fa-
tal incident with a person or other aircraft, inform the national aviation
authority;
• Familiarize yourself and carry with you the manufacturer’s instructions.

The main things to remember whilst flying a UAV are: - Do not fly over gath-
erings of people; - Do not fly above 120m from the ground; - Do not fly near an
aircraft or in proximity of airports or helipads; - Respect peoples’ privacy; - Do
not use the drone to carry and or drop items. - Do not fly at an altitude which
would allow the identification of people from the imagery captured.

4.2 Registration and certifications

Depending on the context, you may need to register with the relevant aviation
authority of your country and complete a certification to receive the necessary
license. Whether you need to register the drone, yourself or obtain a license/
certification to fly it will also depend on the type of UAV you are planning on
flying. It is important to always check local rules and regulations and therefore
flight requirements before use as these may change over time.
To determine what kind of paperwork you need to fly the UAV, you should
determine the weight and type of UAV you are planning on operating. In most
contexts, if the UAV weighs less than 250g but has a camera or another type of
sensor which could be used to gather personal data, registration and certification
to operate it will be required.

4.3 Pre-flight
1
Prior to the flight, consider the following:
1A comprehensive checklist was created by the Humanitarian UAV Network]
CHAPTER 4. UAV IMAGERY 21

• Documentation: Consider what documentation you need to carry with

you while operating the UAV. In some contexts, proof of competence and
an insurance certificate need to be with the operator during the flight.
• Weather: Most UAVs are not waterproof and therefor it is important
to check precipitation forecasts in the flight area of interest. Wind speed
also has an adverse effect on drone flight. Both type and size influence the
susceptibility of drones to wind. Smaller drones, such as the DJI Mavic
Mini for instance, have a wind speed operating ceiling of approximately
18km/h. Clouds, if above the flight altitude can have a positive affect
as they act as a giant soft-box scattering sunlight, but if they are rolling
may cause inconsistencies with light exposure. If possible, it’s best to fly
around the middle of the day, when the sun is overhead, to limit shadows
in the imagery.
• Stakeholder engagement: Assuming regulatory processes have been
followed, it is important that the population in the site area of interest is
fully informed of the planned flight and understands the objective, that
there is acceptance of the activity and that there is a communication
channel in place for the community to voice any complaints or feedback.
• Hardware checks: Make sure that all batteries are charged and that all
required equipment is functioning.
• Pre-identify takeoff and landing sites: A suitable area will be free of
obstructions such as trees or overhead wires and away from move foot or
road traffic.
• Create a flight plan: This includes the planned route, with altitude,
overlap and takeoff/landing areas pre-programmed. There are restrictions
on where and how high the drone can be flown such as within a certain
proximity to airports or military bases, buildings, residential areas, people
or gatherings of people. Identify potential obstacles and restricted areas
in the flight area and familiarize yourself with the minimum distance to
keep away from these. Ensure you will be able to maintain “VLOS” or
Visual Line of Sight/ contact with the drone at all times throughout the
flight.

4.3.1 Nadir vs oblique images

The image captured when a drones camera faces directly down is called a nadir
image. For creating an orthomosaic of a site, nadir images are preferred to
oblique images which are more suited to tasks such as 3D modelling.

4.3.2 Ground control points

Ground control points are marks created on the site as reference points to match
specific points on the image to specific coordinates within the site. They provide
a great degree of accuracy for the image that relying on the GPS of the drone
by itself.
CHAPTER 4. UAV IMAGERY 22

Figure 4.1: An example of an oblique angle image of Bakassi Camp, northeastern Nigeria Source: IOM

Figure 4.2: An example of a nadir angle image of Wau PoC, in South Sudan Source: IOM
CHAPTER 4. UAV IMAGERY 23

Use a minimum of 3 GCPs and capture the coordinates of each GCP centrepoint
with a Phone or handheld GPS for an accuracy level of 1-3 metres. For accuracy
of 1cm a specialised Real-time kinematic positioning (RTK) kit is required.

Figure 4.3: An example Ground Control Point Source: Pix4d

4.3.3 Path and image overlap

A minimum of 16-31 images are needed to create an orthophoto from drone

captured imagery with WebODM. Images should averlap by 70-72%.

