MGG-003

Indira Gandhi National Open University

REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY
School of Sciences
OF INDIA

Vol.

1
BLOCK 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF REGIONS AND REGIONAL
GEOGRAPHY (1-86)

BLOCK 2
SCHEMES OF REGIONALISATION (87-144)

BLOCK 3
MACRO REGIONS (145-251)
Programme Design Committee
Prof. K. R. Dikshit Prof. K. Kumaraswamy Prof. Subhakanta Mohapatra
Retd. Professor in Geography, Retd. Professor in Geography Discipline of Geography,
University of Pune, Bharathidasan University, School of Sciences,
Pune, Maharashtra Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Gopal Krishan Prof. Sachidanand Sinha Prof. Vijay Kumar Baraik
Emeritus Professor in Geography, Centre for the Study of Regional Discipline of Geography,
Panjab University, Chandigarh, Development, Jawaharlal Nehru School of Sciences,
Punjab University, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. H. S. Sharma Prof. Nina Singh Dr. Satya Raj
Retd. Professor in Geography, Department of Geography, Discipline of Geography,
University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, Maharshi Dayanand University, School of Sciences,
Rajasthan Rohtak, Haryana IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Harjit Singh Prof. D. K. Nayak Dr. Koppisetti Nageswara Rao
Retd. Professor in Geography, Department of Geography, Discipline of Geography,
Centre for the Study of Regional North-Eastern Hill University, School of Sciences,
Development, Jawaharlal Nehru Shillong, Meghalaya IGNOU, New Delhi
University, New Delhi
Prof. S. Padmaja Prof. M. S. Nathawat Dr. Vishal Warpa
Retd. Professor in Geography Former Director, Discipline of Discipline of Geography,
Osmania University, Hyderabad Geography, School of Sciences, School of Sciences,
Telangana IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi

Course Design Committee

Prof. M. S. Nathawat Prof. Avaya Chandra Mohapatra Faculty of Geography

Director, (Retd.) Discipline
School of Sciences, Department of Geography,
Prof. Subhakanta Mohapatra
IGNOU, New Delhi School of Human and Environmental
Dr. Koppisetti Nageswara Rao
Sciences, NEHU, Shillong
Dr. Vishal Warpa
Prof. Harjit Singh (Retd.) Prof. B. S. Butola (Retd.)
Centre for the Study of Regional Centre for the Study of Regional
Development, Jawaharlal Nehru Development, Jawaharlal Nehru
University, New Delhi University, New Delhi

Programme Coordinators: Dr. Satya Raj, Dr. Koppisetti Nageswara Rao, and
Dr. Vishal Warpa

Course Preparation Team

Course Contributors
Prof. B. S. Butola (Retd.) (Unit – 1, 2, 3 and 4) Dr. Uttam Lal (Unit – 8)
Centre for the Study of Regional Development, Department of Geography,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, Sikkim University,
New Delhi Gangtok, Sikkim
Prof. Krishna Mohan (Unit - 5) Prof. Taruna Bansal (Unit – 9)
Department of Geography Department of Geography,
Panjab University, Jamia Millia Islamia,
Chandigarh Jamia Nagar, New Delhi
Dr. Abhay Krishna Singh (Unit – 6) Dr. Krishna Kumar (Unit – 10)
Department of Geography, Discipline of Geography,
Dr. Shyama Prasad Mukherjee University, School of Sciences,
Morabadi, Ranchi IGNOU, New Delhi
Dr. Vishal Warpa (Unit – 7)
Discipline of Geography,
School of Sciences,
IGNOU, New Delhi
)HEUXDU\


MGG-003 REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA:
INTRODUCTION
Geography is one of the oldest disciplines of inquiry in the quest of knowledge. The study of
geography goes as back as to the periods of Greeks and the Romans. Subject matter of the
discipline revolves around two broad themes namely physical and human geography. Equally
important, geography subject is known to provide the key filaments as far as the study of any
region over the Earth’s surface is concerned. This course will provide a base for understanding
India in terms of its complexities especially at the level of historically evolved regional identities.
Apart from this, this course would also help in comprehending India better in terms of its diverse
personality with regards to regional issues and provide basis for better appreciation of historically
evolved concept of unity in diversity aimed for national integration. It would also help in evolving
strategies for development of regions by identifying the problems and prospects of regions at
various scales, ranging from macro to meso to micro levels.

This course is divided into five blocks, with each block containing three to four units.

Regional geography is one of the most important branches of study in geography and the other
being systematic geography. Regional geography of India deals with the complex physical and
cultural characteristics that help to shape the geographical regions at different hierarchical levels. It
begins with the distinctive explication concerning the fundamentals of regions and regional method
of analysis along with varying basis and schemes of delimiting regions that will enable the scholarly
comprehension of changing dynamics of India’s regional structure. These fundamentals of regions
and regional geography are thoroughly discussed in Block 1 spread over four Units.

The schemes of regionalisation provide a kind of roadmap and platform laden with sound strategies
for a country's growth and development. Block 2 is devoted to the study of schemes of
regionalisation aimed for the economic development in three Units. It covers the important themes
such as Changing Dimension’s of India’s Regional Structure and review of major schemes as
propounded by key geographers and social scientists.

Block 3 describes macro regions, by covering three macro regions dealt in three Units. These are
macro region 1 (Himalaya and associated mountain ranges), macro region 2 (Indo-Ganga and
Brahamputra plains), and macro region 3 (Indian peninsula and islands).

Block 4 introduces you about the select meso regions of India, including six meso regions dealt in
three Units. These are meso region 1 (Ladakh and Arunachal Himalayas), meso region 2 (Bengal
delta and Indo-Ganga divide), and meso region 3 covering (Chotta Nagpur plateau and Malabar
coast).

Block 5 introduces you about the micro regions of India, by covering six meso regions dealt in
three Units. These are micro region 1 (Kashmir valley and Sikkim Himalaya), micro region 2
(Sunderbans delta and Assam plains), and micro region 3 (Kathiawar and Bundelkhand).

We hope that after studying this course, you will be able to describe fundamentals of regions and
regional geography to explore numerous aspects of regions at varied scales.

In this quest, our warmest wishes are always with you. If you need assistance with this course,
please contact us at: vishalwarpa@[Link].
 MGG-003

Indira Gandhi National Open University

REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY
School of Sciences
OF INDIA

BLOCK

1
FUNDAMENTALS OF REGIONS AND REGIONAL
GEOGRAPHY

UNIT 1
UNDERSTANDING REGIONS 11

UNIT 2
BASIS OF REGIONALISATION 27

UNIT 3
PERSONALITY OF INDIA 1 57

UNIT 4
PERSONALITY OF INDIA 2 69

GLOSSARY 83
BLOCK 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF REGIONS AND REGIONAL
GEOGRAPHY
Geography is one of the oldest domains of knowledge. In simple words, it provides the
description of Earth’s surface. It is concerned with the study of physical and cultural features,
their distribution, spatial variations and interrelationship with one another over space and time.
Intra-regional issues and linkages help in analysing natural and human resource endowments
at sub-national level.

In first Block, we will introduce you to the fundamentals of regions and regional geography,
which will cover the key aspects like Understanding Regions, Basis of Regionalisation,
Personality of India 1 and Personality of India 2 as discussed in an elaborative manner in four
units.

Unit 1: Understanding Regions

First unit is devoted to the study of understanding regions. This Unit introduces the concept of
region and regional geography, regional methods of analysis and types of regions.

Unit 2: Basis of Regionalisation

Second unit is devoted to the study of basis of regionalisation. This Unit presents physical,
historical, and socio-cultural basis of regionalisation. Besides, it also deals with resources and
economic aspects, nature of regional geography along with key issues in delineating geographic
regions.

Unit 3: Personality of India 1

Third unit is devoted to the study of personality of India 1. This Unit goes to the core of the
argument by examining the factors of unity in diversity in India in detail.

Unit 4: Personality of India 2

Fourth unit is devoted to the study of personality of India 2. It introduces you to the diverse
shades of regions, regionalism and federalism and union of states, which have evolved since
time immemorial, corresponding to the need and regional aspirations of the populace.

We hope that after studying this block, you will be able to comprehend the fundamentals of
regions and regional geography in a better and lucid manner.

Our best wishes are always with you in this endeavour.

MGG- 003 REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA

BLOCK 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF REGIONS AND REGIONAL

GEOGRAPHY
Unit 1 Understanding Regions
Unit 2 Basis of Regionalisation
Unit 3 Personality of India 1
Unit 4 Personality of India 2

BLOCK 2 SCHEMES OF REGIONALISATION

Unit 5 Changing Dimensions of India’s Regional Structure
Unit 6 Reviews of Major Schemes 1
Unit 7 Reviews of Major Schemes 2

BLOCK 3 MACRO REGIONS

Unit 8 Macro Regions of India 1
Unit 9 Macro Regions of India 2
Unit 10 Macro Regions of India 3

BLOCK 4 SELECT MESO REGIONS OF INDIA

Unit 11 Meso Regions 1
Unit 12 Meso Regions 2
Unit 13 Meso Regions 3

BLOCK 5 SELECT MICRO REGIONS OF INDIA

Unit 14 Micro Regions 1
Unit 15 Micro Regions 2
Unit 16 Micro Regions 3
 UNIT 1

UNDERSTANDING REGIONS
Structure
1.1 Introduction 1.5 Summary
Expected Learning Outcomes 1.6 Terminal Questions
1.2 Concept of Regions and 1.7 Answers
Regional Geography 1.8 References and Further
1.3 Regional Method of Analysis Reading
1.4 Types of Regions

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Knowledge about Environment, its constituent elements, their
interrelationships and processes are main concerns of most of the branches of
knowledge. Since, Environment is a complex and multidimensional
phenomenon; so, it is difficult if not impossible to develop a holistic and
comprehensive understanding about it within one discipline or branch of
knowledge.

Therefore, most of the disciplines have resorted to a more convenient

taxonomic divide (binary) between the Natural and Human sciences
(branches) of knowledge. The former specialising in the understanding about
the elements, processes and interrelationships that are active among the
attributes of Nature independent of human interventions. On the contrary, the
latter i.e., the Human sciences specialise in aspects that have been created by
humans through their interaction with the attributes, processes and
interrelationships of the nature its elements, regulated through technology on
the one hand and with other members of society by evolving network of social
relations (institutions) on the other hand.

However, there are branches of knowledge like Geography, by virtue of its

subject matter and corresponding methods of enquiry specialises on the
theme that ensembles both the attributes of nature and society. Therefore,
Geography while underplaying the taxonomic approach to knowledge
specialises in synthesising the knowledge (Fig. 1.1).

11
B.S. Butola
Block - 1 Fundamentals of Regions and Regional Geography
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Fig. 1.1: Synthesising Model of Human-Nature Interaction.

Presenting a holistic and synthesised account of dynamic interrelationships

between the elements of the Nature (n) and Human (socio-cultural)
environment is anything but simple and straight. It needs specialised skills and
approaches to unpack the dynamic interrelationships between the attributes of
natural and socio-cultural environments. Though, there are multiple challenges
and approaches in developing a holistic and synthesising understanding, yet
from the point of view of present enquiry, the choice between the general and
specific understanding is most significant. In other words, in this Unit, an
attempt has been made to understand the interrelationships between the
whole and its parts. Therefore, the obvious questions it tries to answer: Is the
summation of parts equals the whole? Or is it possible to understand the
whole by understanding its constituent parts as autonomous stand alone
units?

In this first Unit, Section 1.2 is devoted to the study of Concept of Regions and
Regional Geography. Next two Sections i.e., 1.3 and 1.4 will discuss the
regional methods of analysis and types of regions.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this Unit, you should be able to:
 understand and comprehend the Concept of Regions and Regional
Geography or regional approach to Geography;
 describe the regional methods of analysis or region as a method of
enquiry; and
 define the types of regions.

1.2 CONCEPT OF REGIONS AND REGIONAL

GEOGRAPHY
Geography as a branch of knowledge and the way it ensembles diverse
themes, methods, approaches and reached to its present form, has travelled
diverse spaces and historical stages. It owes its origin to the historical
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Unit - 1 Understanding Regions
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th th
conjunctures created with the rise of modernity in 17 and 18 centuries,
initially in Western Europe, which subsequently spread over other parts of the
World through the processes of colonisation. Though, scholars have diverse
opinions about unpacking the modernity, yet they finally reached a broad
consensus that there are not one but multiple entry points to modernity.
Meaning thereby, modernity is not an undifferentiated, monolithic structure,
rather there are multiple modernities, which in turn formed the bases for the
emergence of different branches of knowledge, each with their own discrete
notion about the ontology (core concerns) and epistemology (philosophy,
methods to knowing) about modernity and the phenomena associated with it.

Once again, there are differences of opinions among the scholars about the
prime movers for such a radical change. However, one of the most significant
and widely agreed opinions was emergence of human ability to think
independently or rise of citizens in place of the subjects of the pre-modern
ages. Citizens free from the fear of excommunication (religion), prosecution
(political power) and physical intimidation (might is right) created an
ontological break about the Humans themselves.

According to Victor Hugo “Nothing else in the world ….. not all the armies…is
so powerful as an idea whose time has come” (Victor, H.). It was an idea of a
free citizen. Meaning thereby, not to think according to business as usual was
considered a first stage in human liberation (free citizen). Thoughts held
bondage by the past prejudices were not only considered a futile exercise, but
also formidable impediments in achieving real freedom. It was to liberate the
thought from the Powers including Religious (psychological Church), Political
(Emperor), Physical (Wealth and Biological) etc., and replace it with
Knowledge as power. To think means ‘to be’, which in turn mean to doubt, to
question and be inquisitive without fear and prejudices.

Taking advantage of the spirit of the age of independent (free) thinking

Geography as a branch of knowledge that emerged along with other branches
of knowledge under modernity, too questioned the then existing knowledge
about phenomena from micro entities like a tiny drop of water, a miniscule
grain of sand and tiny living organism to macro entities like the Earth,
Planetary System and the Cosmos etc., including the motions, forces and
interrelationships among the constituent parts and with their respective
surroundings.

However, the prime focus (core concern) of the Geographers was on the Earth
and its interrelationship with other members of our Solar System on the one
hand and the interrelationship among various constituent elements within the
Earth itself: by raising two fundamental questions:

1. Are different constituent elements (spatial units, regions) of the Earth

different form each other in terms of the attributes that have?
2. Do the interrelationships among the attributes of the constituent elements
(spatial unit) contribute in creating a distinct identity for the given element
(spatial unit, region)?

Though, apparently these are straight questions yet have multiple entrenched
queries within namely:

13
Block - 1 Fundamentals of Regions and Regional Geography
…………………….………………………...…………………………………………………………………………
‘Will you tell me please’, she said, ‘which way I must go from here’?
‘Yes’ said the Cat, ‘but mustn’t you tell me where you want to go’?
‘Well any place’- Alice began.
‘Then you can go any way’ the Cat said.
‘If it is a place’, Alice said (Carroll, L. 1872).

So, Geographical knowledge is not only just about the question of “what”,
“where”, “when” and “how” but also “why” (Angrew, J. and Livingstone, D.
2011)? The range of questions it raised varied from What, Where and How
and Why? Giving rise to taxonomic, descriptive, interpretative, exploratory and
analytical approaches in geography related to two fundamental aspects:

1. The essential, being, reality, which exists independent of the knower and;
2. The episteme, method (theory) of accessing, proving and mapping the
being (reality).

Initially, geographers were concerned more about textual meanings of the

Greek roots of the branch of knowledge Geo (Earth) Graphica (description),
which remained confined to the physical features of Earth’s surface: its relief,
slope, drainage, distribution and description of physical attributes like
continents, oceans, mountain, plateau, plains, rivers, lakes, coasts, deserts,
islands, and glaciers, precipitation, temperature, cyclone etc.

Subsequently, it was realised that knowledge for the sake of knowledge is no

knowledge at all. And above all, knowledge for knowing is not a necessary
condition for an enquiry staking its claim to be a distinct branch of knowledge.
Knowledge should be for enlightened understanding; understanding the
interrelationships among the apparent and structural or immediate and real
attributes. In other words, deciphering the interconnections between the
hidden and the public scripts should be the main objective of geographical
enquiry.

Furthermore, knowledge should be for change, conscious change, which is an

essential attribute of humans. Therefore, there is no nature without human and
vice versa. Subsequently, incorporation of humans as an inseparable part and
force of nature formed an integral part of the scope and thrust area within the
subject matter of geography.

So, the subject matter of geography was to understand the processes involved
in the humanization of nature and naturalisation of humans as a result of
continuous and dynamic relations between the two inseparable parts, which
was different from the disciplines oriented to taxonomic approach, most
popular in the other branches of knowledge, whose approaches and
understanding of the phenomena were regulated through a prism of creating
binaries between nature versus human (culture), natural sciences versus
human (social) sciences etc., wherein one is always counter posed against the
other.

Geography took a position of understanding the phenomena not in terms of

the binaries but complementariness. Not in terms of discreetness but in terms
of interrelations and interdependencies. “Not to create continents but bridges”
across different branch of knowledge (Peter Haggett). The other fundamental

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Unit - 1 Understanding Regions
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difference was in terms of the approaches. Initially, similar to other branches
of knowledge, Geography too approached its subject matter with an overriding
obsession to establish general, universal and generic principles and laws
considering the world as a unified integrated whole.

It is believed that at the dawn of modernity, German Geographer Bernhard

Varen popularly known as Varenius raised doubts about such universalising
approach and highlighted the significance of specific features (Diagram of
Generic and Specific Regions - I) which were properly developed by Humboldt
and Ritter in the 18th Century. Their path breaking postulations ultimately led to
the rise of dichotomy in geography between the Systematic and Regional
Geography.

Systematic Geography: It deals with one or a few selected aspects about

human environment both natural and human and studied its/their aspects on the
surface of the Earth as an undifferentiated predefined geographical space.
Similar to other branches of knowledge that emerged under the enlightenment
and modernity projects, the essential features of systematic geography were
formulations of general laws or principles and identification of generic concepts
and their patterns over the surface of the Earth. By virtue of it’s over emphasis
on generalisations, it was mostly concerned with the aspects of physical
environment: distribution of continents and oceans, mountain ranges, plateaus
and plains, ocean currents and precipitations etc.

According to this approach, the essence of a branch of knowledge (discipline)

lies in its ability to formulate universal laws and concepts. Humboldt, the
protagonist of the systematic Geography emphasised on the unity of the
discipline with the other branches of knowledge on the one hand and various
constituents of the discipline itself on the other hand which was later on
extended to the fields of Human Geography: particularly Political Geography.
The concept of the State by Friedrich Ratzel, Carl Schmitt: Geopolitics etc.,
were some of the examples of systematic approach in Geography. Moreover,
Geography as a discipline was acclaimed a branch of knowledge specialising in
understanding the “unity in diversity”.

According to Humboldt, the most important aim of all physical sciences is to

recognise unity in diversity, to grasp nature’s essence under the cover of
outward appearances. Its purpose is to indicate the manner in which natural
science can be endowed with a higher purpose through which all phenomena
and energies are revealed as one entity.

So, systematic geography primarily dealt with universal laws and generic
concepts within a broad analytical framework, considering space (whole world)
an undifferentiated unit.

SAQ 1
What is systematic geography? Highlight its essential features.

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Block - 1 Fundamentals of Regions and Regional Geography
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1.3 REGIONAL METHOD OF ANALYSIS
Regional Geography: Unlike the Systematic Geographers, the Regional
Geographers were teleological in their approach. For them, Geographical
knowledge is for the well-being and better understanding of the Human society
and their environment (natural and socio-cultural). Though, they did not
oppose the existence and formulation of universal laws in Geography yet were
not in hurry to establish such laws at any cost. In place of these general
principles and laws, they emphasised on establishing the special (regional)
arrangements of terrestrial phenomena.

The main task of a geographer is to unpack the interrelationships and the

unique characteristic features it assigns to a particular areal unit. Over
emphasis on physical environment, most often at the cost of specific features
particularly related to human population, culture and human artifacts etc.
raised objections in the mind of most of the geographers and they advocated
the importance of the specific and particular aspects, where it was difficult to
identify general principles.

Though, many geographers did apply the laws of Newton to explain the
migration of people, flow of goods, commodities and services, Darwin’s Laws
of Evolution to explain the evolution of cultures and state and Laws on
Inheritance of Lamark to explain the racial and cultural differentiation etc., in
Human Geography, yet they realised that these proved counterproductive to
the development of geography. On the contrary, they contributed in making
geography subservient to physical sciences, environmental determinism and
particularly social physics etc. Ritter the contemporary of Humboldt was the
main advocate of this approach. According to him, the goal of geography was
to get away from mere description to the law of the thing described; to reach
not a mere enumeration of facts and figures, but the connection of place with
place and the laws which bind together local and general phenomena of the
Earth’s surface.

Taking clues from Ritter, Alfred Hettner attempted to re-nomenclature

geography into idiographic (regional) and nomothetic (general) and
emphasised on unity of human and nature in specific regional setting, which
ultimately paved way for the emergence of Regional Geography in France by
Vidal de La Blache, who after rejecting the Ratzalians deductive approach and
extensively promoted specific regional studies. Though, in his studies, he
attempted to create a synthesis between nature and humans, considering one
inseparable from the other, which according to him are better articulated in
small spatial units which he named ‘Region” as compared to considering
surface of the Earth as an undifferentiated whole. Region, according to him is
an epitome of intimate relationship between (hu) man and nature developed
over time constitutes a region.

La Blache considered human societies similar to the flora and fauna, all living
together yet each leaving its stamp on other in reciprocal relationships of
mutual benefits. He believed that humans and their respective natural habitats
represent closer reciprocal relationships and one cannot be truly represented
in all its relationship without the other. Regions are the ideal unit for the study
of such relationship and such regions should be the primary task of the
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Unit - 1 Understanding Regions
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geographer to understand the local relationships in architecture, agricultural
practices and a general way of life. According to him, communities lived in
such close association with nature that they might be self-sufficient in majority
of goods. He advised geographers to carry out research in folk museum and
collection and to investigate agricultural equipment which had been used in
the past to study the individuality of development of a region. He was for self-
sufficiency of regional economy despite its breakdown under the steam rolling
normalising, homogenizing and standardising agenda under modernity.

The subject matter once formulated was taken further mostly geographers in
America and Britain. Some of the prominent geographers were Hartshorne,
Carl Saur, Patrick Geddes and many others. According to Richard Hartshorne,
the basic purpose of geography is to attain two principal objectives. These
are:

1. To understand the features of the specific spatial units in their unique

attributes, and,
2. To understand the region as an independent entity relevant in the context
of a large whole.

