2 CHAPTER 1

Karen pulled her hair incessantly; as a result, she created a bald spot on the
top of her head. Although she was embarrassed by the bald spot, which measured
1 inch in diameter, she continued to pull her hair. Her psychologist implemented
a treatment in which Karen was to engage in a competing activity with her hands
(e.g., needlepoint) each time she started to pull her hair or had the urge to pull.
Over time, the hair-pulling stopped and her hair grew back in.
Francisco was gaining a lot of weight and decided to do something about it. He
joined a weight loss group. At each group meeting, Francisco deposited a sum of
money, set a goal for daily exercise, and earned points for meeting his exercise goals
each week. If he earned a specified number of points, he got his deposit back. If he
did not earn enough points, he lost part of his deposit money. Francisco began to
exercise regularly and lost weight as a result of his participation in the group.
The residents of Cincinnati were making thousands of unnecessary directory
assistance calls per day. These calls were clogging up the phone lines and costing
the phone company money. The company instituted a charge for each directory
assistance call, and the number of calls decreased dramatically.
You will notice that each of these examples focuses on some aspect of
human behavior and describes ways to change the behavior. Because behavior
modification focuses on behavior and behavior change, it is appropriate to begin
with a discussion of behavior.

Defining Human Behavior

Human behavior is the subject matter of behavior modification. Behavior is what
people do and say. The characteristics that define behavior are as follows.
■ Behavior involves a person’s actions (what people do or say); it is described
with action verbs. Behavior is not a static characteristic of the person. If you say
that a person is angry, you have not identified the person’s behavior; you have sim-
ply labeled the person. If you identify what the person says or does when angry,
then you have identified behavior. For example, “Jennifer screamed at her
mother, ran upstairs, and slammed the door to her room.” This is a description of
behavior that might be labeled as anger.
■ Behaviors have dimensions that can be measured. You can measure the
frequency of a behavior; that is, you can count the number of times a behavior
occurs (e.g., Shane bit his fingernails 12 times in the class period). You can mea-
sure the duration of a behavior, or the time from when an instance of the behav-
ior starts until it stops (e.g., Rita jogged for 25 minutes). You can measure the
intensity of a behavior or the physical force involved in the behavior (e.g., Garth
bench pressed 220 pounds). You can measure the speed of behavior, or the
latency from some event to the start of a behavior. Frequency, duration, intensity,
and latency are all dimensions of a behavior. A dimension is a measurable aspect
of the behavior.
■ Behaviors can be observed, described, and recorded by others or by the per-
son engaging in the behavior. Because a behavior is an action, its occurrence can
be observed. People can see the behavior (or detect it through one of the senses)
when it occurs. Because it is observable, the person who sees the behavior can

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 INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION 3

describe it and record its occurrence. (See Chapter 2 for a description of methods
for recording behavior.)
■ Behaviors have an impact on the environment, including the physical or
the social environment (other people and ourselves). Because a behavior is an
action that involves movement through space and time (Johnston & Pennypacker,
1981), the occurrence of a behavior has some effect on the environment in which
it occurs. Sometimes the effect on the environment is obvious. You turn the light
switch, and the light goes on (an effect on the physical environment). You raise
your hand in class, and your professor calls on you (an effect on other people).
You recite a phone number from a web site, and you are more likely to remember
it and to dial the correct number (an effect on yourself). Sometimes the effect of a
behavior on the environment is not obvious. Sometimes it has an effect only on
the person who engages in the behavior. However, all human behavior operates
on the physical or social environment in some way, regardless of whether we are
aware of its impact.
■ Behavior is lawful; that is, its occurrence is systematically influenced by
environmental events. Basic behavioral principles describe the functional relation-
ships between our behavior and environmental events. These principles describe
how our behavior is influenced by, or occurs as a function of, environmental
events (see Chapters 4–8). These basic behavioral principles are the building
blocks of behavior modification procedures. Once you understand the
environmental events that cause behaviors to occur, you can change the events
in the environment to alter behavior. Consider the graph in Figure 1-1, which

FIGURE 1-1 This graph, adapted from a study by Durand and Carr (1992), shows the influence of teacher atten-
tion on the disruptive behavior (defined as pushing away task materials; loud screaming, whining,
or crying; and hitting or knocking over objects) of a young boy (Paul) in a special education class-
room. The graph shows that disruptive behavior does not occur when Paul receives frequent
teacher attention (High ATT). However, when Paul receives teacher attention infrequently (Low
ATT), he engages in disruptive behavior about 50% of the time. This graph shows the functional
relationship between the teacher’s attention and Paul’s disruptive behavior (From Durand, V. M., &
Carr, E. G. [1992]. An analysis of maintenance following functional communication training. Journal
of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 777–794. Copyright © 1992 University of Kansas Press.
Reprinted by permission of the author.)