• Minimum number of images captured: 16-32

• Minimum image overlap: 70-72%
• Minimum image overlap for 3D: 83%

4.3.4 Flight altitude

Ground Sampling Distance (GSD) refers to geographic area represented by one

pixel of an image. It reflects the resolution of the image, with flight height
and image sensor resolution being the two biggest determining factors. For
site mapping a GSD of 2.5cm2 - 1cm2 is the range most suitable. Most flight
planning software automatically calculate the GSD based on an entered flight
altitude. The flight altitude should also consider potential flight obstructions
such as trees or overhead power lines, noise and also privacy as having a flight
altitude and GSD that is too low could result in the unintended consequence of
capturing information that could be personally identifiable.

4.4 Post-Flight
Following the flight, make sure to check the imagery quality and completeness,
safely storge the equipment and ensure the data captured is securely stored.
CHAPTER 4. UAV IMAGERY 24

Figure 4.4: GSD is the amount of actual ground captured by the distance
between the center point of two adjacent pixels. Source: [Link]

4.5 Post-Flight processing: Creating Orthomo-

saic
Drone captured images then need to be stitched together into one image or
orthomosaic.
WebODM is a free software that can be used to create orthomosaics from drone
captured-imagery. To install WedODM manually, follow the steps outlined here.
Once installed, create a new [Link] the images to create a task. After
the task has been successfully completed, the orthomosaic will be ready to
download. Select [Link] in the list of available formats and the single
image output will download.
In addition to creating orthomosaics, WebODM can also produce Digital Surface
Models or 3D models of the site.
 Part III

Part 3 - Developing Maps

25
Chapter 5

Tracing and labeling

Once the aerial imagery has been obtained, two primary post-processing ap-
proaches are involved to extract the geographic information of different site
features from the imagery. The site mapper can either manually or automat-
ically trace and label site features. The site features that will be extracted from
the aerial imagery will depend on the specific needs for, objectives and audience
of the site map.
For instance, the site mapper may look to map the location and configuration
of shelters in a site. Post-processing of the image will consist of generating a
new data layer of shelter outlines.
It is important to be aware of the advantages and the disadvantages of choosing
whether to manually or automatically trace and label site features in order to
determine which option is most suited. The table below presents a summary of
both.

Manual Automatic
Advantages Extracting A high number of shelters and buildings
geographic information by can be traced and labelled in a small
manually tracing and labeling amount of time, relative to manual
requires only basic GIS skills. It tracing.
can be done offline in contexts with
limited connectivity. Allows for
medium to high accuracy of traced
shelters and buildings that have
irregular or non-rectangular
geometry.

26
CHAPTER 5. TRACING AND LABELING 27

Manual Automatic
Disadvantages Time intensive, Most open-source tools require some
relative to automatic tracing. minimum understanding of machine
learning principles. Most low-code tools
are not open-source and may incur
additional costs Depending on 1) how
much data is available to train the
machine learning model, 2) the type and
accuracy of the tool used (amongst
other factors), there may be errors or
inaccuracies in the outlines and labels
generated requiring the site mapper to
manually verifying and edit outputs.

Ĺ Note

If there is high cloud or tree coverage, some features may not be visible
in the aerial imagery and thus will not be visible to the site mapper or
detected by the machine learning model. Therefore, it is crucial to validate
all extracted geographic information by consulting with and seeking inputs
from stakeholders and colleagues in the field.

5.1 Manual tracing

Manual tracing can be done in GIS or AutoDesk software. QGIS can be down-
loaded for free here. Once the software download is complete, georeference the
aerial imagery into a new workspace. Create a new vector layer and toggle edit
to trace the required features and save the data layer.

5.2 Automatic tracing

Below are some tools which can assist you in creating a workflow for automatic
shelter detection:

• Create a training data set from aerial imagery with [Link].

When signing up with Groundwork, up to 10 campaigns (projects) can
be created free of charge when creating an account. Upload orthomosaic
image to Groundwork, label features and export the training data in .json
format.
• Extract shelter outlines from aerial imagery using [Link]’s built in
deep learning and semantic segmentation models. After signing up, create
a new project. Mapflow can also be used as a plugin in QGIS and can be
downloaded from here. Further guidance on how to install the Mapflow
QGIS plugin is available here.
CHAPTER 5. TRACING AND LABELING 28

Á Tiff vs GeoTiff

In order to use your orthomosaic in [Link], you may need to georef-

erence your image in QGIS beforehand and export it as a GeoTiff with
either web mercator, UTM or lat-lon coordinate systems.