He tried bringing together various aspects both natural and human of the
environment within a regional setting. Therefore, he emphasised that it is
improper to formulate universal or general laws in geography, but it is possible
to formulate hypothesis and structured ideas in Geography.

Furthermore, Hartshorne emphasised on the aspects of areal differentiations,

which were substantiated by the geographers in the Post World War -II with
the help of quantification and data collected through extensive field works
integrating physical and human aspects within the study of a particular
landscape (region). Thus, geography in that phase was developed essentially
ideographic (regional), meaning thereby, regional geography quintessentially
used a synthesising approach while dealing with unique situations and their
peculiarities. He was the first to divide the world into major natural regions on
the basis of climatic parameters, though he faced criticism for moving close to
environmental determinism, yet continued to remain the precursor of the
concept of ecosystem which was later on developed by British Ecologist
Arthur Tansley in 1935.

Hartshorne was also the first one to provide accurately, orderly and rational
description of the interrelated variables characteristic features to differences
over the surface of the Earth. In his book ‘Perspective on Nature of
Geography’ he mentioned that Geographer’s main concern is how things are
distributed over the surface of the Earth, how physical and cultural features of
area are like and different from places to place, how the varying content of
different places come about, and what all these differences and similarities
mean for the people?

The difference between the two branches of Geography or more appropriately

two approaches to geography can be explained with the help of the following
Fig. 1.2.

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Block - 1 Fundamentals of Regions and Regional Geography
…………………….………………………...…………………………………………………………………………
CONTEMPORARY GEOGRAPHY SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
General North South Europe Africa Asia Australia Antarctica
Geography America America
Landforms
Climate
Soils
Plants
Economic
Social
A Urban
B Settlement
C Population
D
Political
Notes: D – Many new branches growing here.
Special (regional) geography of Africa
General geography of population which consider its geo-
regional variation throughout world.
Fig. 1.2: Systematic and Regional Geography or Systematic and
Regional Approaches to Geography.
(Source: Adapted from Minshull, R. (1967). Regional Geography: Theory and Practice)

It is evident from the above discussion that, though, the approaches adopted
were an ensemble of: total general reasoning, partial general reasoning,
partial special reasoning and total special reasoning yet, once the regional
approach was established within the framework of Geography, then the next
important question was to conceptualise and define region with the following
important question:

Whether regions are objective or are they mental constructs?

A direct answer to such questions could be possible only in the branches of

knowledge that are quintessentially exclusionary in nature. Meaning thereby, it
is mainly applicable to disciplines that have predominantly well defined subject
matters. Most of these branches of knowledge have their subject matters
independent of human interventions. They do not require any specific
qualification from society and culture to delimit the scope and content of the
theme of study from society and culture. For example, Physics, Chemistry,
Geology, Botany, Zoology, Forestry etc., are broadly covered under such
branches of knowledge. Since their subject matter largely deals with the
phenomena that exist independent of human control and regulated through
the interplay of natural forces, so disciplines claim to decipher the content,
from, processes and forces involved in the existence and formulation of
universal laws and principles.

As opposed to these, there are branches of knowledge that are primarily

concerned with the aspects related to human activities as social animal, their
myths, cultural practices, political choices, livelihood, and social contracts that
have been evolved through the social actions in relations to different
environmental and historical situations. Thus, their subject matter exists
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Unit - 1 Understanding Regions
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largely because human beings have collectively contributed in proving
required structure and form. The subject matter of disciplines like political
science, history, economics, and philosophy etc., do not have an independent
existence apart from meeting the human needs. Therefore, these branches of
knowledge do not claim to formulate universal laws and principle. These are
characterised by having equally unambiguous epistemic methods of enquiry.

Unlike these two broad branches of knowledge, there are a few that have part
of their subject matter very similar to natural sciences existing independent of
human existence and intervention and the other equally significant half is
concerned with human efforts and activities. In other words, there is a major
overlap in their subject matter with the natural sciences on the one hand and
the social sciences and humanity disciplines on the other. Geography is one of
such branches of knowledge. Therefore, true to its core subject matter relief,
slope, vegetation, soil, climate, desert, coastal regions and geomorphic
regions etc., have their existence independent of human presence and
interventions. These could be considered objective regions and the major
changes taking place there in are regulated by the processes independent of
human efforts and these are relatively stable over long time.

As opposed to this, there are regions that have been created, recreated and
transformed according to the changing technologies, human needs and
choices. Planning regions, transport regions, economic regions, resource
regions, political regions etc. are articulations of predominantly human
creations. The scale and frequency of their change is very dynamic.
Agricultural regions, core-peripheries, port-hinterland, planning regions etc.,
are very dynamic and change very frequently. Hence, these could be called
subjective regions.

Whether regions are a means or an end in themselves?

An equally important issue related to the regions is whether region is an end in

itself (teleological) or region is a means to end? Carl Ritter was of the view
that if Geography has to seek recognition and acceptance from the knowledge
seekers it should not remain confined to abstract concepts, insensitive to the
questions that confront the people in their normal life. Therefore, it is
imperative to geography to have purpose in whatever it tries to understand.
Based on such an approach, mere identification of region should not be the
objective of the region. It should not limit its activities to the identification of
regions and leave it to other disciplines to use it as deemed fit to their
purpose. They were of the view that teleology will restrict the freedom in the
exploration of truth and geography claiming to be a mother discipline of a
synthesising knowledge will fail to justify its pursuits of independent enquiry. It
will be counter-productive to the very existence of the discipline in the long
run.

On the contrary, there are geographers who believe that each and every
exercise in identification and demarcation of region should be to enhance and
enrich human understanding and region are best suited to enrich the
knowledge by bringing in specific and particular facts in the otherwise abstract
canvas. They criticised that limiting the geographical knowledge to the
demarcation of regions will be counterproductive because the future users will

19
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manipulate the template to highlight the uniqueness and differences at the
cost of reaching wholistic understandings. In order to avoid the misuse of the
regions and create conditions for the balkanization of the whole, regions
should be specific purpose oriented and with the change in the objectives and
purposes the demarcation of regions should also change. According to Spate,
understanding should always be preferred and given importance over
classification, if regional understanding has to be relevant to human well-
being.

Based on these axiomatic, the geographers have defined regions in different

ways. Some of the important definitions are as follows:

Definition of Region

1. The region is an area of the Earth’s surface – Taylor.

2. A region is a unit area of the Earth’s surface differentiated by its specific
characteristics - F.J. Monkhouse.
3. The region is a geographic area or areas which given civilisation, standard
of a people seems to require for the fulfillment of the aspiration through
material resource – C. Aronovic.
4. Any Surface over the Earth’s surface where physical conditions are
homogenous is region - Woolfgang and Joerg.
5. Regions are genuine entities, each of which express both natural and
cultural differentiation from its neighbours - G.T. Ranner.
6. “A region is a complex of land, water, air, plant, animal and man,
regarded under their spatial relationship as together constituting a definite
portion of Earth’s surface - A.J. Herbertson.
7. “A region is a domain where many dissimilar things are artificially brought
together have subsequently adopted themselves to a common existence”
- Vidal-de-La-Blache.
8. “A region is an area of specific location which in some way very distinctive
from other areas and which extends as far as the distinction extends” -
Richard Hartshorne.
9. “A region is an area within which the combinations of environment and
demographic factors have erected homogeneity of economic and social
structure” - T.T. Woofer.
10. “An area throughout which a particular set of physical type of economic
life” - R.E. Dicknision.
11. Region is an area delineated on the basis of homogeneity of land –
character and occupance - R.S. Platt.
12. “Region is an ecological aggregation of persons and economic framework
and cultural order. It is at once a faithful expression of the distribution of
population, resource, occupation and the inter-related cultural unity” - R.K.
Mukherjee.

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Unit - 1 Understanding Regions
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It is evident from the above definitions of region propounded by geographers
that there is no uniformity of opinion about defining a region, it only indicates
about the sound health of a discipline, because adherence to specific
definitions is always counterproductive to a branch of knowledge that is
concerned respecting the diversity of nature, pluralities of socio-cultural
viewpoints and usefulness of the discipline to the changing environmental
(physical and social) aspects.

However, for the purpose of reaching broad consensus, it is always desirable

to identify some broad characteristics of regions.

Characteristics of a Region

The major characteristics of the regions are discussed as under:

1. Region is different from place, area and space.

(a) Place is essentially lived and experiential entity, specific to psychological
and subjective, intertwined with emotional, qualitative and personal
interest. It has special meaning in relation to people where they can satisfy
their biological, social and psychological needs. Though, it has no
observable boundary and visible expression, yet based on strong
emotional attachment and sense of belonging are essential for a place.
(b) Area is two dimensional without exception. It is experimental, measurable
and quantitative. It is always expressed in terms of square miles/kilometres.
It bears no attachment to the people, their culture even the characteristic
features of the unit. It is also considered an abstract entity.
(c) Space is not multi-dimensional extendable to infinity. However, it could be
one dimension such as gender space sees only masculine space.
Historical materialists see only production space. It could be two
dimensional i.e., objective and subjective space, which has been
vehemently criticised by Lefebvre for celebrating binary logic. Hence he
opened space with infinite dimensions: abstract space, absolute space,
relative space, perceived space, conceived space, lived space,
experiential space, emotional space, gender space, knowledge space, and
epistemological space, etc. On account of which it is always without any
substantial meaning.

2. Principle of Homogeneity: Regions are spatial entities that are delineated

on the basis of maximum homogeneity of the selected parameters within it
and heterogeneity from the surrounding special units. This principle is
always against the principles of homogenization, normalisation and
standardisation which are antithetical to the principle of region.
Homogeneity is based on the principle not only celebrates diversity of
environment and social pluralities but also enhancing the interdependence
among these for the enrichment of uniqueness, specificities and distinctive
features of the region among other regions. While, homogenization is
based on steam rolling the diversity, which imposes the principle of one fits
all in the name of standardisation and normalises exceptions.

3. Distinctive: Every region is distinct in terms of its history, identity and

personality and ecological setting.

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4. Uniqueness: It is different from distinctiveness, because to be unique it is
essential to share many common features including historical/evolutionary
processes. Darwin while postulating the evolutionary taxonomy for the
organism emphasised on the morphologically identical and reproductively
isolated characteristics as the unique features of one species from other
species. Though, all are closely interrelated to each other in the
evolutionary processes, yet each one has uniqueness.

5. Homogeneity: Homogeneity in one or more geographical elements within

the boundary. It is made of continuity without rupture within a given space
and time frame of reference.

6. Heterogeneity: Heterogenity in those elements towards its regional

boundaries. The boundary of a region is always a function of the
parameters selected for the identification of the region. For example
political regions stand for the sovereignty of the region such as nation and
state. Such boundaries have linear demarcation. As opposed to this, there
are regions demarcated on the bases of culture, economic activities,
climatic parameters, vegetation types and to some extent soil types etc.,
where it is difficult to locate a linear boundary. In such a case, there exists
zone of transition or frontier.

7. Dynamic/Changing Character: Since the subject matter of geography

includes both the natural and human aspects of the environment therefore,
it is an imperative that region has to be neither static nor dynamic. On the
contrary, it has to be statically-dynamic and dynamically-static. A region
has to be dynamically-static because its features related to natural
environment like geology, relief and climate etc., are relatively stable while
the human aspects like economic activities, culture, architecture, transports
network etc., are always in a state of flux. Similarly, though, the political
boundaries of the region changes continuously yet its absolute and relative
locations are always static.

8. Hierarchy: Every region has some kind of hierarchical arrangements.

There are certain features that have homogeneity at the macro levels
(scale) but moving down to meso, micro, mini, mili and nano levels, the
variations tend to become more pronounced. Take for example, India falls
broadly under monsoon climate but at the micro level there are well
pronounced hot and cold desert climatic pockets, and equatorial climatic
regions within it. Moreover, there is hierarchy within every region. There are
core, periphery and transition zones in every region.

9. Identity: Regions have definite identity, which is the result of the historical
changes through the processes of assimilation and rejection over time.

10. Dynamic Scale: A region can be different in scale according to their

shape and size.

11. Problematic: Every region has similar problems within its boundary. It is
persistence of these problems that keeps region as a live entity.

12. Purposive: A region is delineated for specific proposes.

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Unit - 1 Understanding Regions
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13. Resourceful: A region should be resourceful or have some specific
resources so that they were utilised in the planning process.

14. Regions have core, periphery/ies, frontiers and transition zones. The cores
are characterised by higher intensity of the selected parameters, which
tends to thin down with the distance from the spaces of maximum
occurrence. Moreover, the core has strong attraction towards it, popularly
known as the centripetality, which is different in the frontiers and zones of
transition demarcated by centrifugal tendencies.

SAQ 2
a) What is principle of homogeneity?
b) What are two principle objectives seen in terms of basic purpose of
geography according to Richard Hartshorne?

1.4 TYPES OF REGIONS

Typology of Region

On the bases of the definitions and characteristic features of region, it can be

placed under following typologies.

Formal Region: These are also known as Homogenous, Uniform Regions. A

formal region is a geographical region which is homogeneous and uniform
within a specified criterion. This specified criterion could be physical, social, or
political. Examples are Himalayan Region and Sub-Tropical Region etc.
Formal region can be identified on the basis of single feature physiographic
regions, Multi Features resource regions and compage agricultural region.
Whittlessy (1956) defined ‘compage region’ as a uniform region where all the
features of the physical, biotic and social environment are functionally
associated with the human occupance.

Formal region is a spatial unit in which everyone shares common, one or more
distinctive characteristics. This common characteristic could be a cultural
value such as language, an economic activity such as production of certain
crop, or an environmental property such as climate and weather patterns.
Whatever the common characteristic is, it is present throughout the selected
region. In certain formal regions, the characteristic may be predominant rather
than universal, such as the wheat belt in North America. It is an area in which
the predominant crop is wheat, but other crops are grown here as well.

Functional Region: These are also called Heterogeneous, nodal functional

regions: Metropolitan axial Region mainly; because there exist broad
homogeneity in terms of the selected features but heterogeneity in terms of
other features. For example, a crop combination region may indicate some
level of homogeneity in selected crops, but heterogeneity in terms of soil
types, drainage system, and transport system etc. Similarly, it is also known
as nodal region organised around a node or a focal point. Sometimes, it is
also addressed as polarized region which invariably consists of

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heterogeneous units and features such as cities, villages in the hinterland that
are functionally interrelated such as port and hinterland.

The characteristics of the functional region are also determined by the

features of the focal point or centre, which displays certain functional
coherence, an interdependence of the parts defined on the basis of certain
criteria known as functional characteristics of the region. An important aspect
of a functional region is that, the functions are well pronounced and more
intense at the centre (core) and tend to diminish in intensity and importance
with the increase in the distance from the centre (frontiers and zone of
transition), which is popularly known as an application of principles of distance
decay.

Functional regions are more dynamic and undergo frequent changes along
with changes in its attributes and their functional associations. Circulation area
of newspaper is one of the most common examples of functional region.

Vernacular Region

A "vernacular region" is also known as perceptual region. It stands for a spatial

unit where people live as part of their cultural identity. It has a distinctive area
where the inhabitants collectively consider themselves interconnected by a
shared history, mutual interests, and a common identity. Such regions are
"intellectual inventions" and a form of shorthand to identify things, people, and
places. A vernacular region reflects a "sense of place," but rarely coincides
with established jurisdictional borders. The realities of vernacular regions vary
from person to person. They emerge from a person's informal sense of place.
An example of a vernacular region would be the Cultural region or Transitional
regions, and depressed area etc.

Adhoc Region: It is also known as planning region, which can be defined as a

geographical region where designing and implementation of development plan
is possible for tackling of regional problems. It could be both formal and
functional and generally transitional in nature: Example – Delhi Metropolitan
Region. The planning region ceases to exist once the desired objectives of the
planning projects are accomplished or subjected to major modifications in the
plans.

Apart from the above Classification, there are other typologies of regions
adopted for different purposes. Some of them are: Multi-Level Planning
Regions divided in - Macro, Meso and Micro Regions. Sometimes, special
efforts are initiated to minimise the gap between the developed and backward
regions by demarcating the regions in terms of the levels of development i.e.,
Developed, Developing/Intermediate and Backward/Depressed Regions.

SAQ 3
a) What is a vernacular region?
b) Define formal region?

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Unit - 1 Understanding Regions
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1.5 SUMMARY
In this Unit, you have learnt the following:

 Defining and understanding a region is most significant to the discipline of

geography.

 The problem of arriving at consensus about defining a region is primarily on

account of using taxonomic methods to a synthesising discipline like
geography.

 Highlighting the aspects of heterogeneity or differences among the parts of

the whole thus promoting division is not the purpose of delineating a region.
The aim of delineating a region is to foreground the aspects of the parts
that are significant for the overall understanding of the whole.

 Whole is more than simple summation of the parts. The crucial difference
between the whole and its parts is not quantitative. It is mainly qualitative
followed by differences in scale.

1.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. How is taxomonic approach different from synthesising approaches of
understanding with reference to Geography as a unique branch of
knowledge?

2. What is the difference between Regional and Systematic approaches to

Geography?

3. Develop a scheme of the typology of Regions. How are formal regions

different from functional regions?

4. Is a region objective or is it a mental construct?

1.7 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs)
1. Systematic geography deals with one or few selected aspects concerning
human environment including both natural and human. Its essential
features are formulation of general laws or principles and identification of
generic concepts and their patterns over Earth’s surface.
2. a) It refers to the delineation of regions as spatial entities based on
maximum homogeneity in terms of chosen parameters within region and
heterogeneity from neighbouring regions.
b) First principle objective is to understand the features of specific spatial
units in their unique attributes and second one is to understand the region
as an independent entity relevant in the context of a large whole.
3. a) It is also known as perceptual region. It refers to a spatial unit where
people live as part of their cultural identity.

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Block - 1 Fundamentals of Regions and Regional Geography
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b) It refers to a geographical region having homogenous and uniform
characteristics within a specified criterion. It could be physical, social or
political etc.

Terminal Questions
1. Refer to Section 1.2.
2. Refer to Section 1.3.
3. Refer to Section 1.3.
4. Refer to Section 1.4.

1.8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

1. Agnew, J. and Livingstone, D. (2011). Handbook of Geographical
Knowledge, Chapter 23, Space and Place, Sage London.
2. Carroll, L. (1872). Through the Looking Glass and what Alice Found.
3. Drew, C. (2023). 3 Types of Region in Human Geography,
Online[Link]
4. Hartshorne, R. (1959). Perspective on the Nature of Geography,
Association of American Geographers.
5. Karine Schomer et. al. (2001). The Idea of Rajasthan: Explorations in
Regional Identity, Manohar, American Institute of Indian Studies, New
Delhi.
6. Minshul, R. (1967). Regional Geography: Theory and Practice, Routledge.
7. Minshul, R. (2015). The Changing Nature of Geography, Routledge.
8. Victor, H. (2011). The Future of Man, From the Series Great Ideas of
Western Man.
9. Zelinsky, W. (1980). North America’s Vernacular Regions, Annals of the
Association of American Geographers, Vol. 70, No.1, pp. 1-16.

26
 UNIT 2

BASIS OF REGIONALISATION
Structure
2.1 Introduction 2.4 Key Issues in Delineating
Expected Learning Outcomes Geographical Regions
2.2 Bases of Regionalisation 2.5 Summary
Physical 2.6 Terminal Questions
Historical 2.7 Answers
Geo-Political 2.8 References and Further
Socio-Cultural
Reading
Economic and Natural Resource
2.3 Nature of Regional Geography

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In first Unit, you have studied and learnt about understanding the regions. In
Unit two, you will study and learn the nuances of basis of regionalisation. The
methods of enquiry developed by the Greek philosophers particularly
Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle and Euclid etc., were marked by understanding
the absolute (ideal, general, and universal) and evaluating the real (particular,
specific) through the parameters of the general.

Since, access to the ideal was exclusively restricted to the philosopher; the
common public was neither listed nor counted in their contribution to
knowledge. It was known as the deductive method of enquiry which was
challenged by philosophers and scientists with the onset of modernity
particularly Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton etc. “The real scandal of
Galileo’s work was not much in having discovered, or rather rediscovered, that
the Earth revolves around the Sun, but in having constituted a space that was
infinite, and infinitely open – so that the medieval (hierarchized ensemble of
space: the sacred places and profane places, protected places) was dissolved
in it, as it were. A thing’s place was no longer anything but a point in motion,
just as a thing’s rest was nothing more than its motion indefinitely slowed
down” (Foucault:1998: Different Spaces).

It was the beginning of new methods of enquiry known as inductive method.

Identification of region and regionalisation of space was a modest effort by the
geographers to bring the diverse, multi-dimensional and complex geographical
reality within tangible comprehension of human mind. Regionalisation was an
27
B.S. Butola
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attempt to understand the whole not at the cost of the specific but as an
ensemble of the parts, their interrelationships with other diverse parts in order
to create a dynamic and inclusive whole. Unlike other disciplines, the task of
geographers is more complex because of its inclusive methods of enquiry
ensembling investigation into objective natural features and qualitative socio-
cultural features. It is much easier to follow the principles of maximum
homogeneity in case of the natural features but quite formidable to map the
socio-cultural diversities and modes of cultural articulations.

Therefore, it is unrealistic to search for a ‘one fits all’ methods of

regionalisation and evolve a ‘best fit method or least deviation method of
regionalisation’.

With this background, Section 2.2 deals with diverse bases of regionalisation
encompassing Physical, Historical, Geo-Political, and Socio-Cultural, along
with Resource and Economic bases. Next Section 2.3 throws light on the
nature of geography. Key issues in delineating Geographical Regions are
discussed in Section 2.4. Study of this Unit should make the learners aware of
various methods of scientific enquiry.

Deductive and inductive methods of knowledge have separated the pre-

modern from the modern methods, respectively. The young students should
explore alternative methods of enquiry such as counter inductive, abdicative,
and circular (paradoxical) etc.

In addition, the students should get acquainted with qualitative and

quantitative methods or anthropological and ethnographic methods used in
social science research and if possible explore other than binarism as a
dominant method of enquiry under modernism and post-modernism.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this Unit, you should be able to:
 understand and comprehend the Concept of Regions and Regional
Geography;
 describe the regional methods of analysis; and
 define the types of regions.

2.2 BASES OF REGIONALISATION

Geography as a branch of knowledge in its present form and content emerged
under the enlightenment movement and rise of modernity. Similar to other
branches of knowledge, it shared some basic principles of objectivity,
rationality and critical enquiry with other disciplines. But, unlike other branches
of knowledge, its subject matter as well as the methods of understanding
(enquiry) were marked by dualism between physical (nature) versus Human
(cultural), dichotomies such as General (systematic) versus Regional
(specific), Historical versus Contemporary, Formal versus Functional and
Determinism versus Possibilism etc.