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 INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION 5

has resulted in her mother feeding her, so the crying continues to occur when
Mandy is hungry. There is a functional relationship between the crying and the
mother’s behavior of feeding her.
Jerry’s paper for his behavior modification class is a week late. Jerry gives the
paper to his professor and lies, saying that it is late because he had to go home
to see his sick grandmother. The professor then accepts the paper without any
penalty. Jerry also missed his history test. He tells his history professor he missed
the test because of his sick grandmother. The professor lets him take the test a
week late.
Jerry’s behavior—lying about his visit to his sick grandmother—has all five
characteristics of a behavior. It is an action (something he said) that occurred
twice (frequency), was observed by his professors, and resulted in an effect on his
social environment (his professors let him take a test late and hand in a paper late
with no penalty); it is lawful because there is a functional relationship between
the behavior (lying) and the outcome (getting away with late papers or tests).
Samantha is a 6-year-old with an intellectual disability who attends special edu-
cation classes. When the teacher is helping other students and not paying atten-
tion to Samantha, Samantha cries and bangs her head on the table or floor.
Whenever Samantha bangs her head, the teacher stops what she is doing and
picks Samantha up and comforts her. She tells Samantha to calm down, assures
her that everything is all right, gives her a hug, and often lets Samantha sit on
her lap.

?
Identify each of the five characteristics of Samantha’s behavior.
Samantha’s head banging is a behavior. It is an action that she repeats a num-
ber of times each day. The teacher could observe and record the number of
occurrences each day. The head banging produces an effect on the social environ-
ment: The teacher provides attention each time the behavior occurs. Finally, the
behavior is lawful; it continues to occur because there is a functional relationship
between the head-banging behavior and the outcome of teacher attention.

Defining Behavior Modification

Behavior modification is the applied science and professional practice concerned
with analyzing and modifying human behavior.
■ Analyzing means identifying the functional relationship between environ-
mental events and a particular behavior to understand the reasons for the behavior
or to determine why a person behaved as he or she did.
■ Modifying means developing and implementing procedures to help people
change their behavior. It involves altering environmental events so as to influence
behavior. Behavior modification procedures are developed by professionals (e.g.,
board certified behavior analysts) and used to change socially significant behaviors,
with the goal of improving some aspect of a person’s life. Following are some
characteristics that define behavior modification (Gambrill, 1977; Kazdin, 1994).