• Segment GeoTIFF files using Segment Anything Model and save segmen-
tation results in vector format with SamGeo’s Automatic Mask Generator
notebook. This video tutorial takes you through how to use this notebook
here.
Chapter 6

Composing site maps

Site maps are composed of layers of geographic information/ data. These data
layers are loaded and manipulated in a Geographical Information System (GIS)
such as QGIS, ArcGIS and others. After layers are correctly projected onto
their corresponded geographic location and different visualization settings are
applied, a layout is composed (either from scratch or from an existing site map
template).The layout is then exported to PDF or geoPDF. Styled and raw data
layers can can be saved into a Geopackge for a seamless transfer of geographical
information between mappers and future mappers.

6.1 Examples of site maps

Below are some examples of site maps. More examples can be found here.

6.2 Working in GIS

GIS software can open different file types: Vector files (which use points,
line segments and polygon objects to identify geographic information), Raster
files/images (which use cells/ pixels to represent geographic information), and
Delimited text files (such as .csv file types). For example:

Data Layer Example File Type

Aerial Imagery Raster file
Location of healthcare facilities or service providers Vector file
Population per block Delimited Text file

6.2.1 Loading data layers and veryfying projections

To prepare the site map, load the data layers into a GIS workspace, such as
QGIS.

29
CHAPTER 6. COMPOSING SITE MAPS 30

(a) Source: UNOSAT (b) Source: REACH Initiative

Figure 6.1: Examples of Site maps

Most publicly available geographic information datasets are projected in a world

Coordinate Reference System (CRS) (WGS 84). When loading a layer projected
in a whole world CRS, the layer will look slightly distorted in the workspace.
Ensure that the Project CRS is set to the area of your site location. You can
use the [Link] database of coordinate systems to know the coordinate system
you should be using for you context. All loaded data layers need to be checked
and projected where needed, according to the project CRS.

6.2.2 Layers and elements of a site map

This guide is accompanied by a site map template which can be loaded into
QGIS’s Print Composer. Below is a dummy example of a site map produced
using [this template](.

Ĺ Note

For the purposes of supporting a standardized approach to the pro-

duction of static site maps, and ensuring new site maps can be
compared and used alongside existing maps, the template provided
in this Site Mapping Guide is one approach to laying out a site map,
however this can and should be adapted based on the context and its
audience.

The following list of layers and elements can be included in the final output:
CHAPTER 6. COMPOSING SITE MAPS 31

Figure 6.2: An example of a dummy site map composed in QGIS using the site map template included in this
guide. Source: IOM

• Title and Subtitle (1)

– Country
– State
– Site Name
– Thematic Title
– Date site map was last updated

• Site map audience/ permission/ sharing restrictions (1.2)

• Production date and version number of site map (1.3)
• Agency/ NGO Logos (1.4)
• Inset maps (2)

– At Country/ Regional level

– At Regional/ Area level

• Notes (3)

– Data sources
– Satellite Imagery source
– Imagery Resolution
– Coordinate system
– Site GPS coordinate points
– Agency/ NGO Logo
– Contact
– Link to Geodatabase/ corresponding data layers
CHAPTER 6. COMPOSING SITE MAPS 32

– Disclose limitations regarding accuracy of site map (3.1)

• Map

– Base Map (satellite/ aerial imagery) (4.1)

– Scale bar (4.2)
– Orientation indicators (4.3)
– Legend (4.4)
– Camp Infrastructure (4.5) :
∗ Shelters
∗ Shelter blocks
∗ Zones
∗ WASH facilities
∗ Water points
∗ Education facilities
∗ Health Facilities
∗ Distribution points (Food/ NFI)
∗ Markets(s)
∗ Information desks
∗ CFM desks
∗ Other camp facilities
∗ Movement network (Roads, pathways)
∗ Community areas/ centre
∗ Religious buildings/ spaces
∗ Site Entrance(s)
∗ Site boundary
∗ Security facilities or guard points
∗ Fences/ Camp Boundaries