Owing to the nature of its subject matter inclusive of nature and human, the
taxonomic (classificatory) methods of understanding treating nature and
28
Unit - 2 Basis of Regionalisation
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human separate and distinct entities, popular among other branches of
knowledge served limited purpose in geography. Geography treats human
particularly his labour “a process in which both man and nature participate,
and in which human on his/her own accord starts, regulates, and controls the
material re-actions between him/herself and Nature. He opposes Nature as
one of her own force, setting in motion arms and legs, head and hands, the
natural forces of his/her body, in order to appropriate nature’s productions in a
form adapted to his/her own wants. But, acting on the external world (nature)
and changing it, (s) he at the same time changes his/her own nature” (Capital-
173). Thus, Geography is primarily interested in cultures that grow with original
vigour out of the lap of a maternal natural landscape, to which each is bound
in the whole course of its existence. Geography is based on the reality of the
union of physical and cultural elements of the landscape (Sauer, 325).

It is evident from the above that the subject matter and canvas of geographical
enquiry is complex closely interwoven and diversely interlinked phenomena
both in nature and culture. Furthermore, the scale of its inquiry ranging from a
small agricultural field and hamlet to planetary system makes it difficult to
select an appropriate scale of enquiry. There are differences of opinions
among the geographers about choosing the appropriate scale of its enquiry.
Richard Hartshorne advocated that region should be an appropriate unit of
analysis in geographical enquiry for the following reasons:

a) Region as Covering Sets: Since the subject matter of geography is

diverse encompassing natural and cultural aspects of Earth (ensemble of
nature and culture) along their static as well as dynamic aspects, so it is
essential to reduce the complexity of understanding the whole Earth by
delineating manageable units in order to understand/emphasise the
essential attributes and removing/underplaying less significant ones.
b) Regions as Samples from a Population: Basic aim of a scientific enquiry
is to understand the reality in its diversity and totality and identify the
features of normality in order to formulate general principles. A region,
therefore, acts as the most appropriate representative of the complex multi-
dimensional universe/space. Regions act like exemplars and provide
specific inputs for generalisation.
c) Regions act as Analogues: Region unlike an area is living, relative and
dialectical concept. Area generally refers to geometric portion of earth-
space with no implication of homogeneity or cohesion. As compared to this,
a region exists on the basis of specific criteria and is homogeneous or
cohesive only in relation to those criteria. Moreover, no region can exist in
itself and needs the existence of other regions that are dissimilar from it on
some parameters yet similar in many others.
Therefore, in order to exhibit a region presupposes the existence of other
regions, which is also a precondition for its self affirmation, authentication,
and comparison.
d) Regions as Modulators: A region is always a synthesis of multiple natural
and human components which are diverse in terms of their extent,
magnitude, and frequency of change over time and space. The internal
dynamics of these diverse elements help in identifying the contributions of
each component in the overall achievement of the region and indicate
29
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towards moderation and modification of the inter-relationship within the
region and in comparison to other regions.

Region therefore, neither stands for divisions, nor highlighting differences nor
even advocating irreconcilable unique characteristic features. On the contrary,
it stands for specificities that would be otherwise missed while searching the
bonds of interdependence in the name of generalisation.

The main aim of delineating regions is to study specific aspects of each spatial
component, to compare them in terms of their differences, limitations,
challenges, opportunities, and identify the possible linkages of interdependent
both within (intra) and without (inter) and network of interactions in order to
develop better and holistic understanding about the system as a whole. A
region can neither undermines the importance of the system nor can it stand
alone.

It is in the backdrop of these postulations, geographers have presented

different schemes of regionalisation for India on the bases of various
parameters. Some of the important ones are discussed as under:

2.2.1 Physical Bases of Regionalisation

Geography is quintessentially concerned with understanding of the Earth and
its primary enquiry is to understand its surface constituting, geological
structure, relief, alignment of relief features, climate, slope, drainage,
vegetation, and soil etc. Though, climate, geological structure, soils, flora and
fauna etc., are also the main concerns of other branches of knowledge such
as Meteorology, Geology, and Botany etc. respectively, yet, most of these
branches of knowledge try to understand these as substantive and standalone
subject matter of their enquiry specific to the respective disciplines. Unlike
these branches of knowledge, Geographical enquiry is different. It is inclusive
and attempts to understand these as interdependent elements of a unified
system including nature and society.

Moreover, these interdependent are in constant interactions with each other.

Its enquiry begins the way the interdependent interactions among various
constituent elements are manifested over the surface of the Earth and
continuously changes over time and space. Therefore, the relief of a given
region is both the outcome as well as cause (basis) of the nature-human
interactions. On the basis of these assumptions, India has been divided into
the following physiographic regions popularly known as triple tectonic
divisions:

1. The Indian Plateau: Some geographers prefer to address it as Peninsular

India because of its tapering shape into the Indian Ocean flanked by Bay
of Bengal in the East and Arabian Sea in the West.

According to the advocates of the theory of Plate Tectonics among the

geologists, the Indian Plateau is one of the several major plates of the
Earth’s crust. This region made of old crustal rock stands like a rigid and
inflexible block since the Pre-Cambrian times and often compared to a
horst. Included in this region are the regions to the South of Tropic of
Cancer along with the West and East Coastal Plains. Inadvertently, the
30
Unit - 2 Basis of Regionalisation
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nomenclature Indian Peninsula excludes regions of Northern Gujarat, large
parts of Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Jharkhand, Rajasthan, Meghalaya,
and Karbi Anglong Plateaux. Though, these regions are not parts of the
Indian Peninsula, yet, they share common geological history and structure
among themselves and with the Indian Peninsular. The relief of Rajasthan
dominated by Aeolian landforms does appear to be closer to the North-
Indian Plain, which is the result of high level of aridity, but the underlying
geological structure of Rajasthan is similar to the Deccan Plateau.

The geologists believe that the Indian plateau is part of the Pre-Cambrian
deposits on the seabed, which have emerged on the surface over long
time. The process of the upliftment of deposits from the seabed was
initiated during the Paleozoic period and continued over a long period. The
existence of a table land above the sea level is largely responsible for the
emergence of subsequent landforms in this region. The first phase of
upliftment resulted into the formation of mighty Aravali and other mountain
ranges, including the mighty Vindhyachal in the North and Nallamalai hills
in the South. In its long geological past, this landmass experienced many
changes due to tectonic movement resulting into the formation of horst,
table top land, block mountains, rift valleys, emerging and submerged
coasts along the eastern and western margins of the plateau, respectively.

The Indian Plateau experienced two significant changes during the time of
Himalayan Origin nearly 225 million years ago from today. The first was
the massive volcanic eruption in its north-western parts depositing lava in
those regions. The submergence of the western parts of the plateau gave
way to the encroachment of the Indian Ocean in the form of Arabian Sea,
leaving the high mountain ranges known as the Western Ghats. Though,
some scholars believe that the rise of Western Ghats is largely because of
the dipping and tilting of the Indian Plate under the Eurasian Plate in its
North-Eastern direction.

2. The Extra Peninsular Mountains or the Himalayan Mountains: It is

believed that Himalayas along with the Northern Plains have emerged
from the ocean bed (Tethys Sea) in between the two massive land masses
i.e., Angara Land in the North and Gondawana Land in the South during
and after Mesozoic Period. The deposits on the bed of Tethys Sea brought
from the adjoining landmasses in the North and South were subjected to
compression due to tectonic movements resulting into the rise of
Himalayas during the Tertiary Period. It is believed that the movement of
the Indian plate towards the north during 60 to 70 million years ago
exerted massive pressure on the deposits on the seabed against the
Eurasian Plate in the North. It is estimated that the Tethys Sea began to
shrink giving rise to the Himalayas between 20 to 30 million years ago.
The erosion of these young mountain ranges and its subsequent
deposition in the south created the molasses basin. According to the
Geological evidences, the process of the upliftment of the Himalayas
occurred in three phases:

First phase marks the rise of the Central Himalayas composed of old
granular sedimentary rocks during the Oligocene Period,

31
Block - 1 Fundamentals of Regions and Regional Geography
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Second phase marks the formation of Potwar Basin in Western Pakistan
composed of sedimentary deposits during the Miocene Period, and;

Third phase marks the origin of folded Sivalik Ranges in Upper

Palaeocene Period.

The geologists are of the opinion that the process of the formation and rise
of Himalayas is far from over and it is still active. As opposed to this, the
mountain ranges to the north of the Himalayas popularly known as the
Karakoram and other ranges had their origin during the Cretaceous Period
much before the rise of the Himalayas.

The geologists are also of the opinion that the alignment of the Himalayan
Ranges particularly along the India-Myanmar Border in the North East
indicate that the force exerted by the Indian Plate was largely responsible
in changing the direction of the ranges from South-West-North-East
directions in Bhutan and Arunachal Himalayas to North-South directions
along India-Myanmar border, particularly from the knee band at Dihang
Gorge in Arunachal Pradesh.

The origin of Himalayas, their young age due to tectonic movements to the
North and South of the Tethys sea and the importance of the Tethys sea in
the formation of the Himalayas can be corroborated with the presence of
the lacusterine deposits in the form of the Karewa at a height of 1500 to
1800 metres on the slopes of Pir Panjal ranges in Kashmir and the
presence of the fossils deposits of mammals in the Sivalik Foothills.

3. The Northern Plains: The vast river plains of North India situated in
between the Himalayan arch to its North and the Indian plateau to its
South is believed to have originated from the deposits on the ocean bed.
The upper layers of sedimentary deposits of the plain are situated on the
continental shelf during the Tertiary Period.

It is also believed that large part of the plain was also formed by dipping of
the Indian Plateau in the foredeep during the time of Himalayan progeny.
The detached part of the Indian plateau in the form of Rajmahal hills,
Chhota Nagpur plateau, and the Meghalaya plateau separated by Malda
Fault are in fact two shores of the foredeep and the Damodar valley fault is
also the indication of the same tectonic activity.

2.2.2 Historical Bases of Regionalisation

John Heywood an English playwright once mentioned “Rome wasn’t built in a
day, but they were laying bricks every hour”. Up to a great extent, the same
could be said more appropriately and emphatically about India. It is partly
because now, Rome for all practical purposes is “history”. It had a grand past
during the Roman Empire from 31 BC to 476 AD and its present is only a pale
shadow of what it was. It is left with very little except it continues to be the
centre of Roman Catholic religion where the Pope holds unquestioned
Supreme Head of Catholic religion and amphitheatres the epitomes of
brutalities against slaves. Unlike, Rome, India had a grand past; it guided the
World much before the rise of the Roman Empire, experienced First
Enlightenment (Lord Buddha) and continues to be in the limelight even today.
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In the words of poet Iqbal:
Yunan-o-Misr-o-Ruma, sab mit gaye jahan se,
Ab tak magar hai baaki, naam-o-nishan hamara.
Kuch baat hai ki hasti mitatee nahee hamari,
Sadiyon raha hai dushman dourey jahan hamara (Alama Iqbal).

֑֢֊֞֊-յ-֟֐᮲-յ-ᱨ֐֞, ֚֎ ֟֐ց չձ վ֛֞դ ֿ֧֚ է֎ ֆշ ֐չ֒ ֛֨ ֎ֳ֞ᳱ, ֊֞֐-յ-֟֊֘֞դ ֛֐ֿֿ֞֒֞

շ֡ ս ֎֞ֆ ֛֨ ᳰշ ֛᭭ֆ֠, ֟֐ցֆ֠ ֊֛ᱭ ֛֐֞֒֠, ֚ᳰֈ֑ᲂ ֛֒֞ ֛֨ ֈ֡᭫֐֊, ֈ֬֒-ձ-ֶ֐֞դ ֛֐ֿֿ֞֒֞

Moreover, Rome distinguished itself by championing unitary culture,

particularly religion. India on the contrary, had been the cradle of many
cultures and civilisations and it continues to nurture social pluralities and
cultural diversities. It is a country where Bhawa (emotions), Raaga (melody),
and Taala (rhythm) contribute in creating a symphony called Bharat. There is
much wisdom in saying that: “Yanna Bharatey Tanna Bharatey” (means
whatever is in Mahabharat (both the epic and the country) is everywhere and
whatever is not here that is nowhere).

India as nation is a melting pot of cultures, which is an ongoing process while

itself passing through a long revolution. It can neither be fixed to its grand past
nor reduced to any type of singularity under the mesmerising impacts of
modernity. If one were to summarise the history and culture of India is using
Bakhtinian expression it could be said “Indian history is prestratified, its culture
is heteroglassic, social space an epitome of heterotopias, politics is pluralistic
and geography diversified”.

Therefore, any attempt to map the socio-cultural space(s) in India, it is an

imperative to keep these facts in mind. It is in the backdrop of these
assumptions, the socio-cultural space(s) in India have been viewed by various
scholars both within and without in different ways. A detail of these views has
been presented in “Socio-Cultural Regions of India”. For the purpose of the
present discussion, the historical basis of regionalisation has been done with
the following six assumptions:

1. Diversity is one of the most basic features of India’s cultural history.

Throughout its long history, it has always exhibited “unity in diversity”.
Meaning thereby, it epitomised unity without uniformity and diversity
without fragmentation.
2. India with its vast geographical personality encompassing enormous
environmental and cultural diversities makes it difficult for the researchers
to treat as a single unit at any period for a considerable duration.
3. History of India has been a saga of conflicts between centripetal and
centrifugal forces engendered by its geography.
4. The historico-cultural spaces in India display “zone and strata” concept
which can also be called “age and area” concept (Subbarao, B., p.4).
Meaning thereby, “If there is a centre where evolution is (whether of
organic or inorganic type) taking place….. then, after a reasonable lapse
of time, the various differentiated classes will be found to be ranged in
zones…. So that the most primitive is at the margins and the most
advanced at the centre of series of zones. Thus, the earliest class will

33
Block - 1 Fundamentals of Regions and Regional Geography
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have covered the largest area in its migration: but the fossil evidence of
this class will be found at the deepest stratum, under the later strata at the
centre of evolution” (Subbarao, B. p.4).
5. Natural diversities and socio-cultural pluralities are neither the
consequence nor the bases of regional disparities and social
discrimination (exclusion). On the contrary, regional disparities and social
discrimination in India are the results of its colonisation under the British.
6. Diversities and pluralities had been/are the real strength of India and the
path for a sustainable, inclusive, and resilient development will always be
possible by acknowledging these as valuable and real assets.

Bendapudi Subbarao in his famous book ‘The Personality of India: Pre and
Proto-Historic Foundations of India and Pakistan’ (Subbarao, B. 1958) was
forthright in acknowledging the contribution of new facts made available by the
archaeological research in India. These new evidences helped him to draw
correlations between space and time in terms of cultural diversity in India.
According to him, “one of the most basic features of India’s cultural history is
the diversity” (Subbarao, B. p.1). The Indian subcontinent with its vastness
and its great environmental and cultural diversities create formidable
challenges to the researcher for mapping the socio-cultural diversities.

Therefore, he suggested that though, the Indian history “cannot be treated as

a single unit at any period for considerable duration” yet, he opined that
looking at the macro level the “whole history of India in a sentence can be
described as a conflict between centripetal and centrifugal forces engendered
by geography” (Subbarao, B. p.2). He talked about the interplay between two
types of forces, as discussed below:

a. The centripetal forces have always tried to give a political expression to

the fundamental unity based on common culture and social heritage
linked by a transcontinental communication system. These forces have
been strengthened by certain technological traditions common to the
whole country. Taking clues from the centralised ‘Pan Indian’ Empires
such as the Mauryas, Satavahanas, Guptas, Harsha, Mughals, and
British, he substantiated his thesis and claimed that though, these
centralised powers had a relatively shorter life span as compared to the
regional local empires, yet, they symbolised pan Indian power of
unification.

b. The centrifugal forces are the manifestations of the more vital

geographical factors and have counteracted the forces of unification. The
regional empires like Kosala, Magadha, Gauda, Avanti, Lata, Saurashtra,
Kalinga, Andhra, Maharashtra, Karnata, Chera, Chola, and Pandya seems
to have eternal lives. These have survived as “perennial nuclear regions”
(Subbarao, B. p.2). These cultures have manifested the overwhelming
influence of regional geographical factors irrespective of the changes taking
place “within and without the subcontinent” (Subbarao, B. p.3).

It is because of the interplay of these forces along with the specific

geographical factors and the locations of these regions have yielded a distinct
spatio-temporal pattern of culture and cultural landscapes in the Indian sub-

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Unit - 2 Basis of Regionalisation
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continent. Taking clues from the biological analogy used by Griffith Taylor,
Subbarao mentioned that the cultural space in India displays “zone and strata”
concept which can also be called “age and area” concept (Subbarao, B. p.4).

Thus, according to Subbarao, the interplay of the centripetal and centrifugal

forces, the age and area concept, regional geographical factors along with
India’s position of relative isolation cum cul-de-sac in relation to the trans-
continental waves of migrations have resulted in evolving unique patterns of
settlement-displacement-adjustment/settlement throughout its history. The
location of India to the South of the Himalayan Mountain and the way these
ranges created formidable barriers between the countries of South Asia and
other Eurasian countries, with the exception of occasional limited interaction
restricted to high mountain passes after prolonged gap sometime extending up
to centuries left this region almost alone for most of the time in its historic past.

India, unlike the other countries which stood directly in the way of the waves of
the trans-continental migrants did not face the total destruction of its historic
achievements from time to time as was the case with other cultures:

“On their own feet they came, or on shipboard,

Camel-back, horse-back, ass-back, mule-back,
Old civilisations put to the sword” (Lapis Lazuli: W.B. Yeats).

On the contrary, the trickles of migrants at intermittent intervals compared to

the mainstream of migrants found it difficult to create a major disruption in the
existing cultures except gradual displacements-adjustments leading to the
evolutions of cross-cultural mosaic of give and take or composite cultures.
Since, most of the immigrants had to cross the high mountain passes on the
Hindukush and Himalayas, the number and frequencies of their movements
were limited spread over many years of disruption. So, there were limited
options left except evolving composite cultures.

Moreover, these immigrants were also constrained by the incompatibility of

their then existing institutions and technologies. Consequently, they followed a
path of least resistance while settling temporarily and again getting displaced
by successive waves of migrants in India. The final outcome of all these
interrelated factors was: the peopling of India followed a “Z” pattern of
movement starting from the Jangerain Gate and Kabul valley in the North to
Tamil Nadu-Malabar coast in the South. It is along with these routes of
migrations and settling-displacement along with the local geographical
conditions, Subbarao divided India into the following three cultural regions:

1. Areas of Attraction
2. Areas of Isolation
3. Areas of Relative Isolation

1. Areas of Attraction: On the basis of the archaeological evidences,

particularly from the Proto-Historic sites of excavation, it has been
revealed that the Indus Basin particularly evidences of Harappan culture
were prevalent in Punjab, Ghaggar basin, Quetta, Kili Ghul Mohammed,
Ghazi Shah, Pindwahi, Amri, Kot-Diji, Sindh, Mohanjo-Daro, Kathiawad,
Hissar (Rakhigarhi).

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Block - 1 Fundamentals of Regions and Regional Geography
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The next important site for the evolution of areas of attraction was
the Ganga Basin: It includes Hastinapur, Mahesshvar-Navdatoli, Kanouj,
Rajgir, Vaisali, Sonepur, Patna, Bengal: Dinajpur, Midnapur, and Hooghly.

Malwa Plateau and Maharashtra: Maheshvar, Narbada South Bank,

Eastern Rajputana, Ujjain, Nagda, Maharashtra: the Valleys of Tapi and
Upper basins of Krishna and Godavari, Prakasha, Bahal, Nasik, Jorwe,
and Nevasa.

Lower Krishna-Godavari Basin (Andhra-Karnataka Areas): Brahmagiri,

Sanganakallu, Piklihal, Muski, Tamilnad: Pala, Kaveri and Tamraparni,
Teri, Arikamedu, and Sengamedu.

These areas have always provided suitable ambience for the emergence and
growth of economy and culture. Spate finds the material base i.e., fertile soil,
rich biodiversity, and ideal climatic condition for the growth of perennial regions
in these places. Subbarao on the contrary gives importance to cultural fusion
“melting pot of cultures and added their own indistinguishable element to the
make-up of this cultural complex” for the same. The alluvial plains, the tropical
monsoon forests, and dense network of rivers provided ideal ecological
conditions for the survival of a variety of cultural traits deeply embedded into the
base, yet, adjusting frequent changes at the surface contributed in the evolution
of the areas of attraction or perennial nuclear region.

2. Areas of Isolation: Tribal India or Areas of refuge. These can be defined as

cul-de-sac. Predominantly inhabited by hunter and gathering communities and
they have “managed to survive in a perfect ecological equilibrium in small
communities with simple life suited to their technological attainments”
(Subbarao, B. p.142). Unfortunately the developed communities that continue
to exploit their rich biotic and abiotic resources and address them as laggard
“they missed their bus” (Subbarao, B. p.144). The Himalayas, the north-
eastern hills, the central highlands inhabited by the indigenous population are
among such areas.

3. Areas of Relative Isolation: Since the predominant waves of the migrants

came from the North and most of them from Central Asia to the North of the
Himalayas, their technology was less compatible to the local geographical
condition prevalent in the moist and sub-humid conditions as well as extreme
arid conditions. Therefore, Bengal and Assam on the one hand and Rajasthan
on the other hand presented the areas of relative isolation.

Gujrat: Saurashtra, Lata, Lothal, Rangpur, and Kathiawad

Assam: Kamrup
Orissa: Ganjam, Puri, Cuttak, and Balasore

Thus, the cultural map of India according to Subbarao has three important
regions mentioned above and there exists no well demarcated boundary to
separate one from the other. On the contrary, there have been transgressions
from the areas of attractions to the areas of isolation particularly under the
colonial rule and independence of India. The rich resources base in terms of
the natural resources, biodiversity, and traditional knowledge systems, these
areas have been subjected to transformation of their culture in significant
ways.
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Unit - 2 Basis of Regionalisation
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There are no doubts that the contributions made by Subbarao in mapping the
historico-cultural spaces of India are significant. With due credit paid to him, it
can be humbly mentioned that his research was primarily based on the
evidences provided by the archaeological research, particularly the works of
F.J. Richards, H.D. Sankalia, Mortimer Whealer, Fairservis, and Gordon Child
etc. It is very rich and robust in case of the past records based on
archaeological evidences but relatively tentative on the changes that
happened in history. So, there was a need to raise the research to another
level based on the fresh evidences made available through other sources. The
contributions made by historians particularly D.D. Kausambi, K.M. Pannikar,
R.S. Sharma, D. P. Chattopadhyaya, Romila Thapar, Irfan Habib and others in
this context are worth acknowledging.