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 6 CHAPTER 1

Characteristics of Behavior Modification

■ Focus on behavior. Behavior modification procedures are designed to
change behavior, not a personal characteristic or trait. Therefore, behavior modifi-
cation de-emphasizes labeling. For example, behavior modification is not used to
change autism (a label); rather, behavior modification is used to change problem
behaviors exhibited by children with autism.
Behavioral excesses and deficits are targets for change with behavior modifica-
tion procedures. In behavior modification, the behavior to be modified is called
the target behavior. A behavioral excess is an undesirable target behavior the per-
son wants to decrease in frequency, duration, or intensity. Smoking is an example
of a behavioral excess. A behavioral deficit is a desirable target behavior the per-
son wants to increase in frequency, duration, or intensity. Exercise and studying
are possible examples of behavioral deficits.
■ Guided by the theory and philosophy of behaviorism. The guiding theoreti-
cal framework behind behavior modification is behaviorism. Initially developed
by B. F. Skinner (1953a, 1974), behaviorism’s core tenets are that behavior is law-
ful and controlled by environmental events occurring in close temporal relation to
the behavior (see also Baum, 1994; Chiesa, 1994).
■ Procedures based on behavioral principles. Behavior modification is the
application of basic principles originally derived from experimental research with
laboratory animals (Skinner, 1938). The scientific study of behavior is called the
experimental analysis of behavior, or behavior analysis (Skinner, 1953b, 1966).
The scientific study of human behavior to help people change behavior in mean-
ingful ways is called applied behavior analysis (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968,
1987). Behavior modification procedures are based on research in applied behav-
ior analysis that has been conducted for more than 50 years (Ullmann & Krasner,
1965; Ulrich, Stachnik, & Mabry, 1966).
■ Emphasis on current environmental events. Behavior modification involves
assessing and modifying the current environmental events that are functionally
related to the behavior. Human behavior is controlled by events in the immedi-
ate environment, and the goal of behavior modification is to identify those
events. Once these controlling variables have been identified, they are altered
to modify the behavior. Successful behavior modification procedures alter the
functional relationships between the behavior and the controlling variables in
the environment to produce a desired change in the behavior. Sometimes
labels are mistakenly identified as the causes of behavior. For example, a person
might say that a child with autism engages in problem behaviors (such as
screaming, hitting himself, refusal to follow instructions) because the child is
autistic. In other words, the person is suggesting that autism causes the child to
engage in the behavior. However, autism is simply a label that describes the pat-
tern of behaviors the child engages in. The label cannot be the cause of the
behavior because the label does not exist as a physical entity or event. The
causes of the behavior must be found in the environment (including the biology
of the child).

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 INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION 7

Behavior Modification and Applied Behavior Analysis

Behavior modification (as described in this textbook) and applied behavior analysis are two terms used to
identify virtually identical fields. Although research on the application of behavioral principles to help peo-
ple change their behavior (behavior modification) had been published since the late 1950s, the term
applied behavior analysis was introduced in 1968 in the first issue of the Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis with the publication of Baer, Wolf, and Risley’s article defining applied behavior analysis. In
their article, Baer et al. (1968) identified a number of characteristics of applied behavior analysis includ-
ing: (a) a focus on socially important behavior; (b) demonstration of functional relationships between envi-
ronmental events and behavior; (c) clear description of procedures; (d) connection to basic behavioral
principles; and (e) production of meaningful, generalizable, and long-lasting changes in behavior. These
defining features of applied behavior analysis also characterize the contemporary field of behavior modi-
fication as described in this textbook.

■ Precise description of behavior modification procedures (Baer et al., 1968).

Behavior modification procedures involve specific changes in environmental events
that are functionally related to the behavior. For the procedures to be effective
each time they are used, the specific changes in environmental events must
occur each time. By describing procedures precisely, researchers and other profes-
sionals make it more likely that the procedures will be used correctly each time.
■ Treatment implemented by people in everyday life (Kazdin, 1994). Behavior
modification procedures are developed by professionals (Board Certified Behavior
Analysts, Board Certified Assistant Behavior Analysts, or other professionals such as
Licensed Psychologists specifically trained in behavior modification). However,
behavior modification procedures often are implemented by people such as teachers,
parents, job supervisors, or others to help people change their behavior. People who
implement behavior modification procedures should do so only after sufficient train-
ing. Precise descriptions of procedures and professional supervision make it more
likely that parents, teachers, and others will implement procedures correctly.
■ Measurement of behavior change. One of the hallmarks of behavior modifica-
tion is its emphasis on measuring the behavior before and after intervention to doc-
ument the behavior change resulting from the behavior modification procedures. In
addition, ongoing assessment of the behavior is done well beyond the point of inter-
vention to determine whether the behavior change is maintained in the long run. If
a supervisor is using behavior modification procedures to increase work productivity
(to increase the number of units assembled each day), he or she would record the
workers’ behavior for a period before implementing the procedures. The supervisor
would then implement the behavior modification procedures and continue to
record the behavior. This recording would establish whether the number of units
assembled increased. If the workers’ behavior changed after the supervisor’s interven-
tion, he or she would continue to record the behavior for a further period. Such
long-term observation would demonstrate whether the workers continued to assem-
ble units at the increased rate or whether further intervention was necessary.
■ De-emphasis on past events as causes of behavior. As stated earlier, behavior
modification places emphasis on recent environmental events as the causes of
behavior. However, knowledge of the past also provides useful information about