• Environment

– Host community
– Green belt
– Trees/ Vegetation
– Agricultural land

• Optional additional labels:

– Functioning/ non-functioning facilities

– Male/ female latrines
– Unusable area
– Agency responsibility for each section of the site
– Shelter numbers/ Addressing
– Summary information/ figures
∗ Site population (households and individuals)
∗ Site area
∗ Total no. of shelters
∗ Shelter type and size
∗ Quantity of sanitation blocks/ latrines/ showers
∗ Type of water supply
∗ Total no. of water points
CHAPTER 6. COMPOSING SITE MAPS 33

6.2.3 Visualizing data layers

Once the files are opened in QGIS, they will appear as layers. These layers can
be duplicated in order to show different visualisations of the same file.

6.2.4 Adding fields and editing attributes

Shapefiles (ESRI Shapefile format) are the most common type of vector file.
This file format dataset consists of several files. Of these different files, there
are two which you should be familiar with for the purposes of this site mapping
exercise. First, the .shp file, which contains the geometries of the features in
the layer and secondly, the .dbf file, which contains the feature attributes.
The attribute table interface allows you to view and [edit the attribute data]
([Link]
attribute-values) as well as interact with features in a layer (by selecting or
filtering features for example). Fields are columns of attribute values and these
can be added, deleted and edited through this interface.

Á Warning

Any saved changes made to a data layer in QGIS will also change the
source file. If you wish to edit/ delete or add features or attribute values
to a layer but do not want to edit the original source file, save the layer as
a separate file before making your edits. Additionally, removing a layer
will remove it from the work space but will not delete it from your source
folder.

6.2.5 Print Layouts and Using Templates

With QGIS’s layout composer, you can create layouts or use existing layout
templates. The template file can be downloaded here. Once the layout is com-
plete, save and export the print layout as an image, an svg (for future editing in
other software such as Adobe Illustrator or InkScape, select export as vectors),
or as a PDF. If saving as a PDF, consider saving the layout as a GeoPDF by
selecting ’Create Geospatial PDF (GeoPDF) in the export PDF settings (refer
to Section 7: Collaboration for why you should export your site map alsp as a
GeoPDFs)

6.2.6 Saving the data layers and styles into a Geopackage

Data layers are saved on your local computer. To facilitate sharing geographic
information, data layers can be compressed into a Geopackage. The QGIS
project and all the data used in the project can be saved using the Package
Layers tool and easily shared and stored as such for future use.
Chapter 7

Collaboration

Throughout the development cycle of site maps, the contributions and partic-
ipation of the different stakeholders identified earlier in this guide, is key to
producing high quality, updated site maps. Static PDF site maps are the main
output of this workflow. However, it is also important to recognise that other
products are created in the process of making site maps, such as:

• Aerial/ Satellite imagery of sites in which CCCM, shelter or other human-

itarian activities are being carried out,
• Spatial database of the site environement and its infrastructure,
• GeoPDFs,
• Site map template

7.1 Information and knowledge management

These are valuable information products which can be used by colleagues and
other humanitarian actors to inform conduct thematic analysis as well as serve
as an evidence base for advocacy, planning and decision making.
More importantly, these products are tools to collaborate with stakeholders and
actors on the ground that in turn can:

1. Verify and validate the information,

2. Feedback and suggest modifications,
3. Update the data when changes occur on the ground.

Therefore, the manner in which this data is stored, presented and shared is
crucial to both allow for and promote the use of site maps.

34
CHAPTER 7. COLLABORATION 35

Ĺ Note

IOM and partner agency/ NGO staff can and are encouraged to share
these data products with the CCCM Global Cluster so there is continuity
in the management of site data. The CCCM Global cluster can play a
role in facilitating the storage, dissemination and use of site data whilst
ensuring it is done so responsibly.