These scholars acknowledged that the history and geography of India are
deeply embedded into each other and understanding one without the other is
inconceivable. The southward extension of the Indian sub-continent from the
great landmass of Asia, and the formidable barriers created by chains of high
mountain ranges of Himalayas in the North, the West Asian desert in the
West, the mighty rivers and thick vegetation in the East and the flanks created
by the Indian Ocean particularly Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea in the South
have permitted limited interactions among the cultures that occasionally came
to this region, which in turn contributed in creating unique geographical
conditions for the enactment of historical events.

Since, the entry of the cultural groups and communities in the West Asia,
Central Asia and East and South East Asia had highly restricted access to the
South Asia over time and space, it was but natural for these communities to
evolve and modify their institutional arrangements, social contracts, and
technologies for settling in this region. Some of the manifestations of these
adjustments from the point of view of social space are as follows:

1. River valleys were the most preferred areas of human settlements.

2. The outskirts of the river valleys offered relatively less hospitable
conditions for the emergence of large permanent human settlements but
proved favourable for the communities engaged in hunting, food gathering,
and pastoral activities.
3. The areas away both from the river valleys and their outskirts were
considered hostile for human settlements. The areas included among
these were the islands, deserts, hilly and mountainous areas, marshes and
swamps. These areas were inhabited by primitive people, which the British
called Tribes.
4. The settlement of these communities in such areas of harsh conditions
was not a result of their choice. On the contrary, it was the result of
constant displacement of earlier settlers by the new waves of settlers
equipped with relatively advanced technology and institutional set-ups.
5. Thus, the cultural space in South Asia was marked by enormous socio-
cultural diversities on the one hand and creation of social hierarchies
among the dominant and the subordinates on the other hand.
6. The social hierarchy was also manifested in the creation of spatial
hierarchies: the perennial nuclear regions broadly coinciding with the areas
37
Block - 1 Fundamentals of Regions and Regional Geography
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of attraction mostly in the river valleys, areas of relative isolation were a
combination of opportunities and limitations, while the areas of isolation or
cul-de-sac were characterised by few opportunities and more limitations.

In the process of interplay of these geographical and historical factors, the first
authentic mapping of the historical regions of India is documented in the form
of Janapadas and Mahajanapadas. The differences between these two
historical regions were in terms of their size, ecology, locations, and social
formations. The Mahajanapadas were mostly prevalent in the fertile river
valley plains of the North India and functioned like monarchies, while the
Janapadas were some sort of proto-republics along the northern and southern
peripheries of the Ganga Valley. Though, initially the conduct of these
Janapadas was regulated by the assembly of the community but gradually
these were controlled by single tribe and ultimately got transformed into
monarchies. However, there were instances when the Janapadas were
regulated by the confederation of more than one tribe. Thus, the transition
from Janapada to monarchy was marked by egalitarian tribal social order to
caste based hierarchical social structure.

The references of the existence of these Janapadas and Mahajanapadas were

made available in the Buddhist Texts Angustra Nikaya, Digha Nikaya, and
S.M. Ali’s Geography of the Puranas etc.

Table 2.1: Sodasa Maha Janapadas

Maha Janapadas Capital City/City Dialect/Language
Kuru Indraprastha (Hastinapura) Kuruvi (Khari Boli)
Panchala Kampila (Ahichchitra)
Kosala Saket (Ayodhya) Kosali (Awadhi)
Kasi Kasi Kosali (Awadhi)
Malla Kusinagar (Pawa) Bhojpuri
Vajji (Videha) Mithila Maithili
Magadha Rajagriha Maghai
Anga Champanagari Maghai
Vatsa (Vamsa) Kausambi
Chedi Bundeli
Surasena Mahtura Braj Bhasha
Matsya Viratnagar Bagari
Avanti Ujjaini Malvi
Asmaka
Gandhara Taxila (Purushapura) Gandhari (Pushto)
Kamboja
(Source: Ahmad, A. (1999): Social Geography, p.97).

The next most authentic mapping of the historical regions was available in
Abul Fazals’s Ain-e-Akbari during the Mughal rulers.

Table 2.2: Mughal Provinces and Sarkars

Subahs Sarkars
Kabul Kashmir, Pakli, Sawad (Swat), Daur-Banu-Isakhel, Qandahar,
and Kabul
Multan Multan, Bhakkar, Tattah, Hajkan, Sewistan, Nasirpur, and
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Unit - 2 Basis of Regionalisation
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Chakarhalah
Lahor Bet Jalandhar Doab, Bari Doab, Rechnau Doab, Chenhat
(Jech) Doab, and Sindh Sagar Doab
Delhi Delhi, Badaon, Kumaon, Sambhal, Saharanpur, Rewari, Hisar,
Firozah, and Sirhind
Ajmere Ajmere, Chitor, Rantambhor, Jodhpur, Sirohi, Nagor, and
Bikaner
Ahmadabad Ahmadabad, Pattan, Nandod, Baroda, Broach, Charnpaner,
Surat, Godhra, and Sorath (Kathiawad)
Malwah Ujjain, Raisin, Garha, Chanderi, Sarangpur, Bijagarh, Mando,
Handiah, Nandarbar, Mandesor, Gargron, and Kotri Parawa
Agrah Agrah, Kalpi, Kanauj, Kol (Koil), Gwalior, Irij, Bayanwan,
Narwar, Mandrael, Alwar, Tijarah, Narnol and Sahar
Illahabad Illahabas (Allahabad), Ghazipur, Banaras, Jaunpur, Manikpur,
Chanadah (Chanar), Bhathkhora, Kalinjar, Kurrah, and Karah
Awadh Awadh, Gorakhpur, Bahraich, Khairabad, and Lakhnau
Berar Berar, Mongher, Champaran, Hajipur, Saran, Tirhut, and
Rohtas
Bengalah Udarnbar (Tanda), Jannatabad (Lakhnauti), Fathabad,
Mahmudabad, Khalifatabad, Bakla, Purniyah, Tajpur,
Ghoraghat, Pinjarah, Barbakabad, Bazuha, Sonargaon,
Sylhet, Chittagong, Sharifabad, Sulaimanabad, Satgaon,
Mandaran, Jalesar, Bhadrak, Katak (Cuttack), Kaling Dandpat,
and Raj Mahendrih
(Source: Ahmad, A. (1999): Social Geography, p.105).

An interesting aspect about the formation of these early historical regions in

India is the overlapping of areas in most of the Janapadas and Subahs. Some
of the most notable cases were:

Table 2.3: Sodasa Mahajanapadas and Mughal Provinces

Janapadas Corresponding Subah
Gandhara-Kamboja Kabul
Kuru-Panchala Delhi
Matsaya Ajmere
Avanti Malwah
Surasen-Panchala-Chedi Agrah
Vatsa-Chedi Allahabad
Kosala Awadh
Malla-Vajji-Magadha-Anga Behar
Anga Bengalah
Asmaka Berar
(Source: Aijazuddin Ahmad (1999): Social Geography, p.105)

It has been claimed by many scholars that the integration of India in the World
market under British colonial rule was the major factor that claimed to have
brought in fundamental changes in the social, economic, and regional
structures in India. The changes were so encompassing that these surpassed
even the changes brought by foreign invasions and natural calamities like
earthquakes and famine etc. But as far as the historical and spatial structures
were concerned, it appears that there was strong continuity with some
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Block - 1 Fundamentals of Regions and Regional Geography
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changes, which also formed the bases of reorganisation of states and union
territories in Independent India. It is evident from the formation of most of the
states in India that they are deeply rooted into their historical roots: areas of
attractions or Perennial Nuclear Regions, Subahs and Colonial provinces. The
states like Bengal, Assam, and Rajasthan falling into the category of areas of
relative isolation and the peripheral state and union territories in the
Himalayas, the North-Eastern region and the Islands of Indian Ocean are
included in the group of Areas of Isolation.

However, it would be incorrect to say that the progression of Areas of

Attraction, Areas of Relative Isolation, Areas of Isolation into Janapadas,
Mahajanapadas, to Subah and Sarcars, to Brtitish Provinces and Princely
States and finally formation of states in Independent India were a saga of
continuity. On the contrary, there were adequate changes and modifications
over time particularly under colonialism. Some of the major changes brought in
by the colonial rulers had the following characteristic features as under:

1. Opening of sea routes and emergence of Port Towns for trade completely
inverted the limited spatial interaction and space relation with our terrestrial
neighbours and replaced these by strong linkages with distant countries
interacting through sea routes.
2. Most of these external relations had strong forward linkages, characterised
by cantilevered suction mechanism for the export of raw materials and
drain of wealth (capitals) and weak feedback linkages were for the
marketing of foreign manufactured goods leading into the destruction of
industries (deindustrialisation), rapid unemployment, de-urbanisation, and
increasing the population pressure on traditional agriculture. These
changes not only put India on the path of underdevelopment but also
resulted into the rapid increase in underemployment, poverty on the one
hand and rise of absentee landlords and an army of middlemen on the
other hand.
3. The historical centre of Political Power Delhi-Agra-Lahore was replaced by
new centres of power at the metropolitan outposts Calcutta (Kolkata)-
Madras (Chennai)-Bombay (Mumbai).
4. The areas of Relative Isolation were ‘developed’ for the production of
commercial crops like Jute and Tea and the Areas of Isolation were used
for extraction of raw materials like timber for the construction of railways,
coal and mineral resources, and above all for spreading Christianity
(proselytisation).
5. The mountain ranges and hill tops in the Middle Himalayas were developed
as Hill stations, Army cantonment towns and the piedmont plains between
the High Himalayas and Plains of Northern India were selected for the
development of Gateway towns: Jammu, Pathankot, Kalka, Dehradun
Haridwara, Kotdwara, Ram Nagar, Haldwani, Kathgodam, Tanak Pur,
Siliguru, New Mall, Alipur Dwar, Dimapura etc., from West to East.
6. The isolated areas were subjected to the exploitation of mineral resources,
displacement, and deportation of population as plantation workers within
the country and overseas.

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Unit - 2 Basis of Regionalisation
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7. The isolated areas of the earlier times became more significant over the
period and continue to draw the attentions of the scholars, planners, and
strategists mainly because of the identity assertions of numerous
indigenous communities, reckless exploitation of its resources, and
biodiversity resources along with issues related to environmental justice,
ecological vulnerabilities, and social-cultural marginalisation.
8. In the backdrop of these physical and socio-cultural diversities it was but
natural that the economy and livelihood of the people and regions in India
went under continuous changes. Scholars have tried in mapping the
economic personality, discussed in ensuing sub-Section 2.2.5.

2.2.3 Geo-Political Bases of Regionalisation

The credit for introducing the concept of Geopolitics in the field of Political
Geography goes to Swedish Political Scientist Rudolph Kjellen who along with
the ideas of the Organic Theory of State propounded by Ratzel and Heartland
Theory of British Geographer Mackinder was able to provide adequate
academic rigor to this concept. But establishing geopolitics as a developed
branch of knowledge in the field of political geography was on account of
efforts made by a group of geographers from Germany, particularly Karl
Haushofer and an academic journal named: Zeitschrift fur Geopolitic during
the inter-war period (1922-1944) in Germany were most significant. The most
significant aspect of Geopolitics was the overwhelming influence of Social
Darwinism and Social Physics on its theoretical postulations, after faulty
understanding and applications of Charles Darwin and Isaac Newton’s laws of
evolutions and laws of motions respectively.

Since then geopolitics have moved on by incorporating various approaches

within its subject matter. During the first half of the 20th century, geopolitics
remained over occupied with the concepts like pivotal position of Heartland
(Mackinder), Organic Theory of State and concept of Lebensraum (Ratzel)
and Rimland Theory (Spykman) etc. The end of the World War-II, success of
freedom struggle and national liberation movements in the colonies and
beginning of the Cold War brought in the themes of Power Relations and
Power Blocks in the international politics and geopolitics. On the part of the
post colonial countries the policy of equidistance from the power blocks and
formation of the Non-Alignment group of countries were the new themes
introduced in the field of geopolitics. The highlights of the concerns of the post
colonial countries were discourses on world political economy, critical
evaluation of the modern world system, unequal exchange, and development
of underdevelopment. The Twenty First Century witnessed new challenges in
the subject matter of geopolitics. Ecological crises, environmental justice and
cultural identity assertions have dominated the themes of the subject.

India, which is one of the victims of the distortions brought in its geography,
history, economy, politics and culture during the colonial rule is the second
largest country of the world in terms of the size of population, fifth largest
economy in terms of the GDP, one among the top soft power of the world as
well as largest democracy in the world has witnessed the enactment of
different geopolitical strategies. Consequently, its geopolitics displays certain
unique features:

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1. India’s strategic position to the South of the high Himalayan Mountain
arch in the North and North East, the West Asian Deserts to its West and
the Indian Ocean to its south along with its two arms the Bay of Bengal
along the East Coast and Arabian Sea along the West coast have
contributed in making it an area of Relative Isolation if not a total blind
alley (Cul-de-Sac). Consequently, it could develop its own unique
composite culture having great geopolitical importance.

2. Its strategic locations between Arabic and Persian cultures and

civilisations to its west, Buddhist cultures and Civilisations to its North
and East, autocratic states among its neighbours, yet continuing an
important link between the industrially developed west, oil rich middle
east and agriculturally developed South-East Asia, industrially developed
East Asia, Oceania and relatively underdeveloped East Africa have
played an important role in its geopolitical location.

3. India is called a country having unity in diversity. Its vast landscape

measuring approximately 3,287,263 square kilometres is diverse in terms
of natural, socio-cultural, historical, and political aspects, surrounded by
equally diverse nature of its international borders play significant roles in
shaping its geopolitics. It shares land borders with Pakistan and
Afghanistan in the West and North-West, Tibet (China), Nepal and
Bhutan in the North, Myanmar and Bangladesh in the East. Bangladesh,
Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Indonesia are its nearest maritime neighbours in
the Indian Ocean. Thus, its expansions from the towering rampart
created by high mountain ranges of Himalaya in the north to the Indian
Ocean in the south, the terrestrial and maritime borders with its
neighbour have made its international border sensitive and dynamic in
the following areas: Border disputes and conflicts, territorial claims and
counter-claims, super power strategy in the formation of regional power
blocks, illegal international migrations, cross border terrorism, violation of
geographical indicators in regional political formations leading to disputes
over river water sharing and power generation, climate change, retreat of
the Himalayan glaciers, floods and natural disasters and submergence
and emergence of coastal areas and islands in the Bay of Bengal.

4. India is not only the largest democracy and second most populous
country in the world, but it is also a most important regional power in
South Asia (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, SAARC).
It is a recognised nuclear power, fifth largest economy in the world, high
potential of demographic dividend, composite culture and dominant soft
power (Information Technology, IT) too play important role in its
geopolitical position.

In the backdrop of these specificities, India can be broadly divided in the

following five Geopolitical Regions:

1. The Northern Region

It broadly includes the Union Territory of Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh,

Uttarakhand, bordering areas of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, North Bengal and
Assam, state of Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. These areas are dominated
by numerous indigenous communities practicing their traditional livelihood.
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This region is rich in terms of biodiversity, culture, hydro power potentials,
tourism, forest and biodiversity resources. These have rich potentials of
cross border trade, water resources sharing along with border disputes are
the major bone of contention in this region.

2. Western Region

The Union territory of Jammu and Kashmir, state of Punjab, Rajasthan and
Gujarat are the main states and union territory included in this region. Cross
border terrorism, dispute over river water sharing, hydroelectric power
generation and illegal occupation of the North-Western parts of the Jammu
and Kashmir and dispute over fixing fluid international boundary at Sir Creek
with Pakistan along with anti-social activities are the main geopolitical
concerns in this region. Apart from these smuggling of illegal arms and drugs
are the main issues of geopolitical concerns in this region.

3. The North-Eastern Region

The North-Eastern Region of India is most complex in terms of its

Geopolitical dimensions. Culturally, it is one of the most diverse regions of
India. With the success of the secular and democratic fabric of India, majority
of the people from the region have been participating in the democratic
process of India. However, illegal border trade of arms, drugs and animals
along with illegal migrants have placed the peace process under stress in the
region. Rich biodiversity, cultural pluralities, strong traditional knowledge
system and nearness to the developing market in the South-East Asia have
played an important role in shaping the geopolitical importance of this region.
Consequently, the government of India enunciated a proactive “Look East
Policy” in 1992, to integrate this region with India and India with the South-
East Asian countries. This could be a game changer in the geopolitical
importance of this region.

4. The Peninsular India

The Peninsular India with rich repository of agricultural products especially

species along vast coastline and natural harbours on the West Coast have
always attracted the Arab and East African Traders since ancient times and
during the age of oversea navigations, it was frequently visited by the
European traders. Though, the East coast being an emerging coast has
limited number of natural harbours yet the trade and cultural contact of India
with the countries of South East Asia have contributed in the cultural
diffusion from India to these countries along with Polynesian Archipelagoes.
Speakers of Tamil Language in these countries particularly Singapore and
Bali Yatra celebrations on Kartika Purnima usually in November in Odisha
are indications of the geopolitical significance of the peninsular India. It is
believed that the diffusion of Buddhism to Sri Lanka and South East Asia had
taken place through the sea routes and similarly, the spread of Islam and
Christianity had taken place initially from the peninsular India. The
geopolitical significance of this region has increased manifold in the age of
surveillance and satellite guided wars. Consequently, most of the testing
sites of the strategic and space technologies are located within the
peninsular India.

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5. The Islands on the Indian Ocean

The gist of Mackinder’s heartland theory states that “Who rules East Europe
commands the Heartland; who rules the Heartland commands the World-
Island; who rules the World-Island commands the World”. This is true about
the significance of the islands in the Indian Ocean to India. Apart from being
rich in terms of the marine resources, these islands have great strategic
significance particularly when the rivalry between the USA and China is
increasing to establish their domination over the Indian Ocean.

2.2.4 Socio-Cultural Bases of Regionalisation

Aristotle was the first to say that humans are political animal. Since he was the
philosopher born and brought up in a society divided into two extremes i.e.,
the minority slave master and majority slaves. Culture either did not figure in
his discourses or the etiquettes of the masters were treated as cultures. The
Slaves were never considered as humans therefore there was no question of
their culture. For the first time the Aristotelian belief system was challenged
during the age of enlightenment, rationality and scientific discoveries. In the
name of objectivity over emphasis on facts and experimentation reduced
culture to instrumentalities and themes that could not be objectified and
rationalize were treated either without culture or superstitious.

This rationality paradigm was challenged by two significant historical events

during the 20th century. The first was the success of the Bolshevik revolution in
Russia and success of anti-colonial movements after the world War-II. These
events brought culture at the forefront of academic and political discourses,
which finally triumphed by countering the scientific-instrumental rationality by
practical-imancipatory cultural rationality. The post modernists thinkers
championed the importance of the cultural rationality: “Post-Modernism is the
Cultural logic of late capitalism” Fredric Jameson. Nineteenth Century British
anthropologist Edward Tylor was the first to define culture. According to him,
culture is the complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law,
morals, customs and any other capabilities and habits by humans as members
of society. Similarly, German Anthropo-geographer Friedrich Ratzel analysed
the ecological relationships between physical attributes of the earth’s surface
and human cultures. These investigations were taken to higher academic
echelons by American Cultural Geographer Carl Sauer from Berkeley School.
According to Sauer, culture hearth is the core area in a diffusion process
whereby new cultural practices are spread, through human agency to create
new cultural regions. Furthermore, he ascertained that culture is the agent, the
natural area the medium, the cultural landscape is the result.

It is, therefore, evident that culture is a multidimensional phenomenon and it

cannot be reduced to either a single or few most representative aspects.
Geographers have tried to use factor analysis to create composite index of
culture to demarcate the cultural regions. Geographers in India have also tried
using religion, belief systems, language and dialects, ethnicity, caste,
settlements types and patterns, food habits, dance and songs, music, legends,
lifestyle, customs and cultural practices associated with agriculture, forestry,
animal husbandry, fishing along with historical achievements etc., to identify
the socio-cultural regions. Similarly, there are differences of opinions among
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the geographers to select the most inclusive unit for demarcating the cultural
regions in India. The state reorganisation committee Headed by Retired Chief
Justice of Supreme Court of India Justice Fazal Ali along with K.M. Panikkar
and K.M. Kunzru as members constituted in December 1953 and submitted
the recommendation in 1956. The commission suggested language as the
basis of state reorganisation, which was partly implemented in the states in
South India but could not be implemented in other parts. Thereafter,
suggestions were made to identify linguistic regions by combining districts on
the basis of dominant language, which was subsequently brought down to the
block levels and village levels. Consequently, attempts were made to identify
monolingual regions, bi-lingual regions and multi-lingual regions.

These academic exercises faced formidable challenges with the advancement

of education and literacy, mass media, transport and communication,
entertainment particularly cinema and television. Today, there are challenges
coming from social media which have impacted the socio-cultural mosaic of
the country and made it difficult to fix the indicators and identify the level of
socio-cultural regionalisation in a diverse country like India which is going
under rapid transformation.

Thus, it is evident from the above that identifying socio-cultural region is

difficult because of dynamic natures of the controlling factors. But, in the
resurgence of the cultural rationality there is certain amount of trade-off
between inclusive and exclusive indicators of regional identification. In the
context of resurgent identity politics in India, the following socio-cultural factors
play important role in the formation of the regions:

1. The Peopling Process in India: Meaning thereby India was not made in
one day, year, decade and century and it is still in the process of making.

According to B. Subbarao, the peopling process followed a particular route

and created regions of three different orders (as discussed in Section 2.2.2
under Historical bases of regionalisation).