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 8 CHAPTER 1

environmental events related to the current behavior. For example, previous learn-
ing experiences have been shown to influence current behavior. Therefore, under-
standing these learning experiences can be valuable in analyzing current behavior
and choosing behavior modification procedures. Although information on past
events is useful, knowledge of current controlling variables is most relevant to
developing effective behavior modification interventions because those variables,
unlike past events, can still be changed.
■ Rejection of hypothetical underlying causes of behavior. Although some
fields of psychology, such as Freudian psychoanalytic approaches, might be inter-
ested in hypothesized underlying causes of behavior, such as an unresolved
Oedipus complex, behavior modification rejects such hypothetical explanations of
behavior. Skinner (1974) has called such explanations “explanatory fictions”
because they can never be proved or disproved, and thus are unscientific. These
supposed underlying causes can never be measured or manipulated to demon-
strate a functional relationship to the behavior they are intended to explain.

Characteristics of Behavior Modification

Focus on behavior
Guided by the theory and philosophy of behaviorism
Based on behavioral principles
Emphasis on current environmental events
Precise description of procedures
Implemented by people in everyday life
Measurement of behavior change
De-emphasis on past events as causes of behavior
Rejection of hypothetical underlying causes of behavior

Historical Roots of Behavior Modification

A number of historical events contributed to the development of behavior modifi-
cation. Let’s briefly consider some important figures, publications, and organiza-
tions in the field.

Major Figures
Following are some of the major figures who were instrumental in developing the
scientific principles on which behavior modification is based (Figure 1-2)
(Michael, 1993a).

Ivan P. Pavlov (1849–1936) Pavlov conducted experiments that uncovered the

basic processes of respondent conditioning (see Chapter 8). He demonstrated that
a reflex (salivation in response to food) could be conditioned to a neutral stimulus.
In his experiments, Pavlov presented the neutral stimulus (the sound of a
metronome) at the same time that he presented food to a dog. Later, the dog

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 12 CHAPTER 1

Areas of Application
Behavior modification procedures have been used in many areas to help people
change a vast array of problematic behaviors (Carr & Austin, 2001; Gambrill,
1977; Lutzker & Martin, 1981; Vollmer, Borrero, Wright, Van Camp, & Lalli,
2001). This section briefly reviews these areas of application.

Developmental Disabilities
More behavior modification research has been conducted in the field of develop-
mental disabilities than perhaps any other area (Iwata et al., 1997). People with
developmental disabilities often have serious behavioral deficits, and behavior
modification has been used to teach a variety of functional skills to overcome
these deficits (Repp, 1983). In addition, people with developmental disabilities
may exhibit serious problem behaviors such as self-injurious behaviors, aggressive
behaviors, and destructive behaviors. A wealth of research in behavior modifica-
tion demonstrates that these behaviors often can be controlled or eliminated with
behavioral interventions (Barrett, 1986; Beavers, Iwata, & Lerman, 2013; Repp &
Horner, 1999; Van Houten & Axelrod, 1993; Whitman, Scibak, & Reid, 1983;
Williams, 2004). Behavior modification procedures also are used widely in staff
training and staff management in the field of developmental disabilities (Reid,
Parsons, & Green, 1989, 2012).

Mental Illness
Some of the earliest research in behavior modification demonstrated its effective-
ness in helping people with mental illness in institutional settings (Ayllon, 1963;
Ayllon & Michael, 1959). Behavior modification has been used with patients
with chronic mental illness to modify such behaviors as daily living skills, social
behavior, aggressive behavior, treatment compliance, psychotic behaviors, and
work skills (Dixon & Holcomb, 2000; Scotti, McMorrow, & Trawitzki, 1993; Wil-
der, Masuda, O’Connor, & Baham, 2001). One particularly important contribu-
tion of behavior modification was the development of a motivational procedure
for institutional patients called a token economy (Ayllon & Azrin, 1968). Token
economies are still widely used in a variety of treatment settings (Kazdin, 1982).