7.2 Interoperability of GIS and CAD data

GIS and CAD interoperability is key to developing sustainable site data lifecy-
cles. Whilst both can be used to create spatial data layers and produce maps,
each software has distinct uses and advantages. These are summarised in the
table below:

CAD GIS
Design and Drafting tool Data gathering, display and analysis
tool
Allows for survey-level precision Allows for attributes/ information to
describe features
Produce construction Conduct data analysis and display
documentation and plans data/ produce thematic maps (terrain
analysis, generate point clouds; Install
plugins to integrate satellite imagery
directly into GIS site mapping project
space; Install other plugins such as
water supply simulation tools (Epanet)
or flooding analysis tools (for example
RiverGIS for HEC-RAS)

Whilst this guide accompanies site mappers through the process of creating
maps using GIS software, some mappers may have a preference for CAD software
or some exisiting site data may be in CAD format. CAD files and data can be
used to generate data layers in GIS systems however this depends on the CAD
files conforming to the following standards: 1. The data must be cleaned and
free from drafting errors; 2. Each layer must contain only one type of geometry;
3. The file does not contain ‘extra’ uneccessary layers; 3. The data should be
exported from CAD as a DWG or DXF file; 4. The data should have a defined
coordinate system so that it can be properly positioned in GIS; 4. The dataset
comes with metadata (information about a database typically in a XML or
HTML doc: list of layers, coordinate system, scaling factors etc); 5. The data
must be either in real-world units or if the scaling factor is provided in the
metadata.
Similarly, data in GIS or the dataset generated in the proccess of analysing and
compiling the data into site maps can be exported into CAD for site planning
purpose.
CHAPTER 7. COLLABORATION 36

7.3 Generating, reading and annotating geoPDFs,

GPS Exchange Format or KMZ files.
In the previous section, we looked at exporting print layouts as GeoPDFs.
GeoPDFs are PDFs with embedded georeferenced location information.
GeoPDFs can be imported into Avenza maps. The app uses the built in GPS in
a tablet or smartphone to locate users when out of range of a network or internet
connection. Users can mark points of interest, attach photos with exact location,
and add annotations to existing features.
GIS maps can also be used by some GPS devices. The data can be annotated
directly in the device however this depends on the device. Using the QGIS
plugin “GarminCustomMap” the map canvas can be exported to a .kmz file to
use the map as a background map in the device. The list of compatable GPS
devices for this is available here. Another option is to export individual layers
in GPZ format to upload into the GPS device.

7.4 Gathering feedback and map iterations

Through Focus group discussions and site walks, the site maps can be annotated
by different stakeholders to mark for example, errors in the map, changes in the
layout of the site, the location of new or closed services etc. The site map can
either be project or printed in large formats or imported in Avenza map to be
used during site walks in order to determine the precise location of different
features.

7.5 Using Site maps in Practice

Site maps can provide a spatial perspective on issues and risks within sites.
They can be used as inputs to safety audits, identification of risk factors and
support coordinated planning and coordination of response activities.
Part IV

Annexes

37
Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the following people for their support during all stages
of the development of this guidance:

38
Glossary

A glossary of terms used throughout this guide:

DSM Digital Surface Model. A modelling of a an area that include foliage and
structures.
DTM Digital Terrrain Model. Similar to DSM but excluding foliagge and
other structures. Also Displacement Tracking Matrix, an IOM initiative
that gathers data on mobility, vulnerability and needs.
Drone Common term for unmanned or remotely-piloted aircraft.
Georeferencing The act of aligning geographic data (such as a map) to a
known coordinate system.
GIS Geographic information system. In general terms, a system that is de-
signed to manipulate, store, analyze, and manage spatial and geographic
data.
GSD Ground sample distance. The resolution of an aerial image
IOM International Organization for Migration.
Nadir In aerial photography, the point on the ground that lies directly below
the perspective center of the camera lens; also, images taken from this
perspective (i.e., straight down).
Orthomosaic A two-part process in which a number of images are combined
together or “stitched” into a single image and also corrected for distortion.
Orthorectification A process of removing the efects of image perspective and
relief efects by using camera model information and elevation data, creat-
ing a fnal image that has a constant scale.
RTK Real time kinematic. A technique used to extract more-precise-than-
normal position data from global satellite navigation timing signals.
UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle, commonly known as a drone. Radio controlled
fixed-wing or rotorcraft.

39
Further reading

DRONES AND AERIAL OBSERVATION: New Technologies for Property

Rights, Human Rights, and Global Development
UNICEF Drones for Sustainable Development Goals Toolkit
HOT OSM UAV Mapping Guidelines
IASC Operational Guidance on Data Responsibility in Humanitarian Guidance
ICRC Handbook on Data Protection in Humanitarian Action

40