2. Exclusive Inclusion and Inclusive Exclusion: The peopling processes

in India had/have been an unending saga of displacement and settlements
over centuries. Every incoming new wave of migrants, mostly after
crossing the high mountain passes located in Afghanistan Himalayas
either pushed most of the previous settlers to margins or placed the
remaining at the lowest levels in the social hierarchy. These processes
were repeated many times over centuries. Consequently, most of the
settlers pushed to the margins were the earlier settlers. These can be
corroborated by the high concentration of ethnic groups (mostly the
Scheduled Tribes) in the islands, hills and mountains in the Himalayas and
the North-Eastern Regions, in the high land plateaux of the Central India
and Indian Peninsula i.e., from Karbi Anglong and Maghalaya plateaux in
the North-East through Jharkhand, Chattishgarh, Odisha, Telangana,
Maharashtra, Karanataka, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and Rajasthan. The
remaining of the previous settlers who were either could not get displaced
or resisted the new waves of settlers but lost were placed at the lowest
level in the social hierarchy. Most of these are the Scheduled Caste in the
Indian society. The end result of these processes was the enactment of

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the Griffith Taylor’s Zone and Strata concept of population distribution.
Meaning thereby; the first settlers are located at the outer most zones and
lower most strata and the late comers are at the inner most zone and
upper most strata of the socio-geographical spaces. Both these
communities are the victims of the exclusive inclusion and inclusive
exclusion.

3. Secularism and Democracy in a Post-colonial Country: There were

many colonies who became sovereign nation after a prolonged freedom
struggle after the World War-II. Getting independence was a difficult task
but retaining freedom and upholding sovereign status has been the most
difficult task for many countries. Philippines is a classic example of getting
independence four times and loosing it five times i.e., Philippines was
colonized by Spain in 1565 and ceded to the USA in 1898. Japan
colonized Philippine in1941 and they surrendered it to the USA in 1945.
Though the USA granted independence to Philippines in 1946, yet it
continues to be a de-facto colony of the USA. Similar had been the
experiences of many other countries. The leaders of India’s freedom
struggle were well aware of these eventualities; therefore, they made
concerted efforts to protect its independence and sovereignty. Following
steps proved to the milestones (pillars) in the success of India as a
sovereign nation:

a) Supremacy of constitution to protect the citizens of the country.

b) Planned economic development with state sector as the lead
entrepreneurs both mental and material creativity and production in the
country.
c) Non-alignment foreign policy with respect to the power blocs active at
the international level.
d) Sovereignty of the nation and national integration non-negotiable
particularly to integrate the 565 princely (native) states within the Indian
Union.

Considering the significance of these pillars, the committee constituted for the
reorganisation of the India approved linguistic basis of state re-organisation.
As mentioned before, though, this principle was not followed in other parts of
India except South India and also in the subsequent stages of state formation,
yet linguistic bases are still valid for various reasons particularly in terms of the
medium of instruction in schools education and examinations, official
communication, legal transactions, films and entertainment industry, market
and political mobilizations etc. Therefore, the same has been accepted for the
socio-cultural regionalization:

Linguistic Regions of India:

1. Austric Group of Languages and dialects: Included among these are:

(a) Munda: Santhali, Mundari, ho and Korku, and (b) Mon-Khmer; Khasi
and Nicobarese.

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2. Sino-Tibetan group of languages and dialects: Included among these in
India are Tibeto-Burman: Tibetan, Balti, Ladakhi, Lahuli, Kinnauri, Lepcha,
Aka, Mishing-mishmi, Miri, Bodo, Naga, and Kuki-Chin.

3. Dravidian Languages dialects: Included among these are Brahui, Malto-

kurukh, Oraon, Gondi, Telugu, Tamil, Kanada and Malayalam.

4. Indo-Aryan languages and dialects: Included among these are:

Kashmiri, Punjabi, Sindhi, Gujarati, Gujjari, Saurathi, Bangru, Braj, Khari-
boli, Kanauji, Awadhi, Bagheli, Chattisgarhi, Bundeli, Bhojpuri, Maithali,
Maghi, Bengali, Assami, Oriya, Marwari, Mewari, Mewati, Malavi, Marathi,
Konkani, Gorkhali, Kumayuni, Garhwali, Kului and Roma (Gyosy) dialect.

An ideal way to demarcate the socio-cultural regions based on speakers of

languages and dialects is to map the speakers of first two languages/dialects
at the village level and identify the core, transitional and peripheries of the
speakers. The states could be considered a socio-cultural region where
language has been the basis of state reorganisation. In the absence of
linguistic states, demarcation of the speakers of first and second language
should form the basis of linguistic regions. Special provisions should be made
to demarcate the cities and urban centres as multi-lingual socio-cultural
regions.

2.2.5 Economic and Natural Resource Bases of

Regionalisation
It is a well established fact that humans are the only producing animals and
production is a social act. In social production, humans enter into “definite
relations that are indispensable and independent of their will, relations of
production which correspond to a definite stage of development of their
material productive forces. The sum total of these relations of production
constitutes the economic structure of society, the real foundation, on which
rises a legal and political structure and to which corresponds definite forms of
social conscious. The mode of production of material life conditions the social,
political, and intellectual life process in general”. Meaning thereby, the material
bases constitutes the foundation of all other social relations, but it is a bi-way
relation. The examples of the interdependence among the natural, historical,
cultural, and economic regions are most appropriate in this regard.

The Subahs as described in the Ain-e-Akbari according to Irfan Habib were

quintessentially revenue and economic regions. Similarly, the provinces under
the British colonial administration too were revenue or economic regions. The
demarcation of economic regions in India was carried out for the first time in
“The Imperial Gazetteer of India” in 1903-04. It identified Five Great Industrial
Areas noted for their special products as listed in Table 2.4 below:

Table 2.4: Economic Regions of India: The Imperial Gazetteer, 1903-04

Economic (a) Major Commercial Products (b) Minor Products
Regions (Artistic and Minor Products)
Bengal and a. India rubber, oilseeds and oil, lac, indigo, jute, pepper,
Assam hides and skins, silk, opium, tobacco, tea, sugar, rice,
gram, coal, iron, saltpetre, mica, and pottery
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b. Ivory carving, umbrella-making, shell-carving, Decca
muslins, embroidery, and mate-making
North India: a. Resin, lac, oilseeds, perfumery, soap and candles,
United and Central cutch, myrobalans, cotton, silk, wool, leather, carpets
Provinces, and mats, wheat, flour, biscuits, opium, tea, sugar,
Rajasthan and beer and spirits, shisham and deodar (cedar) woods,
Central India, barilla, borax, lead, copper, gypsum, salt, and saltpetre
Punjab and the b. Tinned ware, lac coloured metal ware, copper, gold
Frontier province and silver plate, damascened ware, encrusted ware,
and Kashmir copper and brass wares, sone carving and lapidary
work, pottery, wood carving, inlaid wood work, lattice-
work, painted wood and papier-mache, ivory-carving,
leather and skin work (belts, flasks etc.) lac-ware,
dyeing and calico-printings, tie-dyeing, cotton
manufacture, muslins, silk manufactures, woollen
goods and shawls, embroidery, carpets (woollen and
cotton), and miniature painting
Western India: a. Gram, oilseeds, cotton wool, hides and skins, drugs,
Bombay wheat, and salt
presidency, Berar b. Gold and silver plate, wood-carving, horn, leather and
and Baluchistan skin work, marquetry, cotton goods, silk manufactures,
and embroidery
Southern India: a. Oilseeds, ghee and indigo, cotton, coir, skins, tea,
Madras coffee, cigar, cardamoms and pepper, sugar, spirits,
Presidency, rice, sandal-wood, pearls, gold, manganese,
Hyderabad, plumbago, and cement
Mysore and Coorg. b. Gold and silver plate, encrusted ware, copper and
brass ware, stone carving, inlaid wood, sandal-wood
carving, ivory carving and staining, dyeing and hand
printing, silk manufacture, embroidery, carpets, and
mats of cotton and wool.
Burma Since none of the area included in this region falls under
India, so it has been excluded.
(Source: The Imperial Gazetteer, 1903-04)

It is evident that the identification of the economic regions of India under the
colonial administration was primarily driven by its export oriented exploitative
mechanism characterised by: export of primary products and raw materials,
light branches of semi-processed products and deskilling of workforce, de-
urbanisation, deindustrialisation, and spurious growth of tertiary sector. It
resulted into reinforcing India’s dependence on the imported commodities,
which lead to regional imbalance and social inequalities, and
underdevelopment.

Therefore, it was imperative to the government of India after independence to

achieve three main objectives: a) Protection of a sovereign nation, b)
Economic growth and c) National Integration. Consequently, concerted efforts
were made to mobilise its underutilised natural and human resources and to
bring about balanced regional development and social equality. The
constitution of the Planning Commission of India under the Chairpersonship of
the Prime Minister of the country was a major step in this direction. Thereafter,

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various agencies, institutions and individuals made valuable contributions in
identifying the economic regions of India. Some of the important scholars were
Ashok Mitra, P. Sen Gupta, Galina Sdasyuk, and L.S. Bhat etc. Among these,
the contribution made by P. Sengupta and Galina Sdasyuk is worth
mentioning here (P. Sengupta and G. Sdasyuk, 1968).

Economic Regions by Sen Gupta, Galina Sdasyuk

The scheme of regionalisation proposed by these scholars was based on the

following principles and Methods:

Principles:

1. Regions have objective character as living realities.

2. Supremacy of production over other economic indicators in region
formation.
3. Unity of regional and sectoral structure of the economy.
4. Regions are historical.
5. Economic regions are basis of long-term perspective planning.
6. Inter-linkages between economic regions and administrative structure.
7. Special role of planned production in the formation of economic regions.

Methods:
1. Primacy of production specialisation.
2. Economic regions should be based on sound understanding of natural
resource endowment.
3. Identification of hierarchy of natural resource regions.
4. Economic regions should start from the bottom: micro regions should be
equal to single resource area. Meso region should be always multi-
purpose production unit. Macro region should have the potentials of
processing a production cycle of national importance.
5. Regional boundaries at different levels should not cut each other.
6. Higher order regions should be formed after combining lower order
regions.

Before identifying the economic regions, the authors identified the Natural
Resource Regions, Population Human Resource Regions, Agricultural and
Food Resource Regions, Industrial Regions, and Transport Regions. They
were of the opinion that the Natural Resource Regions and the Economic
Regions are closely interlinked, but are not identical. Though, human
interference has changed the natural landscape, yet it could not change the
zonal character of the landscape. Economic regions do evolves through
collective human efforts to satisfy their needs. They identified Seven Macro
Economic Regions:

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Table 2.5: Economic Regions
Macro Regions Meso Regions Micro Regions
North-Eastern Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal All the Districts with at
Region Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, least one nodal centre.
Tripura, and Mizoram
The Eastern West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, All the Districts with at
Region and Odissa. least one nodal centre.
The North- Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand All the Districts with at
Central Region least one nodal centre.
The Central Madhya Pradesh and Chattishgarh All the Districts with at
Region least one nodal centre.
The North Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, All the Districts with at
Western Region Jammu and Kashmir, and least one nodal centre.
Himachal Pradesh
The Western Maharashtra and Gujarat All the Districts with at
Region least one nodal centre.
The Southern Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil All the Districts with at
Region Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, least one nodal centre.
Pondicherry, Yanam, Andaman
and Nicobar islands,
Lakshadweep, and Goa.

The authors while presenting the scheme of economic regions of India were
impressed by the contributions made by N.N. Kolosovskiy, particularly the
concept of Territorial Production Complex in the processing of raw material
using regional energy-resources which he called ‘Energy-Production Cycle’.
The production cycle starts with simple mining of the raw material and
completes with the production of finished goods. He identified VIII broad
Energy-Production Cycles. In case of India, considering its long coastline,
Sdasyuk and Sengupta gave special importance to Marine-Energy Industry
Cycles as the IX Energy-Production Cycle in the formation of economic
regions.

On the bases of the foregoing discussion, it can be said that considering India’s
long history of migrations and settlings of waves of immigrants from different
parts of the World at different times led to displacement of the earlier settlers.
New waves of settlers pushed them to the geographical and economic
margins. Thus, it has resulted into the complex socio-cultural mosaic of India.
Moreover, large size of India and its enormous diversity in terms of natural and
social attributes have contributed in the formation of a complex socio-economic
space. The composite culture of India was the result of frequent intermixing of
the immigrants over a long period, but the exposure of India to the forces of
world market under colonialism was most significant in changing the social and
regional structure. Regional disparities, economic dependence, and
exploitation of its natural resources for the development of metropolis and
forced displacement of people to other countries were largely responsible for
the distortions in the regional and economic structures of India.

Concerted efforts have been made after India’s independence to undo the
distortions. Various economic plans have been introduced to expedite the
process but India’s dependence on the world market for modern technology
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continues to create many impediments in yielding desired results.
Consequently, adoption of outdated technologies for extracting maximum
profits at very high social and environmental costs have added new challenges
in the identification of economic regions for balanced development in India.

SAQ 1
a) Regions act as analogues. Discuss.
b) Explain areas of isolation.
c) List any four principles of economic regions as postulated by Galina Sdasyuk.

2.3 NATURE OF REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY

Nature of Regional Geography is closely related with the nature of Geography
as a branch of knowledge. Since, Geography is primarily concerned with the
understanding of spatial variations/differentiations in the patterns of human-
nature interactions over space, so it is obvious that the subject matter of the
discipline too is closely linked to the characteristic features of the space. Space
in geography is neither an objective entity as is the case with the disciplines in
natural sciences i.e., Geology, Botany, Chemistry and Physics etc., nor a
subjective and mental construct as is the case with disciplines in humanity and
social sciences i.e. Philosophy, Sociology, Political Science and History etc. On
the contrary, space in Geography is either objectively-subjective or subjectively-
objective. Meaning thereby, in the process of human-nature interaction, though,
humans interact with the nature as its own force yet not as individuals. Humans
interact with nature as conscious members of society, linked with the other
through various relations and social contracts. These relations and social
contracts are formalised through different social institutions: family, clan,
political parties and state etc.

Similarly, in their interactions with the nature, the collective past experiences and
social labour among the humans is shaped into a variety of tools and techniques,
which are operationalised by the social institutions in dynamic inter-dependent
interrelationships. Meaning, the institutions get modified while using the
technology and in turn the modified institutions constantly improvise the
technologies. So, human relationships with the nature are always in a state of flux.

Thus, by virtue of being a conscious member of society human interaction with

nature on the one hand and with other members of society on the other hand
are influenced by the historical, social-cultural, economic and political norms.
Consequently, the impacts of these interactions results into significant leaning
of geographical knowledge towards perspectives, interpretation and description
and opinions, which is qualitatively different from the precision oriented
objective analysis of the Natural Sciences.

Therefore, Geographical enquiry come closure to disciplines in humanities and

social sciences. But, the objectivity of the natural environment which is another
important component of geographical knowledge makes it difficult for the
Geographical enquiry to completely ignore objective analysis. So, Geography is
neither a precision oriented objective natural science, nor is it a perspective
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based social science. On the contrary, it is neither of these. It is unique. It does
not belong to an analytical branch of knowledge, which analyse phenomena
either in isolation or within the stringent conditions of ceteris paribus (everything
remain unchanged or other things held constant), which is the basic assumption
of most of the disciplines. Geography is a synthesising discipline (branch of
knowledge). Geographers’ main task is not to invent the new continents but to
build the bridges across these continents including the continents of knowledge.

In the backdrop of these imperatives of the parent discipline i.e., Geography;

the Nature of Regional Geography is in no way different. In its pursuit to
understand the human-nature interactions in diverse environments and
spaces, Regional Geography tries to probe into two basic questions: Are
spaces (regions) different in terms of the attributes they have and do the
interrelationships among these attributes contribute in shaping the unique
identity of a given region (spatial unit)? To answer these two questions the
regional geographers probe into three important questions: ‘What’, ‘Where’
and ‘Why’? The answer to the first question ‘What’ is about the attributes that
forms the bases of identity formation of a spatial unit, which can be answered
through simple descriptions about the phenomena under investigations. The
answer to the second question ‘Where’ pertains to the patterns of spatial
distribution/differentiation and it can be answered through the interpretations.
The final question ‘Why’ pertains to explanation and analysis using objective
methodology.

Thus, while answering the first and second questions regional geography
moves closure to the disciplines in social sciences and humanities, but to
answer the final question ‘Why’ Regional Geography moves closure to the
natural science disciplines and probes into cause and effect relationships in
objective manner.

Last but not the least important aspects about the nature of regional
geography is its’ relationships with other branches of Geography. Unlike the
other branches of Geography i.e. Settlement Geography, Economic
Geography, Social Geography, Biogeography and Climatology etc., Regional
Geography is not a branch of Geography. It is an approach to understand the
geographical phenomena, similar to systematic geography though probing
from two diametrically different ends. It is neither against nor at the cost of
evolving an objective and comprehensive understanding about the system as
a whole (nomothetic).
Similarly, it does not aim to highlight the aspects of uniqueness, differences
and heterogeneity and advocating the division (Balkanisation) among the
constituent parts (idiographic). On the contrary, regional approach is to
highlight the unique and specific attributes of a spatial unit (region) that
contributes in the overall enrichment of the understanding about the system as
a one organic entity, comprising numerous constituent parts.
Thus, regional and systematic approaches to geography are complementary
to each other, whereby the specific reinforces the bonds of interdependences
horizontally with other constituent parts and vertically with the system as a
whole and the system acknowledges the importance of the specific in evolving
an organic whole and sustains by incorporating the uniqueness of each unit in
shaping the whole.
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The other equally important aspect related to the interdependence between
the system and its constituent parts is to understand the following:
Are regions only the means to an end or the regions are an end?
There are differences of opinions among the geographers about it. There are
some who argue that the task of regional geographers is to develop a sound
methodology, identify the regions and rest of the task should be done by other
branches of geography and other disciplines to develop their understanding. As
opposed to this, there are others who argue that demarcation of regions is
inseparable from the purpose which in turn is based on the techniques and
methodologies of regionalisation.

Therefore, regionalisation can never be a standalone exercise. It is always

linked to the purpose, methodology and techniques meticulously worked out by
the geographers after in depth understanding of all the environmental factors
(natural and human) and profound understanding of the methodologies of
regionalisation.

SAQ 2
a) What is the purpose of regional approach?
b) Briefly tell about the important aspects of nature of regional geography.

2.4 KEY ISSUES IN DELINEATING

GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS
1. Homogeneity and Heterogeneity in the pattern of spatial distribution of
geographical features are the two inseparable aspects of region formation.
2. Mapping of the complex socio-cultural diversities across geographical spaces
brings regional geography closure to disciplines in social sciences and
humanities, while mapping of physical features places regional geography in
close proximity to disciplines in natural sciences.
3. Regional inequalities, regional dependencies and uneven regional
development are deeply rooted in the nature of human interactions among
the socio-cultural groups.

4. There exist no regional inequality and imbalance in the distribution of

natural phenomena. Each region is unique in terms of its natural attributes
and endowments.

5. The boundaries of the regions are never one dimensional i.e., demarcated
by straight lines. On the contrary, regional boundaries are always a zone of
transition comprising natural and socio-cultural attributes.

6. Most often, the boundaries are either ad-hoc or arbitrary. It is particularly

valid in case of the socio-cultural, historical, political and historical regions.
It is only in case of the natural regions that the boundaries are relatively
more permanent.

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7. Choice of the phenomena identified for the demarcation of the regions are
always determined by the objectives and purposes of region formation. So,
demarcation of regions is primarily subjective.

8. To moderate the intensity of subjectivity in the demarcation of the regions it

is an imperative that there should be an objective methodology. So, that the
regional geographers are in position to state that the “Regions are self-
evident” instead of saying “My regional division is ... or ....A possible
regional division is as follows”.

SAQ 3
Explain any two key issues in delineating geographical regions.

2.5 SUMMARY
In this Unit, you have learnt the following:
 According to Kant, things exit in time and space. Therefore, the knowledge
of time and space is indispensable to understand anything. Geography,
whose primary concerns are to develop an understanding about space is
aware of this fact that geography without history would be static and lifeless
and history without geography would be rootless and vain. There are very
few other regions/spaces other than India where such indispensable
interrelationships among the geographical and historical are exhibited.
 Region in India have maintained continuity and changes though, these
have experienced changes through their history.
 The process of colonisation of India under the European colonisers
specially the British and its subsequent incorporation in the world market as
a dependent partner leading to the drain of its wealth brought in many
distortions in the regional structure of India, while India remained a
dependent partner in the world market, it was put on the path of
underdevelopment characterised by distortions in its regional and socio-
economic structures.
 Concerted efforts have been made to change the colonial structure after
the independence but the process is still far from complete and regional
disparities continue to exist.
 There are a few industrially developed regions along with many regions that
continue to supply raw materials to these regions and receive finished
goods in return. Thus, the gaps between the developed and
underdeveloped regions continue to exist.
 The success of much talked green revolution too seems to have reinforced
regional imbalances.
 Geographers are aware of these multi-dimensional features of regional
mosaic of India and they have attempted to suggest different schemes of
regionalisation at different points of time.

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2.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Are the regions historic-geographical in India? What are the challenges of
delineating such regions?

2. How is an economic region different from a resource region?

3. What is an underdeveloped region?

4. Do you think the processes of underdevelopment started under the colonial

rule are still active in India leading to the existence of regional hierarchies?

2.7 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
1. a) Regions act as analogues means that region unlike an area is living,
relative and dialectical concept.
b) Areas of isolation refer to Tribal India or Areas of refuge.
c) Four principles are unity of regional and sectoral structure of the
economy, regions are historical, economic regions are basis of long term
perspective planning and inter-linkages between economic regions and
administrative structure.
2. a) It is concerned with highlighting the unique and specific attributes of a
spatial unit or region.
b) It is the relationship of regional geography with sister branches of
geography. For example: settlement geography, economic geography and
climatology etc.
3. Homogeneity and heterogeneity of geographical feature, and regional
equalities, regional dependencies and uneven regional development.

Terminal Questions
1. Refer to Sections 2.2 and 2.3.
2. Refer to Section 2.2.
3. Refer to Section 2.3.
4. Refer to Section 2.3.

2.8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

1. Bendapudi, S. (1958). The Personality of India: Pre and Proto-Historic
Foundations of India and Pakistan; Faculty of Arts, Maharaja Sayajirao
University of Baroda, Baroda.
2. Gupta, P.S. and Sdasyuk, G. (1968). Economic Regionalization of India:
Problems and Applications (ed. Mitra, A.) Monograph No. 8, Census of
India, 1961.
3. Haggett, P. (2001). Geography a Global Synthesis, Prentice Hall, New
York.

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4. Karl, M. (1978). Capital: A Critical Analysis of Capitalist Production, Vol. I,
Progress Publishers, Moscow.
5. Michel, F. (1994). Different Space, Aesthetics, Method, and Epistemology,
Allen Lane the Penguin Press, pp.175-186.
6. Minshull, R. (1967). Regional Geography: Theory and Practice, Aldine
Transaction London.
7. Mishra, R.P. (1992). Regional Planning: Concepts, Techniques and Policies
and Case Studies, Concept Publishing.
8. Subbarao, B. (1958). The Personality of India, Faculty of Arts, M. S.
University of Baroda.