Education and Special Education

Behavior modification procedures are used widely in education (Alberto &
Troutman, 2003) and great strides have been made in the field of education
because of behavior modification research (Bijou & Ruiz, 1981). Researchers
have analyzed student–teacher interactions in the classroom, improved teaching
methods, and developed procedures for reducing problem behaviors in the class-
room (Bambara & Kern, 2005; Becker & Carnine, 1981; Madsen, Becker, &
Thomas, 1968; Sugai & Horner, 2005; Thomas, Becker, & Armstrong, 1968).
Behavior modification procedures have also been used in higher education to
improve instructional techniques, and thus improve student learning (Michael,
1991; Saville & Zinn, 2009).

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 INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION 13

In special education, that is, the education of people with developmental dis-
abilities or other special needs, behavior modification has played a major role
(Rusch et al., 1988) in developing teaching methods, controlling problem beha-
viors in the classroom, improving social behaviors and functional skills, promoting
self-management, and training teachers.

Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation is the process of helping people regain normal function after an
injury or trauma, such as a head injury from an accident or brain damage from a
stroke. Behavior modification is used in rehabilitation to promote compliance
with rehabilitation routines such as physical therapy, to teach new skills that can
replace skills lost through the injury or trauma, to decrease problem behaviors, to
help manage chronic pain, and to improve memory performance (Bakke et al.,
1994; Davis & Chittum, 1994; Heinicke, Carr, & Mozzoni, 2009; O’Neill &
Gardner, 1983; Tasky, Rudrud, Schulze, & Rapp, 2008).

Community Psychology
Within community psychology, behavioral interventions are designed to influence
the behavior of large numbers of people in ways that benefit everybody. Some tar-
gets of behavioral community interventions include reducing littering, increasing
recycling, reducing energy consumption, reducing unsafe driving, reducing illegal
drug use, increasing the use of seat belts, decreasing illegal parking in spaces for
the disabled, and reducing speeding (Cope & Allred, 1991; Cox & Geller, 2010;
Geller & Hahn, 1984; Ludwig & Geller, 1991; Van Houten & Nau, 1981; Van
Houten, Van Houten, & Malenfant, 2007).

Clinical Psychology
In clinical psychology, psychological principles and procedures are applied to help
people with personal problems. Typically, clinical psychology involves individual
or group therapy conducted by a psychologist. Behavior modification in clinical
psychology, often called behavior therapy, has been applied to the treatment of a
wide range of human problems (Hersen & Bellack, 1985; Hersen & Rosqvist,
2005; Hersen & Van Hasselt, 1987; Spiegler & Guevremont, 2010; Turner,
Calhoun, & Adams, 1981). Behavior modification procedures have also been
used to train clinical psychologists (Veltum & Miltenberger, 1989).

Business, Industry, and Human Services

The use of behavior modification in the field of business, industry, and human
services is called organizational behavior modification or organizational behavior
management (Bailey & Burch, 2010; Daniels, 2000; Frederickson, 1982; Luthans
& Kreitner, 1985; Reid et al., 1989, 2012; Stajkovic & Luthans, 1997). Behavior
modification procedures have been used to improve work performance and job
safety and to decrease tardiness, absenteeism, and accidents on the job. In addi-
tion, behavior modification procedures have been used to improve supervisors’
performances. The use of behavior modification in business and industry has

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 14 CHAPTER 1

resulted in increased productivity and profits for organizations and increased job
satisfaction for workers.

Self-Management
People use behavior modification procedures to manage their own behaviors. They
use self-management procedures to control personal habits, health-related behaviors,
professional behaviors, and personal problems (Brigham, 1989; Epstein, 1996;
Stuart, 1977; Watson & Tharp, 1993; 2007; Yates, 1986). Chapter 20 discusses the
application of behavior modification procedures for self-management.

Child Behavior Management

Numerous applications of behavior modification to the management of child behav-
ior exist (Durand & Hieneman, 2008; Hieneman, Childs, & Sergay, 2006; Miller,
1975; Patterson, 1975; Miltenberger & Crosland, 2014; Schaeffer & Millman, 1981).
Parents and teachers can learn to use behavior modification procedures to help chil-
dren overcome bed-wetting, nail-biting, temper tantrums, noncompliance, aggressive
behaviors, bad manners, stuttering, and other common problems (Christophersen &
Mortweet, 2001; Gross & Drabman, 2005; Watson & Gresham, 1998).