56
 UNIT 3

PERSONALITY OF INDIA-1
Structure
3.1 Introduction 3.4 Terminal Questions
Expected Learning Outcomes 3.5 Answers
3.2 Factors of Unity in Diversity in 3.6 References and Further
India Reading
3.3 Summary

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In first two Units of this course, you have studied and learnt about
understanding of regions and basis of regionalisation. In this Unit, you will
study about the personality of India-1. You know that India, its geography,
history, people and culture have experienced many prominences and oblivions
in its historical past. Though, it had/has been the cradle of many cultures and
civilisations, birth place of many religion, faiths and beliefs and was the centre
of enquiry to many scholars, rulers and traders and many times, it was
intermittently pushed to the margins, yet every time, it resurged with more
energy and vitalities. The ups and downs in its life were responded by
scholars either by condemning or praising its failures and successes,
respectively. There were some notable scholars like J. S. Mills, Thomas
Macaulay, Katherine Mayo and Rudyard Kipling etc., who either wrote-off the
Indian peoples without history, pointed out their scholars as plagiarists and the
Indians as crypto barbarians, half-savage-half-child, or there were scholars
like Arthur Llewellyn Basham and Max Muller etc., who credited India and its
culture for making valuable contributions in the progress of entire humankind.

Scholars have attributed many factors for constructing diverse views about
India, yet, most of them agreed that: There exists a strong relationship of
interdependence among the geographical and historical factors in India.
Meaning thereby, there is deep interface of geographical features and
historical events and both are not only inseparable but also inconceivable
without the other. The interplays of these historico-geographical factors have
contributed in shaping India as a region (space) endowed with a strong sense
of ‘unity in diversity’. Its geographical landscape is endowed with rich natural
diversity in terms of geology, physical features, climate, drainage system, flora
and fauna, which in turn have provided congenial atmosphere for the evolution

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of equally diverse socio-cultural mosaic in terms of religion, language, life-
styles, songs, dances, and festivals etc. The blending of the geographical and
socio-cultural factors has been so organic, harmonious and strong that neither
diversity could become the basis of division nor unity the basis of
homogenisation.

Section 3.2 discusses factors of unity in diversity in India. Learners are

expected to visualise that diversity and unity are inevitable and inseparable
from each other. Mutual respect and appreciation for other cultures and life-
styles is indispensable to envisage and develop a vibrant and inclusive
society.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this Unit, you will be able to:
 adopt an interdisciplinary approach in understanding the intricate
relationships between the geographical and historical factors; and
 comprehend the factors of Unity in Diversity in India.

3.2 FACTORS OF UNITY IN DIVERSITY IN

INDIA
The mid-years of the first decade after the Independence of India could be
considered a watershed not only in the history, planned economy, secular and
democratic polity, but also in the beginning of the reassertion of self-confident
India about its image that was tarnished by the colonial scholars like James
Mill, Thomas Babington Macaulay, Vincent Arthur Smith, and Rudyard Kipling
etc. In the year 1954, Arthur Llewellyn Basham among many others tried to
correct the negative image of India: a country of snake charmers, black
magician, plagiarists, and fabricators of lies in the name of mythology, a
country of people without history and worshipers of Hanuman the monkey and
Sabala the cow etc., in his book “The Wonder That Was India: A Survey of the
Cultures of the Indian Sub-Continent”. The gist of this scholarly book was
acknowledging the roots of Indian culture and civilisation in antiquity, which
has remained largely unchanged with a strong thread of continuity while
remained continuously engaged with the cultures and civilisation across its
border. It is through these interactions that the cultures in the sub-continent
underwent numerous social and religious reforms such as Buddhism, Jainism,
Sufism and Sikhism etc., and the process is far from over. Yet the basic
principles of its culture continued to persist over time and space.

According to Basham, it is primarily because of the strong inner core and

external flexibilities, a unique characteristic features, India is said to be a
country epitomizing “unity without uniformity and diversity without
fragmentation”. In a sense, Basham was reiterating what pioneering German
Indologist Max Muller said nearly 100 years before him along with Fredrick
Nietzsche. Max Mullar after getting proficiency in Vedic Sanskrit and through
his personal interaction with Vedic philosopher Ramakrishna Paramhansa and
Brahmo Samaj etc., made a thorough study of the Vedas, Puranas, and
Upanishads. According to him, there is a strong organic/generic link among

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the Indo-European languages and Sanskrit is the oldest and most developed
among these languages. Moreover, the Vedic culture is at the root and source
of the Pagan European religions and holds the key to understand the religions
in general. To make it happening, he advocated that language should not be
tied to a particular belief system (myth making) and equating Sanskrit with
Hinduism, particularly Brahmanism. He also traced the roots of European
Romanticism in Nature worship of the Vedic people, Vedic philosophy and the
concept of Gods in Vedic literature as acknowledgement of the active forces of
nature partly personified supernatural persons at the positive end of it and
mythology as the “disease of language” at its negative end. However, Max
Mullar was very critical of the negative role played by British colonial power in
distorting and forcing irreparable damages to Indian culture, thus, forbade his
student to visit India because to him India that was living under the British rule
is not true India and the India that was true had to be but dead.

These are only a few of the many aspects of India that have intrigued the
minds of different scholars at different times. However, at the core of these
opinions as mentioned before, the social ethos of India reflects high degree of
Unity without uniformity and enriched diversity without fragmentation.

People of India and Unity and Diversity:

It is often said about Epic Mahabharata and India in one voice: "Yanna
Bharate Tanna Bharate", which means whatever is there in Mahabharat/India
it is found everywhere and whatever is not here that is nowhere. It together
summarises the enormity of the epic and India. Mahabharata is about seven
times as long as the Iliad and the Odyssey (written by Greek poet Homer) put
together. A small section of its Sixth Parva i.e., the Bhishma Parva is an
ensemble of all that are part of human life: birth, love, hatred, rivalry, envy,
gambling, greed for power, good v/s evil, betrayal, conspiracy, jealousy, hate,
morality-immorality and new morality, oath, war, treachery, action, killing-
(massacre), prosperity, peace, and ultimately death etc., - everything is
present here. This Meta narrative stands out as an icon of Indian culture,
which is the result of fusion of various cultures and ways of life that entered
India through various waves of migrants.

Thus, the population of India has neither a single source (ethnic stock and
place) of its origin nor a fixed time of settling in places they are found today.
Human groups across time and space with highly varied ethnic and cultural
backgrounds entered into India, intermingled with other communities,
benefitted through the process of cultural exchanges and shaped its cultural
mosaic. Though, India is an integral part of the Eurasian continent, located on
its southern-south-central margin, yet it remained relatively isolated in most
part of its historical past from the frequent and continuous interactions with
other cultures. The isolation was reinforced by the presence of formidable
barrier created by the ranges of high Himalayas in the North and mighty Indian
Ocean in the South. Thus, its interactions with the outside world and their
cultures were confined to high mountain passes in the Himalayas in the North
subject to intensity and magnitude of impediments created by high altitudes,
heavy snowfall, avalanches, glaciers, and blizzards and incompatible
technologies. Frequent disruption created by these environmental factors in
the movement of people across these high mountain passes did never permit
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large and uninterrupted flow of people significant enough overrun the earlier
settlers completely.

On the contrary, the process of peopling in India was marked by constant

processes of displacement and adjustment, give and take and continuity and
change. The population groups inhabiting in the Areas of Isolation in
Subbarao’s scheme of historical regions of India such as the hills, mountain
ranges, valleys and deserts in the Himalayas, the archaic belt extending from
Karbi-Anglong-Meghalaya Plateau-Chota Nagpur Plateau in the North-East
and Eastern India passing through Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Telangana,
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, interior parts of Gujarat, Kuchch to Jaisalmer,
Barmer in the West to Nilgiri and Annamalai hills in the South are people that
had been among the early settlers in India. These have been once settlers in
the river valleys and Areas of Attraction before their displacement by the
successive wave of immigrants. At present, these communities constitute the
lower strata and outer zone in the scheme of Griffith Taylor’s model of cultural
diffusion and assimilation. However, their present locations and material
cultures exhibit the traces of their roots in the Areas of Attraction or Perennial
Nuclear Regions.

Similarly, the hilly, forested, marshy, flood prone areas, and desert were
unattractive to the new comers, so they occupied the Areas of Attractions and
pushed the earlier settlers to the areas of isolation. Thus, they constitute the
inhabitants of inner zone and upper strata of the same model of Taylor. The
movement, settling and displacement of the people in India had followed a
broad spatial pattern along the “Z” path of least resistance available through
the routes along the river valleys. The most obvious route after crossing the
Khyber pass and getting into Kabul valley:

“the Indus, Ganges, Narmada, Tapi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri, were in
turn penetrated and exploited by large scale agricultural communities, driving
the older and static people in a more primitive economy into the forested
mountains, where they have survived to this date”.

The movement of the immigrants beyond the Middle Ganga plain

characterised by hot and humid climate, swampy and marshy land proved
inhospitable and difficult to acclimatise to the immigrants after spending
considerably long time in cold and arid environmental conditions in Central
Asia. So, after reaching the Middle Ganga Plain, they followed the Son valley
and entered into Godavari valley and finally reached the Easten Coastal plains
and ultimately the Malabar Coast in South India. Thus, the route resembled
the shape of the last letter of English alphabet i.e., “Z”.

Since, the waves were not continuous, so there were considerable gaps
between successive waves of immigrants. Sometimes, the intervals were so
long that these were extended up to a few millennia. Taking advantage of
relatively low intensity and frequencies of external enforcements, the earlier
settlers were able to develop their own regional character, cultures and
economy which could withstand the steam rolling impacts of the cultures
brought in by the new waves of immigrants. On the contrary, they were
successful in assimilating their material culture and in turn developed into
perennial nuclear regions or bases of power:

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“Gandhara in the Vale of Peshawar and Potwar, Sapta-Sindhu narrowed down
to the Punjab, seven rivers to five; Kurukshatra, the Delhi or Sutlej/Yamuna
Doab; Panchala in the Yamuna/Ganga Doab and Rohilkhand , Saurashtra
(Kathiyawad) and Gujarat; the four great kingdoms already apparent in
Magadhan times. In the Dravidian south the pattern is more confused, but not
without some relatively permanent pieces in the dynamic kaleidoscope: the
Kalinga country or Orissa; Andhra, the Telugu country; the Chola (whence
coromandel) and Pandya kingdoms in the Tamil country; Kerala or Malabar,
the isolated southwest littoral. There are of course many smaller areas which
have preserved a historic individuality, e.g., Bundelkhand, Chhattisgarh,
Konkan and Kanara. Some areas again have been debatable marches: such
as Khandesh, between Narmada and Tapi, or the Raichur Doab between
Tungabhadra and Krishna”.

SAQ 1
Map the factors of unity and diversity in India. Do you think diversity is a
formidable obstacle in the unity of India?

Thus, the patterns of distribution of communities as an outcome of these

displacements and adjustments were displayed through unique patterns in
their spatial distribution:

1. The Negritos: Represented by tribal groups such as Kadars and the

Puliyans living in the Andaman Islands.
2. The Proto-Australoids: Most of these are living in the hilly and forested
areas of central and southern India. Some of them are also widely spread
in northern India forming lower stratum of the society.
3. The Mongoloids: Most of the Mongoloids are concentrated in the
Himalayan borderlands spreading from Ladakh in the North West to Sikkim,
Arunachal and other Hill states of North East except Meghalaya. Broadly,
the Mongoloids can be divided into two sub-groups: Palaeo Mongoloids
and Tibeto-Mongoloids. The former are mostly living in the frontier areas of
the Himalayas and the North-Eastern Hill regions and the latter ones are
believed to have come from Tibet and mostly living in Sikkim and parts of
Arunachal Pradesh.
4. The Mediterraneans: The Mediterraneans characterised by their medium
stature, slight built, long head and dark skin constitute bulk of the lower
castes throughout the northern India. One of its sub-group popularly known
as the Oriental type came much later and remained confined to Punjab,
Sindh, Rajasthan, and Western Uttar Pradesh.
5. The Alpinoids, Dinarics, and the Armenoids: These are distributed in
parts of western and south India particularly Kathiawar, Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Lower Ganga valley and Delta in
the Coorgis of Karnataka and the Parsis are some prominent groups
included among these.

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6. The Nordics: These are characterised by long head, strikingly sharp nasal
and facial index, fair complexioned, and strong body built. They are mostly
concentrated in Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan.

India and its Physical Features in Relation to Unity and Diversity: India is
a relatively isolated geographical region in terms of its space relations and
Geological and Geographical features. As mentioned before, it is surrounded
by the Indian Ocean and its branches; the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea
in the East and West Coasts in the Indian Peninsula in the South, the deserts
of West Asia in the West, the mighty rivers, thick jungles in the East and high
ranges of the Himalayas in the North. Unlike many other geographical regions
demarcated on the bases of their common geological history and geological
structure, India is characterised by unity of triple tectonic divisions broadly
coinciding with threefold physiographic division: The Himalayas and the Chain
of Associated Folded Mountains, The Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plains and
the Peninsular India.

The Peninsular India with the exception of the relief features presented by
deltas and coastal plains consist of the old crustal rocks, marked by block
mountains, rift valleys, lava and black soils. The Himalayas and the river valley
plains in the north are youngest landforms in India. It is believed that the
Himalayas originated during the Tertiary Mountain Building phase is
(Himalayan origin) often referred to as Alpine. The occurrences of frequent
earthquakes, landslides and presence of rapids, waterfalls, river terraces,
alluvial fans, V-shaped valleys etc., prove that the Himalayas are young,
highly unstable and fragile landmass and theatre of active geomorphologic
processes i.e., Aeolian (Ladakh cold desert), glacial, and fluvial. The
Himalayas are one of the highest mountain ranges in the world separated by
deep gorges and river valleys along their longitudinal as well as latitudinal
extents. Though, most of the Himalayan rivers flow in the ‘V’ shaped valleys
they have created over the years, yet there are rivers like the Indus, Sutlej,
Bhagirathi (Ganga), and Brahmaputra that form antecedent drainages.
Moreover, the ranges and valleys in the Great and Trans Himalayas have an
emphatic presence of glacial landforms, while the landforms in the Lesser and
Outer Himalayas have been created by fluvial processes.

Similarly, frequent occurrences of floods, formations of flood plains, shifting of

river channels and associated landforms, deposition of eroded materials on
the deltas, migration of distributaries, frequent emergence and subsidence of
islands along the deltas too prove that the river valley plains are also part of
the young landforms. As opposed to this, the peninsular plateau made of the
old crustal rock deposited in the Precambrian times, was lifted above the sea
level by the tectonic movements. These stood like rigid and inflexible block all
through ages without ever submerging again and least affected by the
impulses generated by the folding movements in regions lying to its north
during the period of Himalayan origin.

Apparently, these three macro tectonic divisions are unique and diverse from
each other, but they share common geological past. The breaking of the
Indian Plate from the Gondwana Plate, its northward movement approximately
100 million years before the present and its collision with the Eurasian Plate or
Laurasia resulting into massive bulges in the bed of the Tethys’s sea is
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believed to be the principle causes of formation of the Himalayas. Moreover,
the shape, alignment, and direction of the Himalayan ranges from North-West
to South-East direction in the Western Himalayas, West to East in the Central
Himalayas, South-West to North-East in the Sikkim-Darjeeling-Bhutan and
Arunachal Himalayas and from North to South in the Nagaland, Manipur and
Mizo Hills are results of the outlying fragments of the peninsular blocks,
particularly noticed in the Meghalaya and Karbi-Anglong plateau in the North-
East, the Aravallis and Kirana Hills in the West and North-West. It is believed
that they played significant roles in shaping the trend lines of the Himalayas.
Similarly, the sediments embedded in the rocks of the Himalayas and the
peninsular blocks have many similarities with each other.

Apart from these, there are many similarities between the young Himalayas
and the senile peninsular block. There are youthful relief feature visible even
in the senile peninsular block and there are old worn-down surface features
even in the young Himalayas. But, above all these lies the contribution of the
sediments deposited by the river flowing from the Himalayas in the North and
the Peninsular block in the South into the geosynclines in between these two
macro physiographic divisions. It has resulted into the emergence of river
valley plains as an epitome of Unity.

The other most significant natural attributes representing unity in diversity in

India are the patterns of spatial variations in the distribution of climatic and
associated natural vegetation types. The islands in the Bay of Bengal receives
more than 350 centimetres annual precipitation combined with moderate to
high temperature throughout the year, and has thick tropical and equatorial
vegetation types. Mangroves particularly ‘Sundari’ is the dominant vegetation.
Similarly, the Western Ghats with moderate to high precipitation and
temperature too have moist evergreen vegetation. The north-eastern states
receives moderate to high rainfall but has moderate to low temperature and
has temperate evergreen vegetation.

As opposed to this, the rest of India receives precipitation ranging between

100 to 150 centimetres per year. Nearly 85 percent of precipitation occurs
during rainy season from late June to early July to September months. The
summers are almost dry with moderate to high temperature. Consequently,
deciduous vegetations are dominant in most parts of central and north Indian
plains. As opposed to this, in the western parts of India particularly northern
Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, and Punjab, the precipitation varies from very
low to low. The summers are very hot and winters are severe. So, the
vegetation varies from desert to semi-arid types. The Himalayas are
characterised by sudden increase in the altitudes, so it has moderate to cold
climatic conditions and many parts receives precipitations in the form of
snowfall during the winter months. Consequently, the vegetation varies along
the altitudes. The foothills have deciduous vegetation while the higher places
have temperate coniferous vegetation covers or temperate grasslands. Areas
above 4,500 metres on the northern slopes and 5,000 metres on the southern
slopes of Himalayas are covered under snow most of the time in a year.

It is worth noticing here that the spatial variation in the distribution of the
climatic attributes and associated vegetation types are regulated by the
rhythms of Indian Monsoon. The pre-monsoon and early summers are marked
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by spring season all over India. The pre-monsoon showers are an all India
phenomenon known with different names: Tea shower and Bordoli Chherha in
Assam, Kaal Baishakh in Bengal and Bihar, Cherry Blossom or Coffee Shower
in Karnataka and Kerala. Moreover, the reverence Peepal and Banayan trees
and Tulsi plant receives across India and the acceptance of Triphala (Herda,
Baherda and Aamla) has in the traditional medicines are aspects of the unity
of India.

Unity and Diversity in Relation to India’s Socio-Cultural Mosaic: It was

discussed in the previous section on the process of peopling in India that it
had been a melting pot of various cultures and ways of life across the world
that succeeded in reaching in this relatively isolated region in different waves
of immigrants spreading over millennia. It is believed that unlike other places
in the world, the mixing of various cultures had been amicable without any
particular culture succeeding in establishing permanent and pan-Indian
dominance for a long time and subjugating other communities permanently. It
is not the same thing to say that there were no conflicts, domination, and
subordination of one culture(s) over the other(s).

On the contrary, there have been conflicts, some of these were also quite
violent leading to subjugation of cultures, but most of these were either
confined to a few regions, restricted over limited time span or went under
change frequently. However, the most significant aspect about these changes
was that very few of these could bring the major structural changes in Indian
society and continued to reflect some all India characteristics across space
and times. Included among these were self-subsisting isolated village
community life, joint family system, and social division of labour based on
caste, yet got manifested into social reforms including religious movements.
Some of the important aspects of diversity in the socio-cultural mosaic of India
are:

a. Religious Diversity and Unity: India is considered to be the birth place of

many major and minor religions and belief systems. Though, Hinduism is
reported by many in India their religion, yet its deities, rituals and practices
are very diverse across the country. In Eastern India, particularly Assam and
Bengal have the predominance of Durga, Kali, and Kamakhya in their belief
systems. Similarly, Manipur one of the eastern states of India has worshipers
of Lord Krishna, Mahaprabhu Chaitanya and Vaishnavism. In most parts of
Central India, which is also representing the Hindi speaking regions, Gods
and Goddesses like Rama-Sita, Shiva-Parvati, Radha-Krishna and
Hanumanji are worshipped most. The state of Odisha is world famous for the
worship of Lord Jagannath and the Rath Yatra in Puri and Lingaraj in
Bhubaneswar. In the state of Maharashtra, the worship of Lord Ganesha
(Ganapathi) is the most revered gods, while in Tamil Nadu the reigning deity
is Kartekeyan, while in Punjab majority of the population follow Sikhism,
Kashmir has majority of the followers of Islam. Ladakh, Arunachal Pradesh,
Sikkim, and parts of Himachal Pradesh have followers of Buddhism. The
other hill States from the North East have majority of the followers of
Christianity. Similarly, in states like Maharashtra and Gujarat there are
followers of Judaism and Zoroastrianism. Similarly, there are regions where
the followers of Zoroastrianism, Judaism and other religions are present. It is

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interesting to know that the followers of Islam are present in most of the
States and Union Territories.

Apart from these major religions and belief systems, there are several other
regional deities that have enriched the cultural diversity of India. In the
backdrop of these diversities, there are overarching bonds of strong unity.
The reverence to the fertility cult of Mother Earth is most common across
cultures in different forms. The worship of Meenakshi and Kanyakumari in
Tamil Nadu, Durga (Chamunda) in Karnataka, Kamakhya (Chhinnamasta)
in Assam, Kali and Durga in Bengal, Sherawali-Jattawali-Jyotawali in
Punjab, Bhawani in Rajasthan, Hinglaj Mata in Gujarat and Rajasthan,
Nanda-Parwati in Himachal and Uttarakhand etc., are all different forms of
acknowledging the magnanimity of Mother Earth.

Similarly, the celebrations and festivities associated with cropping seasons

and regional festivals like Bihu in Assam, Durga-Kali Pujas in Bengal,
Dashehara in Karnatak, Gujarat, North and Central India, Chhatt Puja in
Middle Ganga plain, Bhagawati Jagaran (Jagraatas) in North and Western
India along with the celebration and festivities associated with Holi (festival
of colours), Bihu in Assam, and Deepawali (festival of light) are expression
of reverence to bounties of Mother Earth and rhythms of agricultural
seasons across India.

b. Cultural Diversity and Unity: Like religious diversity, India has also
cultural diversity. Despite differences in culture, both culture and religion
helps in maintaining unity in diversity in the nation. The popularity of the
classical system of Carnatic and Hindustani music, classical dances like
Bharatnatyan (Tamil Nadu), Kathak (Uttar Pradesh) Odissi (Odissa),
Kathakali, Mohiniyattam (Kerala), Manipuri Dance (Manipur), Kuchipudi
(Andhra Pradesh), Sattriya (Assam), Bhava, Raaga and Taala (Bharata) at
the national levels and the Lavani or Turra Kalagi in Maharashtra, Andhra,
Telangana, Rajasthan, Lohri, Bhangra-Gidda in Punjab, Raas-Leela in
Gujarat and Western Uttar Pradesh, Kajari in Bhojpur, Garba and Dandiya
Raas in Gujarat, Yakshagana (Karnataka), Cheraw and Chailam
(Mizoram), Nongkrem (Meghalaya) etc., are all part of vernacular culture in
different parts of the country. But, the reverence of the fertility cult of Mother
Goddess’s synchronisation with the rhythms of Monsoon is the common
thread that runs through all these vernacular dances and festivities in India.

Language is another significant aspect of culture. It is believed that India is

the most diverse country in terms of the linguistic diversity. There are 22
National Languages in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution and there are
more than 121 languages, 270 mother tongues and several dialects used by
1.4 billion people in India. Tamil and Hindi are believed to be among the
oldest living languages of the world. It is interesting to note that there are
some languages like Hindi which is spoken by millions of people and there
are some dialects spoken by few hundred, yet all these exist in harmonious
relationships with each other. Among the multitude of linguistic diversity, the
scholars have identified four-fold regional linguistic regions in India:

1. The Dravidian region of South

2. The Indo-Aryan region of the North and North-West

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3. The Mon-Khmer and Tibeto-Burman region of the North-East and the
Himalayas
4. The Austric region of the archaic belt i.e., Aravalli-Vindhya-Chota Nagpur
complex.

SAQ 2
Do you think that plurality of culture and life-styles and mutual respects for
each other constitutes the strong bases of India’s unity?

These divisions are more apparent than real. The freedom struggle of India
did not only unite millions of Indian against a common enemy politically, but it
was also a unity reinforced by evolving and consolidated link language
through the processes of inter-language cross-fertilisation. English played an
important role in uniting the Indians against the British during the freedom
struggle. Initially, English was used but with the graduation of anti-colonial
struggle into freedom struggle and independence, a new and widely practiced
mode of communication has emerged. This new language is believed to be
like a chemical fusion and not a physical mixture where the different
components can be easily separated.

During the last three hundred years, each of these distinct groups of
languages have come into close contact with the remaining groups, and out of
this contact has arisen a vocabulary, which shows a pan-Indian characteristic.
The contribution made by national home market and inter-regional economic
linkages adequately complemented by the network of transport and
communication linkages particularly the Indian railways, National Highways,
Golden Quadrilateral, North-South, East-West transport corridors, medium of
entertainment, particularly the Bombay Film Industry, curriculum of the School
under Central Board of School Education (CBSC) and All India Services etc.,
seems to have played significant role in giving concrete shape to Pan-India
medium of communication.

There are no doubts that there are very strong complementarities among the
factors of diversities and unity in India.

The oneness of India in spite of its diversity in natural environment and social
plurality is reinforced by the rhythm of the Monsoon, the cycle of seasons and
its synchronisation with the economy, culture, and festivities are pan-India
phenomena, though manifested in various regional cultural practices in the
forms of songs, dances, worships, architecture, dresses, food habits, ways of
lives and languages etc. But, there are little doubts that pervasiveness of the
Indian Monsoon provides the natural bases for certain degree of uniformity in
the human-nature interaction throughout the length and breadth of India. But,
above all these lies the bonds of togetherness that were reinforced through
the participation of all Indians in the freedom struggle against the colonial
power. It helped in synthesising the hopes and aspiration of every Indian in the
Constitution of India for securing right to citizenship for every Indian without
prejudice and discrimination. It was based on the principles of social,
economic and political justice, liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and
worship, equality of status and of opportunity. Besides, it also helped to
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promote fraternity among all the citizens to assure the dignity of individual and
integrity of the nation.

It is largely because of the deep embedded roots of composite culture,

institutionalisation of human-nature interaction through cultural practices and
formalisation of these in the form of a new social contract enshrined in the
Constitution of India has made it possible that a poor post colonial country
stands firm and vibrant among the world democracies.

SAQ 3
Give your comments about the constitutional provision in the Indian
Constitution that has created a delicate balance among geographical diversity
and social-cultural unity of India.

3.3 SUMMARY
In this Unit, you have learnt the following:
 People of India.
 Concept of unity and diversity.
 India and its physical features in relation to unity and diversity.
 Unity and diversity in relation to India’s socio-cultural mosaic.

3.4 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. India is considered to be a country having unity in diversity. Critically
examine the factors of diversity and unity in India.
2. Why are there regional cores of certain cultures across India? Do you think
that geographical location of India in South Asia bordered by great
mountain wall in the north and Indian Ocean in the south along with
geographical diversity within India are responsible for existence of cultural
diversities in India?
3. Why are the regions having maximum concentration of Scheduled Tribes
(STs) and Scheduled Castes (SCs) population in India are distributed in
exclusive location from each other? Are there exceptions to these norms?
4. Do you think Griffith Taylor’s model of Zone and Strata is applicable to the
process of population distribution in India?

3.5 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs)
1. Factors of unity and diversity in India need to be mapped. Diversity is a
formidable aspect in the unity of India.
2. Plurality of culture and life-styles and mutual respects for each other
constitutes the strong bases of India’s unity.

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3. The Indian Constitution has created a delicate balance among geographical
diversity and social-cultural unity of India.

Terminal Questions
1. Refer to Section 3.2.
2. Refer to Section 3.2.
3. Refer to Section 3.2.
4. Refer to Section 3.2.

3.6 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

1. Ahmad, A. (1999). Social Geography, Jaipur: Rawat Publications.
2. Basham, A.L. (1954). The Wonder that was India: A Survey of the Culture
of the Indian Sub-Continent before the Coming of the Muslims, Sidgwick
and Jackson, United Kingdom.
3. Chatterjee, P. (2021). The Truths and Lies of Nationalism, Permanent Black.
4. Kosambi, D.D. (1954). An Introduction to the Study of Indian History,
Bombay: Popular book Depot.
5. Kosambi, D.D. (1977). The Culture and Civilisation of Ancient India: a
Historical Outline, Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. New.
6. Munsi, S.K. (1984). India Resource Regions and Regional Disparity, New
Delhi: People’s Publishing House.
7. Panikar, K.M. (1959). Geographical Factors in Indian History, Bombay:
Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
8. Schwartzberg, J.E. (1978). A Historical Atlas of South Asia (ed.), Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
9. Sen, A. (2005). The Argumentative Indian: India Large and Small and The
Indian Identity, London: Allen Lane (Penguin books).
10. Upadhyaya, B.S. (1973). Feeders of Indian Culture, New Delhi: People’s
Publishing House.

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 UNIT 4

PERSONALITY OF INDIA-2
Structure
4.1 Introduction 4.3 Summary
Expected Learning Outcomes 4.4 Terminal Questions
4.2 Regions, Regionalism and 4.5 Answers
Federalism and Union of 4.6 References and Further
States Reading

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Regions are an expression of homogeneity in terms of the attributes either
natural, socio-cultural or both. It is a way of understanding the whole, which is
inclusive and sensitive to the unique and specific attributes and contributive to
strengthening the interdependent relationships with other constituent parts on
the one hand and enrichment of the whole on the other hand. Any imbalance
in understanding by over/underplaying the significance of the whole or its
constituent parts is detrimental to both i.e., understanding the whole as well as
its parts. Any effort to give importance to parts and using it as an expression of
identity formation based on geographical, social, religious, linguistic, ethnic,
and other chauvinistic identities results into the emergence of regionalism.
Thus, regionalism is antithetical to the understanding of both the whole and its
parts.

It is a travesty of the rise and growth of Nations and Nationalism that though,
most of the nations had their origins in regionalism based on different
identities, yet once they succeeded in transforming themselves into national
identities, they treat regionalism as a formidable threat to nationalism etc.
India, which emerged as a sovereign nation on account of their prolonged
struggle against the colonisers, a common enemy, through the united efforts of
various cultural identities and since then it had been proactive against the
possibilities of regional identity assertions. Concerted efforts were made
particularly through the Constitution of India to recognise all these fissiparous
tendencies and address the regional aspirations amicably. The constitution is
committed to unity of India, its territorial integrity, and social harmony by
upholding the quasi-federal structure mentioned in Part - XI, XII, XII, and XIV
of the Constitution of India, particularly under Articles 245 to 323 under
Centre-State relations enshrined in the list.
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Section 4.2 deals with the regions, regionalism and federalism and union of
states. The learners are expected to imbibe the spirit of federal structure of
Indian Constitution. It is expected that regional identities and unity of nation
are not antagonistic to each other. To be a good Indian, it is an imperative that
we should treat each citizen, culture, and ways of life as equal. There is no
hierarchy among cultures and ways of life.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this Unit, you will be able to:
 explain the concept of region and regionalism; and
 comprehend the nuanced understanding of federalism and union of states
in India.

4.2 REGIONS, REGIONALISM AND

FEDERALISM AND UNION OF STATES
Part-I of the Constitution of India makes it explicit that “India that is Bharat,
shall be Union of States”. Meaning thereby, unlike many other democracies in
the world, the Union of India has overarching powers over the states and
Union Territories, though, they have power in their respective spheres. The
makers of the Indian constitution were not only aware of the natural, historical,
socio-cultural, and economic diversities of India, but they were also equally
emphatic in acknowledging the same and promised to preserve, promote and
nourish these diversities, because, they were confident that diversities
were/are the great strength for a vibrant, tolerant and non-violent democratic
society in India. Unlike the federal structures in Canada, USA, and Australia
etc., where the states were in existence prior to the formation of a nation and
these states came together and formed a nation based on new social contract
with a provision of maximum autonomy to be enjoyed by the states. The level
of autonomy could be to the extent of promulgation of their own notion of
citizenship along with provisions of breaking away from the Nation itself.

In case of India, it was an imperative, as per the then existing political divisions
of India among the Princely States, areas directly under the British, French
and Portuguese control and areas under the control of local administration of
the ethnic communities etc., to bring under one power structure. The
processes active in the evolution of India as a socio-cultural and politico-
geographical entity are indicative of the fact that most of the areas directly
administered by the British were near to the coastal areas for easy
accessibility for promoting integration with the world market with three main
objectives: export of raw materials, deportation of labour to other colonies and
import of manufactured goods and commodities from Britain. Most of the
Princely states were spread in the interior parts of India and areas controlled
by the traditional institutions were located in the peripheral areas, particularly
the Himalayas in the North and the North-Eastern Region.

The other important aspect pertaining to the specificities of India was related to
the concept of sharing power between the states and the centre. The
apprehension about the counterproductive experiences of the partisan based on

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giving autonomy to the states, the makers of the constitution were more
cautious about the possible negative outcomes and about the dangers of such
autonomy. Thus, they preferred giving preference to the power of union
government over the states on the principle of unity, integration and cooperation
over federalism and autonomy. In order to formalise these principles, the
constitution prepared the list of relations covered within the ambit of power
between the Union Government and the States of India. These include the
legislative relations, the administrative relations listed in the Part XI of the
Constitution under Articles 245 to 263 Relations between the Union and the
States. Among all these, the Article 246 has special significance for dividing and
listing the subjects/activities in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution in the
Union List, State List and Concurrent List with a provision that the Parliament
has the power to transfer/modify/include-exclude these activities across the
three lists. There are 99 subjects included in the Union List, which consists of
exclusive power given to the Union Government to take decision regarding
national defence, foreign affairs, foreign exchange and monetary policy among
others. The State List includes 61 subjects and the state government has the
power to take independent decision on these subjects. Included among these
are the law and order, local administration, public health, education, agriculture,
and provisions like imposing different kinds of taxes and duties. There are 52
subjects included in the Concurrent List, prominent among these are Indian
Penal and Civil Code, News Paper etc.

The other imperatives of such an experiment were to combine democratic

responsiveness to cultural diversities/differences in terms of regional
communities, identities and ways of life to take forward the modes of multi-
cultural national development. Inclusion of the Fifth and Sixth Schedules in the
Constitution of India, were aimed at protecting and promoting the cultural
identities of the indigenous communities. Special provisions of Autonomous
District Council and Regional Council (ADC and RC) were made to administer
Scheduled (tribal) areas of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram. The
main objectives of the ADC and RC were to protect the traditional identity,
institutions, and ways of life. These were based on the fundamental principles
that: the people of each state/region should be recognised as different if not
unique, yet equal both in letter and spirit and above all these, the people have
priority over the state and territory without undermining the significance of the
geographical factors in the evolving India having ‘unity in diversity’, a theme
discussed in detail under India’s Unity in diversity. These ideals were
incorporated in the political fabric of India long before independence in order to
accommodate the intimate links between the mainstream nationalism and
regional identity aspirations. An acknowledgement of this ultimately formed the
basis of Linguistic reorganisation of the states in the country.

SAQ 1
What is the nature of federal structure enshrined in the Indian constitution?

Linguistic States and Cultural Regions of India: The Constituent Assembly

which was constituted to draft the Constitution of India had a formidable task
of balancing the regional aspirations and National unity. One of the major

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challenges was to find an amicable solution for the official language of the
Union and the National Language. The Constituent Assembly had divided
opinions on the theme thus, it appointed Linguistic Provincial Commission in
1948 under the Chairpersonship of Supreme Court Justice S. K. Dar, which
decided against linguistic reorganisation in favour of National unity and
suggested ‘coldwater therapy’ to postpone the issue for the time being. But,
the demand for united Karnataka in 1948-49 demanding the unification of
Kannada speakers across Madras, Bombay, Mysore, and Hyderabad, once
again reignited the demand for Linguistic autonomy. In 1952, freedom fighter
Patti Sriramalu went on fast unto death demanding separate Andhra Pradesh
for Telugu speaking people. Similarly, the demands were raised in other
regions of India which culminated into constituting the State Reorganisation
Committee (SRC) in 1953 with following members: Jurist Fazl Ali, historian K.
M. Panikar, and social worker H. N. Kunzru. Finally, the report was submitted
in 1955 clearly mentioning the positive and negative aspects of linguistic
reorganisation, yet it urged for adopting a “balanced approach, which
recognises linguistic homogeneity as an important factor conducive to
administrative convenience and efficiency and not an exclusive and binding
principle, overriding all other considerations”.
Consequently, most of the states in South India were formed on the basis of
linguistic homogeneity of major languages: Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu, and
Kanada. But as one moves towards the North, the principle started getting
diluted. However, states like Odisha, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Bengal too
followed it to some extent. But, the same principle did neither find appreciation
nor political will across the Northern Hindi heartland from Bihar in the East to
Rajasthan in the West. The situation was more complicated in case of Punjab
till mid 1960s when Punjab, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh were
reorganised on linguistic basis, Punjabi in Punjab, Hindi in Haryana and Pahari
in Himachal Pradesh.
In case of the North-Eastern India, the pluralities of ethnicity and ethnic identity
assertions pushed the linguistic homogeneity to the margins and the region
witnessed the creation of broad ethnic states. Though, some major ethnic
groups like the Nagas, the Mizos, and the Khasis in the region that were
successful in the creation of the separate state, yet, there are many like the
Bodos, Dimasa, Karabis, Kukis, Koch Rajbanshi, Aadivasi (Tea Tribes),
Cachhari, and Tripuri etc., who are still struggling for their statehood. There
were many reasons for the success of some groups in getting separate state
and the most plausible reason was their strategically significant frontier and
border locations.
Moreover, there are ethnic groups like the Nagas, the Mizos, the Manipuris,
and communities from Arunachal Pradesh that have sizeable presence not
only in the neighbouring states within India but also in the neighbouring
countries and they are still fighting for their unification within one state. The
demand for Greater Nagaland (Nagalim) and Zoland are some of the well-
known examples of the same.
Apart from these, there are also examples like Tripura where the ethnic Tripuri
identity has been marginalised by the influx of the migrants from neighbouring
states and countries in spite of getting a promised state after Tripuri ethnic
identity. The situation in Manipur is far more complex than any other states in
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the region. The Imphal Valley has majority of the Meitei population, while the
hills have numerical dominance of the Nagas, the Kukies and other ethnic
communities. Loss of culture and cultural identity mainly because of large
scale immigrants in the state of Assam initially after the introduction of tea
plantation in the 19th Century, later on after the partition of India and
independence of Bangladesh were the main reasons for identity movement in
Assam. Initially, the demand was raised by All Assam Student Union (AASU)
and its political wing Assam Ganasangram Parishad (AGP), but subsequently
it was taken over by the insurgent Group called United Liberation Front of
Assam (ULFA) etc.

SAQ 2
Do you think that linguistic reorganisation of the states has posed formidable
challenges to the unity of India?

The situation is more complex as one move into Central India and interior
parts of South India inhabited by numerous ethnic and linguistic groups. The
speakers of Tulu, Sadri, Mundari, Bhili, Santhali, Ho, Korku, Gondi, and Kurkh-
Oraon etc., are far from such political expressions and most of these
communities are parts of different states of India. Though, some of these
identity movements had their origins either in opposition to the discriminatory
and exploitative colonial rule or it was the direct outcome of their policy of
divide and rule. The partition of India on communal lines was one of such
examples. However, there were many other reasons which multiplied over
time and space after India’s independence. Some of these regional
movements were:
1. Regional Independence/Secessionism: It was mentioned before that
broadly there were three politico-administrative systems prevalent during
the freedom struggle of India. One among these was the existence of 563
princely states ruled by local rulers/Rajas but indirectly controlled by the
British. These sub-feudatories were highly diverse in terms of their
geographical areas, locations, socio-cultural compositions, and population
size etc. There were princely states like Hyderabad and Jammu and
Kashmir etc. Among these, the Princely State of Hyderabad was not only
large and powerful, but also prosperous. Thus, it was pressing for a
favourable settlement at the time of India’s independence/partition.
Recognition as a separate sovereign country like India and Pakistan was
one option failing which the Nizam was in favour of its inclusion with
Pakistan. Somewhat similar aspirations were also nourished by the
Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir with two fundamental differences. The
Hyderabad Princely State was an enclave within India, where majority of
population were Hindu and the ruler was a follower of Islam. As opposed to
this, the Princely State of Jammu and Kashmir had a common boundary
with India and Pakistan. It was ruled by a Hindu King with majority Muslim
population along with sizeable number of Buddhists in Ladakh. These
regional aspirations were brought to an end through the accession by India.
The Nizam, though very powerful and prosperous became more vulnerable
than the Maharaja of Kashmir because of the strong United Andhra
Movement based on regional language Telugu.
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After the Independence of India, the demands for independence from India
were raised by Angami Zafu Phizo in Nagaland and Laldenga in Mizoram,
which have been virtually dormant in case of Mizoram after the Mizo Accord
between Indian Prime minister Rajiv Gandhi and Laldenga in 1984. But, the
demand for independence from India continued to persist in case of
Nagaland by some groups like the Isak Chishi Swu-Thuingaleng Muivah
(NSCN-IM) and S. S. Khaplang (NSCN-K) groups for the Nagas. It is worth
remembering here that Phizo though born to an Angami Naga family was a
British citizen and at the time of India’s independence, he organised a
meeting of the leaders of indigenous Assamese, Garos, Khasis, Lushais,
Abors, Mishmis, and Meiteis, who met the British and asked for
independence from India. For Nagas, he formed the Naga National Council
(NNC), which subsequently got divided into many sub-groups.

However, there are some smaller groups across the North-Eastern border
areas of the country that are occasionally active and raise the demands for
Independence from India like PLA in Manipur and ULFA in Assam etc. The
demands for independent Jammu and Kashmir raised by JKLF and of
separate Khalistan in Punjab are also the examples of
secessionist/separatist regionalism. Most of these organisations have failed
to fulfil their aspirations largely because of diversity of culture, success of
democracy and supremacy of constitutions, which has exhibited that India
is committed to resolving its differences within the framework of the Indian
constitution, respecting individual freedom, human dignity and cultural
pluralities.

2. Full Statehood Demand: It was mentioned before (in Units 1, 2 and 3) that
there are diversities in terms of social composition, cultural practices,
resource base, historical experiences, and levels of development across
many states. There are some states like Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and
Maharashtra etc., where the size of the state as well as population is so
large that it is difficult to address the problems of every area and
community. Consequently, some communities and regions within these
states feel that either they are neglected or they are lagging behind within
the same state. It was the main reason for the separation of Uttarakhand
from Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand from Bihar, Chhattisgarh from Madhya
Pradesh and Telangana from Andhra Pradesh. Similar demands are also
raised by the people of Vidarbha in Maharashtra, Bundelkhand in Uttar
Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, Bodo Land in Assam and Gorkha Land in
West Bengal.

3. Regional Autonomy: Since most of the identity groups are constrained by

their internal and external limitations, such as internal ethnic divisions
including absence of common lingua franca, limited resource availability,
and poor infrastructure along with landlocked territories etc., they find it
beneficial to remain within India/large state, yet demand for maximum
autonomy particularly in relation to the protection and promotion of their
identity and ways of life. Persistent of the provision of Inner Line Permit
(ILP) in Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, and Mizoram and demand for the
same in Meghalaya, Manipur, and Tripura along with the Provision of
Autonomous District Council (ADC) and parity among the provisions under
Indian Penal Code (IPC) and Special and Local Laws (SLL) crimes are
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some of the important themes of the regional autonomy. The formation of
Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC) and Gorkhaland Territorial Council
(GTC) are some of the examples of these regional autonomy movements.
There are demands from the regional identity groups in North Bengal and
they are demanding an inclusive autonomy of the Gorkhas and the Adivasis
from North Bengal and demanding the replacement of Gorkhaland
Territorial Administration (GTA) by Gorkhaland and Adivasi Territorial
Administration (GATA).

4. Son of the Soil Regionalism: It was discussed before that the history of
peopling process of India was marked by displacement of one wave of
settlers by the successive waves. The process went over thousands of years.
Though, there were some resentments in the beginning, yet gradually things
got settled because the then existing levels of technologies and institutions
were able to adjust and acclimatise to the new environment. But, the most
dramatic changes occurred once India was exposed to ‘modernity’ under
colonialism, which was characterised by: Drain of wealth, rapid pace of
changes in techno-institutional arrangements, shrinking opportunities of
dignified life to growing population etc. It has resulted into de-industrialisation,
de-urbanisation, and large scale deportation of labour to the other colonies
as well as within the country and increasing unemployment etc.