Prevention
Behavior modification procedures have been applied to preventing problems in
childhood (Roberts & Peterson, 1984). Other applications of behavior modification
in the area of prevention include preventing child sexual abuse, child abduction,
accidents in the home, child abuse and neglect, poisoning, infections, and sexually
transmitted diseases (Beck & Miltenberger, 2009; Carroll, Miltenberger, &
O’Neill, 1992; Dancho, Thompson, & Rhoades, 2008; Miltenberger et al., 2013;
Montesinos, Frisch, Greene, & Hamilton, 1990; Poche, Yoder, & Miltenberger,
1988). Preventing problems in the community with behavior modification is one
aspect of community psychology.

Sports Performance
Behavior modification is used widely to enhance sports performance (Martin &
Hrycaiko, 1983). Behavior modification procedures have been used to improve
athletic performance in a wide variety of sports during practice and in competition
(Boyer, Miltenberger, Batsche, & Fogel, 2009; Brobst & Ward, 2002; Hume &
Crossman, 1992; Kendall, Hrycaiko, Martin, & Kendall, 1990; Luiselli, Woods,
& Reed, 2011; Wack, Crosland, & Miltenberger, 2014; Wolko, Hrycaiko, &
Martin, 1993; Zeigler, 1994). Behavior modification procedures have been shown
to result in better athletic performance than do traditional coaching procedures.

Health-Related Behaviors
Behavior modification procedures are used to promote health-related behaviors by
increasing healthy lifestyle behaviors (such as exercise and proper nutrition) and
decreasing unhealthy behaviors (such as smoking, drinking, and overeating). Behav-
ior modification procedures are also used to promote behaviors that have a positive
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 INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION 15

influence on physical or medical problems—such as decreasing frequency and

intensity of headaches, lowering blood pressure, and reducing gastrointestinal distur-
bances (Blumenthal & McKee, 1987; Dallery, Raiff, & Grabinski, 2013; Dallery,
Meredith, & Glenn, 2008; Gentry, 1984; Reynolds, Dallery, Shroff, Patak, &
Leraas, 2008; Van Camp & Hayes, 2012; Van Wormer, 2004)—and to increase
compliance with medical regimens (Levy, 1987). Applying behavior modification to
health-related behaviors is also called behavioral medicine or health psychology.

Gerontology
Behavior modification procedures are applied in nursing homes and other care
facilities to help manage the behavior of older adults (Hussian, 1981; Hussian &
Davis, 1985). Behavior modification procedures are used to help older adults deal
with their declining physical abilities, to help them adjust to nursing home envir-
onments, to promote health-related behaviors and appropriate social interactions,
and to decrease problem behaviors that may arise from Alzheimer’s disease, other
types of dementia, or institutional demands (Carstensen & Erickson, 1986; Dwyer-
Moore & Dixon, 2007; Moore, Delaney, & Dixon, 2007; Stock & Milan, 1993).

Professional Practice, Certification, and Ethics

As more research was published over the years establishing the effectiveness of
behavior modification procedures for changing a wide range of socially significant
behaviors, the practice of behavior modification became more widespread and
became synonymous with the emerging discipline of applied behavior analysis
(Baer et al., 1968). With more and more individuals working as applied behavior
analysts, the field began to focus on professional practice, certification, and ethics
to regulate the use of behavior modification procedures (Bailey & Burch, 2011;
Shook, 1993; Starin, Hemingway, & Hartsfield, 1993). The Behavior Analyst Cer-
tification BoardTM (BACB) was established to provide certification for individuals
to practice behavior analysis as a profession. The BACB established education
and training standards and developed an examination that individuals had to pass
to become a Board Certified Behavior Analyst or a Board Certified Assistant
Behavior Analyst (see [Link] for complete details). In addition, the Associa-
tion for Behavior Analysis InternationalTM developed a set of ethical guidelines
for the practice of behavior analysis (Bailey & Burch, 2011). Today, individuals
using behavior modification procedures to help people change their behavior
must be certified by the BACB to assure that they are engaging in the competent
and ethical practice of applied behavior analysis.

The Structure of This Textbook

This textbook is divided into five major sections. These sections discuss the follow-
ing topics:
■ Measurement of behavior and behavior change
■ Basic principles of behavior
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