These changes have secular impacts on the society and economy of India
such as increase in the levels of redundancy and obsolescence among the
workers; rise in unemployment combined with forced and distressed
outmigration to a few important metropolitan outposts and urban centres.
The combined result of all these was rampant unemployment and
competition of limited jobs. The non-migrant communities found it difficult to
cope with the economic stress created by a false binary between the locals
versus non-locals (outsiders). So, to exclude the later from taking jobs and
livelihood opportunities, the ‘non-migrant’ (local) population raised the
slogan of ‘sons of the soil’. It started in Maharashtra, particularly Mumbai in
1960s against the businessmen from Gujarat, services class from South
India and migrants from north India. Similar, demands were also made by
AGP, AASU in Assam and KSU in Meghalaya in the 1980s against the so-
called outsiders.

The absence of son of the soil movement in Kolkata and Chennai proves
this point that the ideological moorings of the left and secular parties and
civil society in West Bengal and Tamil Nadu proved an antidote to such
parochial politics. Apart from these, the son of the soil demand has also
been raised in different parts of the country against the imposition of unitary
markers of India from time to time.

5. Federalism, Union of States and Centre-State Relations: It was

mentioned before that the constitution of India unequivocally and
unambiguously makes it clear that “India that is Bharat is union of states”.
Meaning thereby, the balance of power is always in favour of the centre.
Though, the states have near exclusive rights over the activities listed in the
List-II (State List) of the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution and have
nearly equal power on matters in the List-III (Concurrent List), yet the centre
has exclusive and overriding power to change the list and takeover the
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activities from the State List, it deems fit to be taken over or has exclusive
power to make laws with respect to matters not enumerated in List-II and
List-III.

However, the most controversial article of the Indian Constitution, which

had/has created sharp differences of opinions among the States and the
Centre is Article 356 of the Constitution related to “Provisions in case of
Failure of Constitutional Machinery in State” which in turn is related to
Articles 153 Governors of the State, 154 Executive Power of State and 155
Appointment of Governor of State along with Part-XI (Relations between
the Union and the States), Part-XII (Finance, Property, Contracts and
Suits), particularly its Articles 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 274, and 275. It has
been the common demand of most of the states, particularly when there are
different political parties in power in the states and at the centre, then the
former always feel that they are discriminated by the centre, which has
become the basis of regionalism in many states. The rise of regional
political party like the Telugu Desham under N.T. Rama Rao in 1980s is
one such example.

SAQ 3
Do you think that concentration of power at the centre is the main reason for
the rise of regional political parties in India?

It is evident that regionalism has many shades and India has experienced
these at different points of time in different states. The most obvious question
to ask at this point is what are the reasons behind the rise of regionalism?
1. Regional Backwardness: It was mentioned that India is diverse in terms of
its environmental and socio-cultural attributes, which have always
contributed in facing many challenges it has been exposed to so far. But,
the most formidable challenge India had faced in the past and continues to
face even today is the disparities in terms of quality of life and levels of
economic and social development across its social and economic spaces. It
has been proved through various historical studies that the genesis of
regional disparities in India was deeply embedded into the processes of its
colonisation under the British. India’s incorporation in the world market as a
dependent partner under the British leading to drain of its resources
through the succession mechanism operating from the metropolitan
outposts resulted into the development of few port towns, mining and
plantation areas (enclaves), Hill stations and overall backwardness of the
remaining areas.
It was expected that the regional disparities created under the colonial rule
would be removed after the independence, through planned development.
But the experiences of the past seventy years have proved that the economic
structure created by the colonial rulers and India’s participation in the world
market have remained the formidable barrier in bringing about the balanced
regional development. On the contrary, the paths of mixed planned
development within the all-powerful capitalist relations have accentuated
regional disparities and social inequalities. Consequently, the gap between

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the developed and backward regions continues to increase with every new
effort made by the government to bring regional balance. The much-
celebrated Green Revolution too added new dimension in increasing the
inter-regional disparities. The development of the regions endowed with
assured irrigation has attracted bulk of modern inputs of agricultural
development at the cost of areas with less developed irrigation facilities.

Thus, increasing regional disparities, resulting into discontent among the

people creates an ideal condition for the rise of regionalism in India.

2. Cultural Identity Movements: Culture stands for an ensemble of various

material, non-material and social attributes of society and community.
Included within the ambit of culture are religion, ethnicity, race, cultural
artifacts, cultural ecology, and cultural practices etc., along with various
material relations, social contracts, social and cultural capitals etc. Thus,
culture always stands for diversity, dynamism, inclusiveness, and
irreducibility. Singularity, uniformity, stability, and “othering” are always alien
to culture, which can be treated as anti-culture. However, it is an irony that
the modern nation states have always appropriated culture to carry forward
their unitary agenda of uniformity, normalization, homogeneity and
‘othering’. The rise of theocratic, religious, racial, and ethnic nationalism in
different parts of the world at different times has sometimes proved a futile
exercise, but only after paying a heavy price in the form of human
sufferings and annihilations. Indian’s too had been witness to the cost of
religious division of the country at some point of times in its history.
However, in India, cultural movements like Gorkhaland movement in West
Bengal, the Assam ethnic movements (Bodo tribes), the Jharkhand
movement for tribal rights, etc., also helps in maintaining unity in the region.

3. Linguistic Identity: It is often said that eating, sleeping, and procreation

are common to humans and animals. If human activities get restricted to
these biological functions, then not only the differences between the two will
cease to exist but humans will only live like animals. Thus, the major
differences between the two are that humans not only produce materials for
their survival, but they also produce concepts, myths, artefacts, and culture
etc. In other words, humans are cultural beings; they are cognitive being
which stand for their cultural identity. Language is the first and most
important markers of human cultural identity. Language helps in
construction as well as dissemination of ideas including the bonds of
oneness, brotherhood, common aspirations and welfare.

Reorganisation of the Indian states in 1956 and afterwards, and the

elevation of regional languages into the VIII Schedule of the Indian
Constitution too have contributed in bringing the demand for linguistic
identity at the centre stage of identity formation and assertions in India,
particularly after independence. Indecisiveness and ambiguity regarding the
status of National language on part of the successive governments at the
national level on the one hand and opposition to the imposition of Hindi as
a National language at different points of time in different states of India on
the other hand continues to be the main reason behind linguistic identity
movements, particularly in the states of South India and other bordering
states particularly from the North-East.
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4. Historical Legacy: There are scholars particularly, historians,
archaeologists, and anthropologists etc., who believe that there are close
relationships between the history and geography of India. Knowledge about
these relations holds the key to understand the continuity and changes in
the formation of regions in India. Apart from the inferences available in the
Puranic texts, there are evidences right from the time of Janapadas,
Mahajanapadas in ancient India, the Subas and Sarcars under the Moguls,
the provinces under the British and the states in modern India that
substantiate the close interrelationships between the history and geography
of India. The Perennial Nuclear Regions formed the bases of the
formation of the Subbas, provinces, and States with some modifications
mostly along the frontiers and boundaries.

Similarly, with some exceptions the Areas of Isolation too broadly coincide
with the states that have been formed on the bases of ethnic composition
mostly in the North-Eastern Regions and the States in the Himalayas. And
finally, the Areas of Relative Isolations are experiencing cultural identity
movements more than the other regions. The Demand for Bodoland
(National Democratic Front of Bodoland), Karbi Anglong (Karbi Longri N.C
Hills Liberation Front), Assam (United Liberation Front of Assam), and
North Bengal (Gorkhaland National Liberation Front) are most prominent
among these. Similarly, the formation of Telangana from Andhra Pradesh
too was based on the historical legacy of the Princely State of Hyderabad
under the Nizam. So, unlike the demand for a separate statehood in other
parts of the country, the formation of Telangana was based on its demand
for demerger from the state of Andhra Pradesh at the time of linguistic
formation in 1956.

5. Rise of Regional Elites and Political Aspirations: The scholars from

dependency school are of the opinion that Capitalism is the dominant
economic world order in spite of tall claims about Socialist Economy, Mixed
Economy, and Backward Primitive Economy etc., because all these interact
among themselves and others in a single World Market dominated by
capitalist relations. Their participation in the World Market is through
Unequal Exchange resulting into the transfer of economic (potential and
actual) surplus from large number of countries (colonies) to a few
Metropolitan countries is the main reason behind their economic distress
and regional imbalances/inequalities. This process resulted into the drain of
wealth from colonies and accumulation of wealth in the metropolitan
countries. The net outcome of these processes is the division of the world
into Developed core (Metropolis) and Underdeveloped peripheries
(Satellite).

Therefore, development and underdevelopment are the two diametrically

opposite outcomes of the one and the same processes operating through
the World Market. Moreover, the division is both an outcome as well as
process, which are reproduced at every level. Meaning thereby, the
relations of unequal exchange are also reproduced within the
underdeveloped peripheries and developed core i.e., there are developed
core within the underdeveloped peripheries and there are underdeveloped
peripheries within the developed cores.

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India was subjected to the processes of underdevelopment under the
colonial rule and its unwavering engagement with the world market
continues to reproduce the relations within the country. Persistence of such
unequal relations after independence and planned economic development
in the country has given rise to the regional aspirations articulated by the
regional middle-class, regional capitalist class (bourgeoisie), and regional
intelligentsia. The rise of entertainment-cinema stars in South India
particularly M.G. Ramachandra, K. Karuna Nidhi, Jaya Lalitha, N.T. Rama
Rao, Regional Capitalist class in Western Maharashtra (Siva Sena),
Agricultural Capitalist class in Punjab, the Regional Economic Potentates in
Assam (tea, timber, oil, and natural gas) etc., are expressions of the rise of
regional capitalist class (bourgeoisie) in different parts of the country.

Centre State Relations: It was mentioned before that the constitution of India
used the concept of Union of States instead of Federation of India that is
Bharat, which is a clear indication that the centre has greater power than the
states. The provisions to this effect have been outlined in Part-XI of the Indian
Constitution, particularly in Articles 245 to 263, which makes it quite clear that
no state of India has the power to overturn the laws promulgated by the central
government. Moreover, an attempt to achieve and override the laws made by
the Central Government will amount to undermining the sovereignty of India
amounting to an act of sedition, an act of separation from India and treated as
an act of treason.

However, the real strength to these provisions is provided by Section 112-A of

Indian Penal Code (IPC) through its definition of sedition as an act “by words
by words, either spoken or written, or by signs, or by visible representation, or
otherwise, brings or attempts to bring into hatred or contempt, or excites or
attempts to excite disaffection towards, the Government established by law
shall be punished with imprisonment for life, to which fine may be added…”.
Though, it has many interpretations, yet the following three are most
significant:

I. The expression “disaffection” includes disloyalty and all feelings of enmity;

II. Comments expressing disapprobation of the measures of the Government
with a view to obtain their alteration by lawful means, without exciting or
attempting to excite hatred, contempt or disaffection, do not constitute an
offence under this section; and
III. Comments expressing disapprobation of the administrative or other action
of the Government without exciting or attempting to excite hatred,
contempt or disaffection, do not constitute an offence under this section.

The other important issues regarding the centre-state relation are the
appointment of the Governors/Lieutenant Governors and use of the Article-356
of the Constitution: provisions in case of failure of constitutional machinery in
the states. It has been observed that the central government has invariably
invoked this article to dismiss the democratically elected State Governments
on the recommendations of the Governors/Lieutenant Governors of the
state/UTs. It has happened very frequently and the centre dismissed the state
government, if it was formed by the political parties different from the one in
power at the centre. Similarly, the provisions under Part-XII of the Constitution

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related to Finance, Property, Contracts and Suits giving more power to the
Centre have been contested by the State Governments.

Consequently, the acrimony between centre state relations has given rise to
the feeling of discrimination by the centre, thus, giving rise to regional identity
formation. In Tamil Nadu, the DMK and AIADMK, in Punjab the Akali Dal, in
Andhra Pradesh the Telgu Desham, in Assam the Assam Gana Parishad, the
National Conference and Peoples Democratic Party in Jammu and Kashmir,
Forward Block and CPM in West Bengal, the CPI (M) in Kerala, in
Maharashtra Siva Sena, in Odisha the Biju Janata Party, Trinamool Congress
in West Bengal and Aam Admi Party in Delhi and Punjab etc., have been
continuously demanding a larger share of powers for the states.

One of the most contested issues in recent times is the share of states and the
centre regarding Goods and Services Tax (GST). Theoretically, GST includes
all those previous taxes imposed under the VAT, octroi, luxury tax, purchase
tax, central taxes like customs duty, central excise duty, and service tax. But at
present, under the government’s one nation one tax policy, these taxes have
been clubbed into three broad headings:

CGST: The Central government collects revenue through central goods and
services taxes and central government levies taxes on intra-state goods and
services transactions.

SGST: It includes all the taxes that were collected before under different
heads such as VAT, entertainment tax, luxury tax, octroi, tax on lottery, and
purchase tax.

IGST: Integrated Goods and Services Tax is levied on inter-state goods and
services transactions including imports and exports. These taxes are shared
by the centre and state governments. But, the acrimony created by different
state governments regarding the distribution of the share of the states is
becoming an important issue of regional aspirations.

Consequently, the discrimination by the government at the Centre with the

State governments, particularly if the political parties forming the government
at the centre and the state are from different political parties in terms of their
ideologies and the processes of region formation and regionalism quite
different from each other. Regions are formed on the bases of homogeneity in
terms of factors like physiography, climate, natural vegetation, economic
activities, cultural attributes, and historical experiences etc. Regions for all
practical purposes are real, yet dynamic and stand for complementarities with
each other in order to strengthen the bonds of interdependence with other
regions. As opposed to this, regionalism by its definition is based on “othering”
where the other need not be the hell, what Sartre would like to call it, yet there
is a strong sense of insider-outsider prevalent within regionalism. Most often
and it could be the nearest instead of the real enemy which is always based
on certain myths fixed in time past and attempts to retrieve the paradise lost.
“Regionalism is based on an ideology concerned with prolonged injustice,
deprivation and neglect and motivating people to increasing political power
and influence to mitigate these perceived or real injustices”. Sometimes, the
regionalists do not question the rights of the sovereign, thus, they don’t
demand separation or independence. On the contrary, they favour
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confederation in place of unitary centre and want to improve the quality of life
of the people through better allocation of resources according to the region-
specific priorities. It can promote healthy competition, and is never anti-people.

However, the extreme form of regionalism sometimes degenerates into brutal

killings and rampant violations of human rights. The Constitution of India has
provisions within it to address the issues related to regionalism and the
experiences of the last seven decades of independence and democratic
governance has been largely successful in dealing with regional aspirations
and regionalism.

SAQ 4
Are regionalism and nationalism antithetical to each other?

4.3 SUMMARY
In this Unit, you have learnt the following:
 Regions, regionalism and federalism and union of Indian states.
 Linguistic States and Cultural Regions of India.
 Regional movements in India.
 Prominent reasons behind the rise of regionalism in India.

4.4 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. The rise of regionalism in India at different points of time is an outcome the
distortions brought in during the prolonged colonial domination. Evaluate
this statement with suitable examples.
2. Do you think the policies of inclusive-exclusion and exclusive-inclusion
adopted through planned development in India after independence is
largely responsible for the rise of regional disparities and regional
aspirations?
3. Do you think regional autonomy will be/is counterproductive to the unity of
India?
4. Do you think disparities in the levels of development are the causes for the
rise of regional identity movements in India? Or can economic development
solve the problems of regional identities?

4.5 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs)
1. The nature of federal structure as enshrined in the Indian constitution.
2. Linguistic reorganisation of the states poses formidable challenges to the
unity of India.

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3. The concentration of power at the centre is main reason for the rise of
regional political parties in India.
4. Regionalism and nationalism are antithetical to each other. It means that
overlapping is inescapable phenomenon.

Terminal Questions
1. Refer to Section 4.2
2. Refer to Section 4.2
3. Refer to Section 4.2
4. Refer to Section 4.2

4.6 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

1. Ali, S.M. (1965). The Geography of the Puranas, New Delhi: People’s
Publishing House.
2. Chatterjee, P. (1999). State and Politics in India (ed.), New Delhi: Oxford
University Press.
3. Chatterjee, P. (2021). The Truths and Lies of Nationalism, New Delhi:
Permanent Black.
4. Dikshit, R.D. (2000). Political Geography: A Contemporary Approach, New
Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Limited.
5. Kohli, A. (2001). The Success of India’s Democracy, Cambridge University
Press.
6. Ministry of Law and Justice, Government of India (1996). The Constitution
of India, New Delhi.
7. Sharma, R.S. (1974). Indian Society: Historical Probings (ed.), New Delhi:
People’s Publishing House.
8. Sopher, D.E. (1980). An Exploration of India; Geographical Perspectives on
Society and Culture, London: Longman.
9. Thapar, R. (1990). From Lineage to State, New Delhi: Oxford University
Press.

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GLOSSARY
Areas of Relative : The regions that flourished their regional culture and
Isolation ways of life away from the main routes of waves of
immigrants into the Indian sub-continent. The
development of Bengali, Assames, and Rajashtani
cultures and languages are considered to be as the
areas of relative isolation.
Centre-State : Indian society is diverse in terms of their history,
Relations culture, faiths, economy, and ways of life etc. The task
of conducting the business of the nation with one fits all
rules is likely to be counter-productive. The constitution
of India is a testimony of this fact that it is an imperative
to balance the powers of the provincial governments
and the central governments. The Part XI of the Indian
Constitution particularly Articles 245 to 263 are very
categorical about the divisions of powers between the
Centre and the States. However, there are issues like
the cultural identity and allocation of resources that
have created many problems in the centre-state
relations at different points of time. But, above all these
lies the Article 356 of the constitution, which empowers
the central government to dissolve the state
government on the advice of the Governor of the state
in pluralistic and diverse country relations.
Displacement : The core subject matter of geography is the processes
of Humanisation (cultural expression) of Nature and
Naturalisation of Humans through human nature
interaction. Therefore, there is everything of nature
(place) as an expression of human culture and there is
everything in human culture (people) that are deeply
embedded into nature. The nature-cultural expressions
are long historical processes, but at time due to some
reasons, there occur disruptions in the organic nature
of human inter-relationships and both stands apart from
each other. This distancing between human and nature
from each other is known as displacement.
Displacement has natural as well as social causes
having magnitude, direction, and velocity.
Enclaves : A relatively small isolated foreign territory lying within a
separate geographical and politico-administrative unit.
The tea plantations managed by the European
colonisers in India are the examples of plantation
enclaves.
Federalism : It is a form of government where the powers are
distributed between the central government and the
state or regional governments within one political
system.

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Formal Region : Regions that are objective and exist independent of
human knowledge. These regions exhibit homogeneity
in terms of the physical or natural attributes. Most of
the physical regions are formal regions and these are
relatively permanent in nature.
Functional Region : Functional regions are delineated on the bases of
human needs or purposes. These regions exhibit
homogeneity in terms of the activities or functions
without adhering homogeneity in terms of the physical
attributes such as relief, and geology etc. Most of the
planning regions and industrial regions are functional
regions. These regions undergo changes with the
change in their attributes. Such regions are dynamic in
nature.
Heterogeneity : State of being dissimilar in terms of the characteristics
(quality and quantity) of constituting attributes.
Homogeneity : State of being/maintaining similarity especially in terms
of quality and quantity of the constituting attributes.
Janapadas and : These were the proto-state formations among the
Mahajanapadas ethnic groups in the Indian sub-continent in ancient
times. It is believed that they practice some form of
democratic governance. There were 16
Mahajanapadas (Sodasa mahajanapadas) and a large
number of small ethnic (tribal) democracies.
Mother Goddess : Earth is the place of human birth, dwelling, survival,
and security. The relationship between the Earth and
humans is similar to their biological mother. Though,
the relationship is uni-directional from the Earth to
human at the receiving end, yet humans on their part
feel indebted to the Earth and pay reverence to its
bounties by creating a variety of feminine deities and
maternal symbols of creativity, birth, fertility, nurturing,
and cycles of growth and regeneration. In India, the
expression of Mother Goddess in various forms is one
of the single most significant factors of unity in
diversity. In the East, there is goddess Kamakhya,
Durga and Kali, in the North-West the Sherawali and
Jyotawali, in Western India there is Durga and Hinglaj
Mata, in South India there are Meenakshi and
Chamundeshwari.
Perennial Nuclear : Regions that survived and flourished over centuries
Region despite the changes that were brought in by the
external influences and succeeded in developing their
culture and economy. The core centres of Telugu,
Tamil, and Kannada languages and cultures etc., in
case of India could be considered as perennial nuclear
regions.

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Rhythms of : The seasonal movement of wind at the lower layer of
Monsoon atmosphere and above the surface of the Earth is called
Monsoon. It has its origin in Arabic language, meaning
season. In South Asia, the movement of these winds
follows an annual cycle, which is responded and
synchronised with many economic and cultural activities
Spatial : A multipurpose concept as well as technique referred
to understand multiple dimensions of a geographical
unit encompassing as small as place to global surface.
Synthesis : It is a method of knowing/understanding the elements/
components as an interdependent part of the whole.
Taxonomy : Branch of knowledge as well as method of
understanding phenomena both nature and society
through arranging in a rational classification.
Territorial : The concept as a model of regional development was
Production introduced by Russian Geographer N. N. Kolosovskiy.
Complexes It is the basis of the formation of economic region
comprising interrelated energy, resource, labour,
industrial, agricultural, and forest based enterprises
within a territory. Kolosovskiy’s formulations were
based on pyro-metallurgical cycles of ferrous and non-
ferrous metals and on the petroleum and gas energy
chemical cycles over and above the other five energy
production sectors.
Underdevelopment : Underdevelopment is neither a precondition, nor a
stage nor even due to lack of resource needed for the
development of an economy. It is a dependent,
distorted, and truncated development resulting from the
ruthless exploitation of resources and development
potentials by the colonial powers from the former
colonies. The drain of wealth and resources (economic
surplus) was regulated through the participation of the
colonies in the world market subjected to stringent
conditions of unequal exchange. India was typical
example of underdeveloped economy under the British
colonialism.
Union List, State : The constitution of India made adequate and elaborate
List, and provisions to streamline the powers and activities of the
Concurrent List central and provincial governments. Consequently, it
has listed items in three lists i.e., the Union List (97
activities), the State List (66 activities) and the
Concurrent List (47 activities) in 1996. Though, there
have been many changes in the allocations of these
activities through various constitutional amendments,
yet the activities remained by and large the same.
Vernacular Region : It refers to a belief of people as an expression of their
cultural identity. Basically, it is a kind of perceptual

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region.
Zone and Strata : Griffith Taylor was among the ardent exponents of
environmental determinism. He used biological analogy
to analyse the spatial distributions of forms of organic
as well as inorganic substances. According to him, the
most primitive substances will be available at the outer
most zone and lower most strata and the recent ones
will be at the inner most zone and upper most strata.
Some biologists also called it age and area concept.

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